Theory of Machines and Mechanisms

Joshua Ampofo

Faculty of Mechanical and Agricultural Engineering

College of Engineering
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana

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 ME 262 Theory of Machines

Second Semester, 2009

Course Outline
1. Rotary Balancing
(a) Analytical method
(b) Graphical Method
2. Mechanisms-Definitions & terminology, design & simulation of planer mechanisms
(four-and six-link mechanisms)
3. Displacement and Velocity Analysis
(a) Analytical method using vectors
(b) Graphical
(i) Instantaneous centre method
(ii) Relative velocity method
4. Transmission of rotational motion
(a) Gear trains ( including epicyclic trains/planetary gear),
(b) Belt and rope drives
(c) Chain drives
5. One-degree-of-freedom Vibration
(a) Undamped Forced vibrations
(b) Damped free Vibration
(c) Damped Forced vibrations
6. Introduction to torsional vibration
7. Mechanical Design (Up to Six Bar) Using graphical Method (Optional)
8. Cams (Optional)

© February 2009 by Joshua Ampofo

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 ROTARY BALANCING.................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Masses Rotating in Different Planes ............................................................................... 2
1.3 Balancing of Rotating Shaft ............................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO KINEMATICS AND MECHANISMS ....................... 11
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Terminologies and Definitions...................................................................................... 11
2.2.1 Machine................................................................................................................. 11
2.2.2 Kinematic Chain.................................................................................................... 11
2.2.3 Mechanism ............................................................................................................ 11
2.2.4 Joint or Kinematic pair.......................................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Link ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Degree of Freedom (Mobility) in Planar Mechanisms ......................................... 13
2.3 Mechanisms and Structures........................................................................................... 15
2.4 Inconsistencies of Gruebler’s Equation ........................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 3 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY AND ANALYSIS ............................... 18
3.1 Graphical Displacement Analysis ................................................................................. 18
3.2 Graphical Velocity Analysis: Instant Centre Method ................................................... 19
3.2.1 Instant Centres....................................................................................................... 19
3.2.1.1 Kennedy’s Theorem .......................................................................................... 20
3.2.1.2 Application of Kennedy’s Theorem.................................................................. 20
3.2.1.3 Successive Tracking of Instant Centres ............................................................ 21
3.2.1.4 Instant Centres of Sliding Joint ......................................................................... 22
3.2.1.5 Velocity Analysis using Instant Centres ........................................................... 25
3.3 Relative Velocity Method ............................................................................................. 27
3.3.1 General Motion without Sliding ........................................................................... 27
3.3.2 General Motion with Sliding on Fixed Link ......................................................... 29
3.3.3 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link .................................................... 30
3.4 Velocity Analysis Using Vector Method ...................................................................... 34
3.4.1 Pure Translational Motion..................................................................................... 35
3.4.2 General Motion without Sliding on Rotating Link ............................................... 35
3.4.3 General Motion with Sliding on Fixed Link ......................................................... 35
3.4.4 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link .................................................... 40
3.5 Mechanical Advantage Analysis with Instant Centres ................................................. 43
CHAPTER 4 ACCELERATION ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 47
4.1 General Motion ............................................................................................................. 47
4.1.1 Pure Translational Motion..................................................................................... 47
4.1.2 General Motion without Sliding on Rotating Link ............................................... 47
4.1.3 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link .................................................... 50
CHAPTER 5 ROTARY MOTION TRANSMISSION........................................................... 53
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 53
5.2 Gear Drive..................................................................................................................... 53
5.2.1 Types of Gear........................................................................................................ 53
5.2.1.1 Parallel-Axis Gears ........................................................................................... 53
5.2.1.2 Nonparallel-Axis Coplanar Gears ..................................................................... 54
5.2.1.3 Nonparallel-Axis, Noncoplanar Gears .............................................................. 54

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 5.2.2 Gear Trains............................................................................................................ 55
5.2.2.1 Ordinary Gear Train.......................................................................................... 56
5.2.2.2 General Gear Train Equation ............................................................................ 57
5.2.2.3 Planetary (Epicyclic) Gear Trains..................................................................... 60
Tabular Method................................................................................................................. 70
5.3 Belt Drives .................................................................................................................... 74
5.3.1 Types of Belt ......................................................................................................... 74
5.3.2 Belt Geometry ....................................................................................................... 75
5.3.3 Belt Rotations........................................................................................................ 76

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 CHAPTER 1 ROTARY BALANCING

1.1 Introduction
The combined centre of mass of a shaft carrying components such as blades and pulleys
may not lie on the axis of rotation. The shaft and the components may remain in any position that
they are placed. However, when the shaft rotates, centrifugal forces and couples due to the out-
of-balance masses act upon the shaft if the system is dynamically unbalanced. For a complete
dynamic balance of a rotating shaft, the resultant force and couple acting upon the shaft must be
zero.

Masses Rotating in the Same Plane

Consider a rotating shaft carrying out-of-balance masses m1, m2 and m3 at radii r1, r2, r3,
as shown in Figure 1-1. For dynamic balance, the vector sum of the centrifugal forces must be
zero.
m1 r1ω1 + m1 r1ω 2 + .....mn rnω n = 0
2 2 2
Equation 1-1

m1
r1
m2
r2 θ2
θ1
Reference Line
θn

rn
mn

Figure 1-1: Relative Positions of Out-of-Balance Masses in the Same Plane

All the masses have the same angular velocity (ω) because they are rigidly attached to the same
shaft. Hence, Equation 1-1 becomes
(m1 r1 + m2 r2 + .....mn rn )ω 2 =0 Equation 1-2
The above equation may written as
ω 2 ∑ mr = 0 , Equation 1-3

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Dividing through by ω2, Equation 3 becomes

∑ mr = 0 , Equation 1-4

The above equation is a condition for static balance. It may be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components as

∑ mr cosθ = 0 Equation 1-5

∑ mr sin θ = 0 Equation 1-6

1.2 Masses Rotating in Different Planes

Sometimes, the out-of-balance masses may be located in different planes. In such a case,
the centrifugal forces induce moments. For dynamic balance, the resultant force as well as the
resultant moment must be zero. Consider a rotating shaft carrying out-of-balance masses in
different planes as shown in Figure 1-2.

l2 m2

l1 m1
r1 r2

ln rn
mn
Reference plane

Figure 1-2: Out-of-Balance Masses rigidly attached to a Shaft at Various Axial Locations

For dynamic balance, the sum of moment about any plane along the axis of rotation must be
zero. Taking moments about the reference plane gives
(m1 r1l1 + m1 r1l 2 + .....mn rn l n )ω 2 = 0 Equation 1-7
Dividing through by ω2, Equation 5 becomes

∑ mrl = 0 , Equation 1-8

Equations 1-4 and 1-8 are the conditions for dynamic balance. Equation 1-8 may be resolved into
horizontal and vertical components as

∑ mrl cosθ = 0 Equation 1-9

∑ mrl sin θ = 0 Equation 1-10

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1.3 Balancing of Rotating Shaft
An unbalanced rotating shaft may be balanced by placing or removing masses at certain
radii and axial distance from a reference plane. This may be accomplished using either analytical
or graphical method. For simple determinant problems using either method, fours unknowns
(masses, radii, axial distances from the reference plane and relative angular position) may be
determined.
The following steps may be used to solve a rotary balancing problem:
1. Sketch a diagram showing the relative angular positions of the out-of-balance masses.
2. Draw another diagram showing the axial locations of the out-of-balance masses.
3. Draw a table that contains the columns: mass, radius, mass x radius,
4. Eliminate two unknowns by taking moment about the plane bearing one of the unknowns.
5. Substitute the determined parameters into the force equation and solve for the other two
unknowns by either constructing a force polygon or summing resolved forces along the
vertical and horizontal axis.

Problem 1-1
Four discs, A, B, C and D, are rigidly attached to a rotating shaft at radii 4 mm, 3 mm, 4
mm and 5.5 mm, respectively, from the axis of rotation. The axial distances along the shaft are
AB = 0.5 m, AC = 1.2 m and AD =1.5 m. The masses of A and C are 7 kg and 8 kg, respectively,
and A and C are 135o to one another. For a complete balance, determine
(a) the masses of B and D,
(b) the angular position of B with respect to A
(c) the angle between B and D

Solution 1-1
Analytical Method
With the plane B as the reference plane (Figure E1) and using the given data, Tables E
1(a) and E 1(b) are compiled.

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 B
A B C D C 135o

θB A
0.5 m 0.7 m 0.3 m θD

(a) (b)
Figure 1-3: (a) Axial position (b) Angular positions of out-of-balance masses

Table 1-1
Disc Mass. Radius, mr Angular Axial Dist. mr.cos θ mr.sin θ mrl mrl.cos θ mrl.sin θ
m r (kg.mm) Position (from B), l (kg.mm.m) (kg.mm.m) (kg.mm.m)
(kg) (mm) (from A) (m)
A 7 4 28 0 -0.5 28 0 -14 -14 0
B mB 3 3mB θB 0 3mB. cos θB 3mB. sin θB 3mB 0 0
C 8 4 32 135o 0.7 -22.627 22.627 22.4 -15.839 15.839
D mD 5.5 5.5mD θD 1.0 5.5mD.cos θD 5.5mD.sin θD 5.5mD 5.5mDcos θD 5.5mDsin θD

Using Equations 1-9 and 1-10 together with Table 1-1, we have

∑ mrl cosθ = 0 : − 14 − 15.839 + 5.5m D cos θ D = 0

29.839
⇒ m D cos θ D = = 5.42527 (a)
5.5

∑ mrl sin θ = 0 : 15.839 + 5.5m D sin θ D = 0

15.839
⇒ 5.5m D sin θ D = − = −2.8798 (b)
5.5
Squaring equations (a) and (b) and adding the results gives

m D = 5.42527 2 + (− 2.8798) m D = 6.142 kg

2

Dividing equation (b) by equation ( a) gives tan θD. Since the sine part of Equation (b) is
negative, a plot of Equation (b) on the vertical axis against Equation (a) on the horizontal axis
shows that D lies in the third quadrant, as illustrated Figure 1-4. From the figure,
 − 2.8798 
α = tan −1   = 27.96 o
 θ D = 360 o − 27.96 o θ D = 332.04 o
 5.42527 
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(Hint: Refer to Resolution of Forces in ME 161/162 Basic Mechanics Notes or Trigonometry
Text Book)

θD
5.42527
α x
-2.8798

Figure 1-4: Angular Position with reference to the x-axis

Using Equations 1-4 and 1-5

∑ mr cosθ = 0 : 28 + 3m B cos θ B − 22.627 + 5.5(6.142)(cos 332.04 o ) = 0

⇒ m B cosθ B = −11.737 (c)

∑ mrl sin θ = 0 : 0 + 3m B sin θ B + 22.627 + 5.5(6.142)(sin 332.04 o ) = 0

⇒ m B sin θ B = −2.263 (d)

Solving equations (c) and (d) simultaneously gives

mB = (− 11.737)2 + (− 2.263)2 m B = 11.953 kg

 − 2.262 
θ B = 180 o + tan −1  
 θ B = 190.91o
 − 11.737 
(Hint: B lies in the 3rd quadrant)

Graphical Method
Table 1-2
Disc Mass r mr l mrl
(kg) (mm) (kg.mm) (m) (kg.mm.m)
A 7 4 28 -0.5 -14
B mB 3 3mB 0 0
C 8 4 32 0.7 22.4
D mD 5.5 5.5mD 1.0 5.5mD

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Using the mrl column in Table 1-2, the couple polygon shown in Figure 1-5 is constructed. The
closing side, cd, has length of 33.78, from which
5.5m D = 33.78 m D = 6.142 kg

θ D = 332 o

Figure 1-5: Couple Polygon of Problem 1

(b) Using the mr column in the table, the force polygon Figure 1-6 is constructed. The closing
side, db, has length of 35.84, from which,
3m D = 33.83 m B = 11.947 kg

θ B = 191o
(c) Angle between discs B and D is = θD – θB = 332o -191o = 141o

Figure 1-6: Force Polygon of Problem 1

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Problem 1-2
Four pulleys, A, B, C and D, are mounted on a shaft. The centres of mass of the pulleys
do not lie on the axis of the shaft, but they are displaced slightly from it, as indicated in Table 1-
3. This shaft is carried in bearings at E and F, the pulleys and bearings being situated so that the
axial distance along the shaft are AB = +0.6 m, AC = +0.9 m, AD = +1.5 m, AE = +0.3 m and
AF = +1.2. If the system rotates at 300 rpm, determine the magnitude of the bearing reactions
arising from lack of balance, and the direction of these reactions relative to the out-of-balance
force from pulley A (Hannah & Stephens)

Table 1-3
Pulley Mass (kg) Displacement of Centre of mass from the axis of rotation
A 500 7.5 mm
B 750 6.0 mm at 30o to A
C 750 6.0 mm at 90o to A
D 500 4.5 mm at 150o to A

Solution 1-2
Using the given data, Figure 1-7 is drawn and Table 1-4 is compiled. To eliminate one of
the unknown reactions, plane E is chosen as the reference plane.

(a) (b)
Figure 1-7: (a) Axial and (b) angular positions of the pulleys

Table 1-4
Plane Mass r mr l Mrl
(kg) (mm) (kg.m) (m) (kg.m.m)
A 500 7.5 3.75 -0.3 -1.125
E - - Re 0 0
B 750 6.0 4.5 0.3 1.35
C 750 6.0 4.5 0.6 2.7
F - - Rf 0.9 0.9Rf
D 500 4.5 2.25 1.2 2.7

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Analytical Method
Using Equations 1-9 and 1-10 together with Table 1-4, we have

∑ mrl cosθ = 0 : − 1.125 cos 0 + 0 + 1.35 cos 30 + 2.7 cos 90 + 0.9 R f cos θ f + 2.7 cos 150 = 0

2.29413
⇒ R f cos θ f = = 2.549 (a)
0.9

∑ mrl sin θ = 0 : − 1.125 sin 0 + 0 + 1.35 sin 30 + 2.7 sin 90 + 0.9 R f sin θ f + 2.7 sin 150 = 0

− 4.725
⇒ R f sin θ f = = −5.25 (b)
0.9
Solving equations (a) and (b) simultaneously gives
R f = 5.836 kg.m and θ f = 295.9 o
The force due to the out-of-balance masses on bearing F is

2π 
2

F f = R f ω = 5.836 300.  = 5,759.9 N
2

 60 
The bearing reaction is equal and opposite to the force acting on the bearing. Therefore, the
reaction of bearing F is
RF = 5.76 kN
At 295.9o-180o = 115.9o to mass A.

Using Equations 1-4 and 1-5 together with Table 1-4, we have

∑ mr cosθ = 0 :
3.75 cos 0 + Re cos θ e + 4.5 cos 30 + 4.5 cos 90 + 5.836 cos 295.9 + 2.25 cos 150 = 0

⇒ Re cos θ e = −8.2477 (c)

∑ mr sin θ = 0 :
3.75 sin 0 + Re sin θ e + 4.5 sin 30 + 4.5 sin 90 + 5.836 sin 295.9 + 2.25 sin 150 = 0

⇒ Re sin θ e = −2.6252 (d)

Solving equations (c) and (d) simultaneously gives

Re = (− 8.2477)2 + (− 2.6252)2 Re = 8.655 kg.m

 − 2.6252 
θ e = 180 o + tan −1   = 197.66 o

 − 8 .2477 

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 2π 
2

Fe = Reω = 8.655 300.  = 8,542.1 N
2

 60 
Therefore, the reaction of bearing E is
RE = 8.54 kN at 17.66o to mass A.
Graphical Method
The mrl column is used to construct the couple polygon shown in Figure 1-8(b) and Rf is
determined from the closing side, df, of the polygon. The determined Rf is input into the table
and the force polygon shown in Figure 1-8(b) is constructed based on the mr column . Then, Re
is determined from the closing side, de, of the polygon.

(a) (b)
Figure 1-8: (a) Couple and (b) Force Polygons

The closing side of the couple polygon has length of 5.252 kg.m.m and at 296o to A.
0.9 R f = 5.252 kg.m.m R f = 5.836 kg.m

The dynamic force on the bearing F is

2π 
2

F f = R f ω = 5.836 300.  = 5,759.9 N
2

 60 
The bearing reaction is equal and opposite to the force acting on the bearing. Hence, the reaction
of bearing F is
RF = 5.76 kN at 116o to mass A.
From the force polygon, the length of the closing side is 8.66 kg.m and it is at 198o to A.

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Thus, Re = 8.66 kg.m. The dynamic force on bearing E is

2π 
2

Fe = Reω = 8.66 300.  = 8,547.1 N
2

 60 
Therefore, the reaction of bearing E is
RE = 8.54 kN
At 198o -180o = 18o to mass A.

Recommended Textbook for further reading

[1] J. Hannah & R. C. Stephens, Mechanics of machines -Elementary theory and
Examples
[2] Robert L. Norton, Design of Machinery (An introduction to Synthesis and Analysis of
Mechanisms and Machines

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 CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO KINEMATICS AND

MECHANISMS

2.1 Introduction

Mechanisms are basic units of machines. Machines play a major part in our everyday
lives. Sample machines include cranes, wrapping machines, block-making machines, car jacks,
bottling machines, agricultural machines, optical drives, artificial limbs, sewing machines,
timing mechanisms, standing fans, etc.
Machines consist of simple to complicated mechanisms. In practice, selecting a
mechanism to perform a function in a machine is very challenging. Mechanism design and
analysis require experience and good background in mathematics and dynamics. Kinematics, on
the hand, is the study of the relationship between time, position, velocity and the acceleration of
interacting rigid bodies.

2.2 Terminologies and Definitions

2.2.1 Machine
It is an assembly of rigid bodies, which utilise their internal mobility to do work, apply
power or transform motion. The principal aims of machines are to produce a desired motion,
force, torque, work or power.
2.2.2 Kinematic Chain
It is an assembly of links and joints, which are interconnected in way to have internal
mobility and has the purpose of transforming supplied motion into a desired output.
2.2.3 Mechanism
It is a kinematic chain with at least one link grounded or fixed to a reference frame. Three
general tasks for mechanisms include the generation of path, motion and function.
2.2.4 Joint or Kinematic pair
It is connection between two or more links, which permit some or potential motion
between the links. Examples of planer joints are illustrated in Figure 2-1. Joints may be
classified by
(i) the type of contact between the links, e.g. point, line or surface.

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 (ii) the number of degree of freedom allowed by the joint.
(iii) the type of physical closure at the joint: The closure be either force or
form closed.
(iv) the number of links joined together.

∆x
∆θ

(a) Revolute/Pin Joint (Form Closed) (b) Sliding Joint (Form Closed)
1 dof 1 dof
∆θ ∆θ

∆x
∆x

(c) Link Against Plane (Forced Closed) (b) Pin in Slot (Form Closed)
2 dof 2 dof

∆θ2
∆θ

∆x
∆θ1

(c) Pin Joined to Three Links (b) May roll, slide, or roll-slide depending
(n-1) dof, n = number of links on friction (1 or 2 dof)
Figure 2-1: Types Planer Joints

2.2.5 Link
It is a rigid body that possesses at least two nodes that are points for attachment to other
links. Figure 2-2 shows different types of links in which the classification is based on the number
of nodes. A rigid body is an idealised model of an object that does not deform or change in
shape. Thus, the distance between any two points on a rigid body remains constant. Machine
components that do not fit this rigid assumption such as springs in either tension or compression
and, belt or rope under compressive load are not links. However, belts, chains and ropes have

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one-way rigidity. Therefore, they are considered as links when they are in tension. A link may be
defined as a rigid connection between two or more elements of different kinematic pairs.

Node

Binary Link
Ternary Link Quaternary Link
.
Figure 2-2: Types of Links

2.2.6 Degree of Freedom (Mobility) in Planar Mechanisms

The number of independent inputs that need to be provided in order to create a
predictable output is called mobility or degree of freedom. That is, the number of independent
variables that must be specified in order to determine the output position of a mechanism. The
mobility of a mechanism with one ground link is given by
m = 3(n − 1) − 2 j1 − j 2 Equation 2-1
where
n = number of links
j1 = number of 1 dof joints, and
j2 = number of 2 dof joints.

Equation 2-1 is Kutzbach criterion or modified Gruebler’s equation.

Mechanisms may be either open or closed, as illustrated in Figure 2-3. Open mechanisms
have open nodes or attachment points while closed mechanisms lack open nodes. An open
mechanism with more than two links has more than 1 dof. Examples of open mechanisms are
backhoe, front-end loader and industrial robots. A dyad is an open mechanism chain with two
links and one joint.
In Figure 2-3 (a), the mechanism chain has four links (3 links + 1 ground link) and three
1 dof joints. Using Equation 2-1, the mobility of the open mechanism is
m = 3(4 − 1) − 2(3) − 0 m = 3.

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Similarly, the closed mechanism chain in Figure 2-3 has four links (3 links + 1 ground link) and
four j1 joints. Using Equation 2-3, the mobility of the mechanism chain is
m = 3(4 − 1) − 2(4 ) − 0 m =1
Note that no matter the number of ground links, they always countered as one link.

Figure 2-3: Open and Closed Mechanism Chains

Figure 2-4 shows a slider mechanism chain with a one-dof (or j1) joint at the contact between
the slider and the sliding surface. The mechanism has an overall mobility of m = 1.

Figure 2-4: Reciprocating Mechanism

Figure 2-5 shows mechanism chains with multiple joints. At joint C of both mechanisms, three
links are joined by a single pin. If one of the links is fixed, then there are two independent joints
at the nodes. Hence, the joints at C are counted as two j1 joints. It may be generalised that the
number of j1 (or 1 dof) joints at a node connecting n links is
j1 = n − 1 , n≥ 2 Equation 2-2

(a) (b)
Figure 2-5: Mechanism chain with multiple Joints

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2.3 Mechanisms and Structures
Degree of freedom (dof) of an assembly predicts whether an assembly is a mechanism or
a structure. If dof is positive (i.e. m ≥ 1), then the assembly is a mechanism and there is relative
motion between its links. Figure 2-6 (a) shows an example of a four-link mechanism. The
assemblies shown in Figure 2-6 (b and c) have zero dof, which implies that they are structures
and no motion is possible. In Figure 2-6 (d and e), the assemblies have negative dof. This means,
the assemblies are preloaded or/and redundant structures and no motion is possible. Preloaded
structures refer to structures having stresses at the time of assembly. Redundant structures are
statically indeterminate, and have redundant links.

Figure 2-6: Mechanism and Structures

2.4 Inconsistencies of Gruebler’s Equation

Sometimes, the Gruebler’s equation gives false mobility. In Figure 2-7(a), the calculated
dof using the Gruebler’s equation is zero though the assembly has one dof. However, similar
assembly with different dimensions as shown in Figure 2-7(b) has 1 dof, which agrees with the
Gluebler’s equation. The difference in the values of dof is due to omission of dimensions of links
in the Gruebler’s equation. Inclusion of dimensions would have made the equation lengthy and

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complicated, thus making it less useful for dof calculation. Figure 2-7(c) is an example of a
mechanism with dof of one, though Gruebler’s equation predicts dof of zero.

(a) (b)

1 dof pure rolling no slip

n = 3, j1 = 3, j2 = 0
m=0

(c)
Figure 2-7: Linkages having different Mobility from Predicted by Gruebler Equation

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Problems
2-1. Determine the mobility of the drum foot-pedal mechanism shown in Figure P2.1
Ans. 1

Figure P2-1 Figure P2.2

2-2. Figure P2.2 is a schematic of a front-loader construction machinery. Determine the degree
of freedom of the mechanism. Ans: 2

2-3. In Figure P2.3, how many actuator(s) are required to control position (a) A on the boom,
and (b) B on the bucket. Ans: (a) 1, (b) 2

Figure P2.3 Figure P2.4

2-4. Find the mobility of the mechanism shown in Figure P2.4. Ans. 2

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CHAPTER 3 DISPLACEMENT AND VELOCITY AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Graphical Displacement Analysis

Displacement analysis of a single dof mechanism such as a four-bar mechanism may be
performed graphically by generating a number of positions of the mechanism. A quick method
for generating a number of positions of a mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3-1. The method is
as follows:
1. Construct the starting or initial position of the mechanism and marked each joint with the
subscript.
2. Draw all known paths of joints. In the figure, a circle about A with radius AB1 and arc
about D with radius DC1 are the paths of joints C and D, respectively. In addition, line
GG0 is the path of the sliding joint F, which is parallel to the sliding surface.
3. Draw the jth position of the input link ABj. The moving joint B of the input link AB is
always determined first.
4. With the radius B1C1, draw an arc about Bj to intersect the path of joint C at point Cj.
5. Locate joint Ej by intersecting the arc of radius C1E1 centred at Cj and the arc of radius
DE1 centred at D.
6. Locate joint Fj by intersecting the arc of radius E1F1 centered at Ej and the path GG) of
the slider at Fj.

Figure 3-1: Graphical Displacement Analysis

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3.2 Graphical Velocity Analysis: Instant Centre Method
3.2.1 Instant Centres
An instant (or instantaneous) centre (IC) is a point where there is no relative velocity
between two links of a mechanism at that instant. Instant centres are useful for calculation of
linear and angular velocities, and mechanical advantage of mechanisms.
In any mechanism, obvious instant centres are points where the links join. In the four-link
mechanism shown in Figure 3-2, there is no relative motion between link 1 and link 2 at joint A.
Similarly, there are no relative motions between links 2 and 3 at joint B, between links 3 and 4 at
joint C, and between links 4 and 1 at joint D. Therefore, the joints at A, B, C and D are instant
centres.
Normally, an instant centre is labelled with numbers of pair of links that forms it. For
example, (1, 2) is the instant centre of links 1 and 2. The orders in which the numbers of the links
appear in instant label are irrelevant. An instant centre may not coincide with any joint. Such an
instant centre needs to be determined using Kennedy’s theorem. The number of instant centres
may be determined by pairing all the links. Thus,
n(n − 1)
N = C 2n = , n≥2 Equation 3-1
2
where N = number of instant centres and n = number of links

Figure 3-2: Instant Centres Coinciding at the Joints

Problem 3-1
Find the number of instant centres of a
(a) four-link mechanism, and
(b) six-link mechanism
(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 19
Solution 3-1
From equation (2.12)
n(n − 1) 4(4 − 1) n(n − 1) 6(6 − 1)
(a) N= = =6 (b) N= = = 15
2 2 2 2

3.2.1.1 Kennedy’s Theorem

Kennedy’s theorem deals with three instant centres of three links in a mechanism. It
states that three instant centres of three links moving relative to another must lie on a straight
line.

3.2.1.2 Application of Kennedy’s Theorem

In Figure 3-3, the obvious centres (2, 3) and (3, 4) must lie on the same line and are
connected to the links 2, 3 and 4. Since the number 3 is common to centres (2, 3) and (3, 4), the
left-out combination is (2, 4). Hence, the non-obvious centre on the line is (2, 4). Similarly, the
non-obvious instant centre on the line connecting instant centres (1, 2) and (4, 1) is (2, 4). The
point where the line through (2, 3) and (3, 4), and line through (1, 2) and (4, 1) meet is the instant
centre (2, 4). Similarly, the instant centre (1, 3) is the point of intersection of line through (3, 4)
and (4, 1), and through (2, 3) and (1, 2).

Figure 3-3: Finding Instant Centres of a Four-Link Mechanism

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 20

 3.2.1.3 Successive Tracking of Instant Centres
For complex mechanisms (i.e. more than four links), keeping track of instant centres
already obtained and those that are obtainable is very helpful. First, the tracking chart is drawn.
The chart consists of a circle marked with the numbers of links in the mechanism. Considering
the four-link mechanism shown in Figure 3-2, four marks 1 to 4 are indicated on a tracking chart
circle, which is illustrated in Figure 3-4. In Figure 3-4, the four marks on the circle represent the
four links, and the continuous lines connecting the marks represent the identified instant centres.
For example, the continuous line connecting marks 1 and 2 represents the instant centre (1, 2).
Whenever an instant centre is about to be located, the corresponding marks are connected with
dotted line. The line is immediately changed to continuous line as soon as the instant centre is
located. The process is repeated until all the instant centres are located. For a four-link
mechanism, tracking chart may not be necessary.

1 1

2 2
4 4

3 3
(a) (b)

Figure 3-4: Instant Centre tracking Chart

The tracking chart also indicates the centres that may be connected in order to locate an
instant centre. An instant centre is only obtainable if the two links connected to the centre form
two independent path triangles on the tracking chart. In Figure 3-4, the marks 1, 2 and 3 form a
triangle, while 1, 4 and 3 form another triangle. This implies that the centre (1, 3) is at the point
of intersection of lines through (1, 2) and (2, 3), and through (1, 4) and (3, 4). Similarly, the
instant centre (2, 4) is at the point of intersection of the lines through (1, 4 and (1, 2), and through
(3, 4) and (2, 3).

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 21

 3.2.1.4 Instant Centres of Sliding Joint
The instant centre of slider joint is not necessary at the point where the two links meet. It
is off at infinity in the direction perpendicular to the sliding direction. Thus, the centre is at any
point on any line perpendicular to the direction of sliding. Figure 3-5 shows a slider mechanism
with sliding joint at (4, 1). In the figure, the instant centre (4, 1) lies on the two dotted lines. The
instant (1, 3) is located at the point of intersection of the lines through (1, 2) and (2, 3), and
through (4, 1) and perpendicular to sliding direction. Similarly, instant centre (2, 4) is identified
by construction a lines through (2, 3) and (3, 4), and through (1, 2) and perpendicular to the
sliding direction.

Figure 3-5: Instant Centre of Mechanism with Slider

Problem 3-2
Determine the location of all the instant centres for the six-bar link mechanism shown in Figure
3-6.

Figure 3-6
Solution 3-2
The mechanism has six links and therefore the number of instant centres is, by equation 3-1
n(n − 1) 6(6 − 1)
N= = = 15
2 2

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 22

 By inspection, the obvious instant centres are indicated in the tracking chart shown in
Figure 3-7(a). In the figure, the continuous lines are the determined instant centres, and dotted
lines are the next obtainable centres. It is clear from the figure that the instant centres that are
obtainable are (1, 3), (2, 4), (1, 5) and (4, 6). In addition, instant centres such as (2, 6), (3, 6) and
(2, 5) are unobtainable. The final tracking chart is illustrated in Figure 3-7(b). The rest of the
instant centres, shown in Figure 3-8, are obtained through the same process of linking ticks on
the tracking chart.

1 1

6 2 6 2

5 5
3
4 4

(a) (b)
Figure 3-7: (a) Initial, and (b) Almost Completed Tracking Chart

Figure 3-8: Construction of all instant centres of Problem 3-2

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 23

Problem 3-3
In Figure 3-9, the point B slides at 4.5 m/s along the horizontal axis. For the position
shown, determine the
(a) co-ordinate of the instantaneous centre of the ladder?
(b) velocity of point A.

Solution 3-3
The velocities of both points A and B are parallel to their respective surfaces since the
ladder is sliding. The two lines are perpendicular to the motions of points A and B. In addition,
the two lines pass through the points A and B and intercept at point IC, as shown in Figure 3-9.

y
IC
vA A

G
2.5 m

65o
x
vB
B

Figure 3-9: Instant Centre of Problem 3-3

(a) From construction, the co-ordinates of IC are x = 1.05 m and y =2.26 m

x = 2.5 cos(65) = 1.05 m
Alternatively,
y = 2.5 sin(65) = 2.26 m
(b) The angular velocities of the two points on the ladder are the same. If the angular velocity
of the points about the IC is ω, then the velocities of the points are

v B = ω B − IC (a)

v A = ω A − IC (b)

Substituting ω in equation (a) into equation (b), we have,

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 24

 A − IC  1.05 
v A = vB = 4.5  = 2.09 m/s
B − IC  2.26 

3.2.1.5 Velocity Analysis using Instant Centres

Consider a pair of gears shown in Figure 3-10 that produce the same instant angular
→ →
velocity ratio as a pair of links. From the figure, the pitch radii of gears 2 and 3 are AB and CB ,
respectively. At the point of contact of the two gears, the tangential VB is the same for both gears.
Thus,
→
→ → ω CB − (1,3 − 2,3)
VB = ω 2 AB = ω 3 CB ⇒ 2 = → =
ω 3 AB − (1,2 − 2,3)

ω 2 (1,3 − 2,3)
= Equation 3-2
ω 3 (1,2 − 2,3)

From Figure 3-10, the velocity ratio in Equation 3-2 is negative when the instant centre (2, 3) lies
between the instant centres (1,2) and (1,3). The ratio is positive when the instant centre (2, 3) lies
between the instant centres (1, 2) and (1, 3). Equation 3-2 may be generalised as

ω n (1, m − n, m )
= , Equation 3-3
ω m (1, n − n, m )

where n and m are numbers of interested links.

3
ω3)

ω2 ω3) 3 ω2
2 2
B (2, 3)
(2, 3) B (1, 3) (1, 3) C
(1, 2) C (2, 3) (1, 2) A
A
1 1
VB
VB

(a) (b)
Figure 3-10: Graphical Displacement Analysis
Problem 3-4

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 25

 If the bar AB in Figure 3-11 rotates at 12 rad/s in the anti-clockwise direction, determine
the instantaneous angular velocity of bar BC and CD.

Figure 3-11

Solution 3-4
Using the Kennedy’s theorem, the instant centres relating to links BC and CD are located,
as shown in Figure 3-12. Using Equation 3-3
ω 3 (1,2 − 2,3)
= =−
2
ω3 = −
2
(12) = −4 rad/s ω BC = −4 rad/s
ω 2 (1,3 − 2,3) 6 6
(Hint: Note (2, 3) lies between (1, 2) and (1, 3)
Similarly,
ω 4 (1,2 − 2,4 ) 3
ω 3 = (12 ) = 4 rad/s
3
= = ω CD = 4 rad/s
ω 2 (1,4 − 2,4 ) 9 9
(Hint: Note (2, 4) outside of (1, 2) and (1, 4)

Figure 3-12: Instant Centres of Problem 3-4

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 26

3.3 Relative Velocity Method
3.3.1 General Motion without Sliding
Consider the ends of a rigid link AC in Figure 3-13 (a) moving with absolute velocities va
and vc, respectively. Note that these velocities are relative to the fixed point O. If the link is not
extending, then, difference in velocity is due to rotation about a point. Therefore, the link may be
regarded as rotating about a point A with linear velocity given by

v ac = ωx AC Equation 3-4

where vab is the velocity of point C relative A and ω is angular velocity of the link AC. The
direction of vac is perpendicular to the line connecting points A and C because it is due to
rotation. The velocity of point B, which is located on the line from A to C, is also perpendicular
the line AC. The velocity of point B relative to point A is shown in Figure 3-13(b) is

v ab = ω AB Equation 3-5

Substituting ω in Equation 3-4 into Equation 3-5 yields

AB
v ab = v ac Equation 3-6
AC

The relative velocity of point B is located on the line ac of the velocity diagram using
proportionality relationship given by Equation 3-6. Note that lower case letters are used for
points on relative velocity diagrams.

Figure 3-13 (a) Link in Rotating Motion, and (b) its Relative Velocity Diagram.

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 27

Problem 3-5
If the bar AB in Figure 3-14 rotates at 10 rad/s in the anti-clockwise angular direction,
determine the instantaneous angular velocity of bar CD.

C
B

2m
10 rad/s
D
A
3m 2m

Figure 3-14

Solution 3-5
The fixed (or zero-velocity) points are A and D, and are indicated with lower cases a and
d, respectively. Using Equation 3-4, the velocity of point B is

v ab = ω AB = 10 x 2 = 20 m/s .

Since AB is rotating in the anti-clockwise direction, vector ab points to the left and is
perpendicular to AB. The velocity of C relative B is perpendicular to BC and the velocity of C
relative D is perpendicular to CD. Hence, the intersection of lines through b and d, perpendicular
to BC and DC respectively, yields the point c, as shown in Figure 3-15. Note that the points A
and D are on the ground link and have zero velocities. Therefore, the two points have the same
relative velocity diagram.
From the relative velocity diagram, velocity of point C relative d is 28.24 m/s. The velocity of
point C is
vC = wCD x rC / D = wCD x CD

vC 28.28
⇒ ω CD = = = 10 rad/s
CD (2 2
+ 22 )

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 28

 b a, d

Figure 3-15: Relative Velocity Diagram of Problem 3-5

3.3.2 General Motion with Sliding on Fixed Link

Consider a rigid bar B sliding on a rigid link AC, as shown in Figure 3-16(a). The
velocity of B relative to the link AC is in the same direction as (or parallel to) the sliding
direction AC, which is illustrated in Figure 3-16(b). If B is moving towards the left, then b will
be on the left of a and c. Note that A and C are fixed (zero-velocity) points, and therefore have
zero velocities.

B
A C
A a,c b

(a) (b)

Figure 3-16 (a) Rigid Body in Sliding Planar Motion, and (b) Corresponding Relative
Velocity Diagram

Problem 3-6
In Figure 3-17, the angle θ = 45o and the link AB has a constant anti-clockwise angular
velocity of 5 rad/s. Determine the sliding velocity of C.

Figure 3-17

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 29

Solution 3-6
The velocity of point B is, using Equation 3-4
v ab = ω AB = 5 x0.2 = 1.0 m/s .

The line ab is perpendicular to AB with length equivalent to 1.0 m/s. The velocity of C relative
to D is parallel to the sliding direction, which is given by line dc. To locate point c, a line
through b and perpendicular to BC is construction and the intersection of bc and dc is c. Figure
3-18 shows the constructed relative velocity diagram. From the relative velocity diagram, the
velocity of the slider is dc, which is 0.974 m/s.

Figure 3-18: Relative velocity diagram of problem 3-6

3.3.3 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link

In Figure 3-19(a), link OA is sliding and rotating about a fixed point O with angular
velocity ω, as shown. Let A and A′ be the points on the rotating link and sliding link,
respectively. The two points are coinciding at point A. Using equation 3-4, the velocity of A
relative to point O is given is

v A = ω OA
/ .

The velocity v A is perpendicular to link OA, and the velocity of A′ relative to A is

parallel to OA. The velocities of these coinciding points are illustrated on the velocity diagram
shown in Figure 3-19 (b).

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 30

 A'
va a
A
o

ω a'
O

(a) (b)
Figure 3-19 (a) Rigid Body Sliding and Rotating, and (b) Corresponding Relative Velocity
Diagram

Problem 3-7
In Figure 3-20, the hydraulic actuator BC of the crane is extending at a constant rate of
0.2 m/s. When the angle β = 35o, what is the angular velocity of the crane’s boom AD.

Figure 3-20
Solution 3-7
The equivalent mechanism and velocity diagram are shown in Figure 3-21. In the figure,
point B' is an imaginary point on the link BB'. First, the velocity of B' relative to B is drawn
perpendicular to the line B- B’ and on the left side of point (a, b) on the velocity diagram. The
point b’ on the relative velocity is on the left-hand side of b because as the actuator BC expands,
BB' turns in the anti-clockwise direction. The velocity of C relative to A is drawn perpendicular
to AC and on the left-hand side of C because AC also turns in the anti-clockwise direction.
Along the direction of BC, the velocity of C relative B' is drawn through b to say point c' with
dotted or construction lines. The length of b'c has an equivalent magnitude of 0.2 m/s. A line
through c and parallel to bc' is draw to meet line ac. The point where the line through c' meets
line ac is point c. From the diagram, the velocity of point C is, which is the length of ac, is
vC = 0.3104 m/s.

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 31

 vC 0.3104
ω AD = = = 0.1035 rad/s
AC 3

Figure 3-21 (a) Equivalent Mechanism and (b) Relative Velocity Diagram of Problem 3-7

Problem 3-8
Link AB of the mechanism shown in Figure 3-22 is rotating at 20 rad/s in the anti-
clockwise direction. Using the relative velocity method, determine the angular velocity of ADE
and vertical sliding velocity of node E.

Figure 3-22

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 32

Solution 3-8
Using Equation 3-4, the velocity of point B relative point A is computed:,
45
v B A = ω AB x AB = 20 x v B A = 0.9 m/s
1000
The ground a and d are located and a line of equivalent length equal to v B A = 0.9 m/s is

constructed perpendicular to link AB, through point a, d and points in the downward direction.
The constructed relative velocity diagram is shown in Figure 3-23. In the figure, the point c is at
intersection of lines perpendicular to BC and through b and through point a, d and perpendicular
to link DC. Two points are coinciding at point E. Let E and E’ be points on link BCE and slider
E. Relative to point B, points C and E have the same angular velocities. Point e is located the line
through b and c and be is computed using Line bc using Equation 3-6.
BE 251.66
be = bc = 0.554 be = 0.92946 m/s
BC 150

Point E’ slides on link BCE and therefore a line is constructed through point e and parallel to link
BCE. Since point E’ slides in the vertical direction through the ground, line is constructed
through point a,d and parallel to the vertical. The point of intersection of the two lines is point
e’. From the relative velocity diagram, the vertical velocity of the slider is ae’, which is 1.31 m/s.
Thus,
ve′ = 1.31 m/s

Figure 3-23

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 33

3.4 Velocity Analysis Using Vector Method
Shown in Figure 3-24 are two points A and B on a body, and point O as the reference
frame. The position of B is

rB = rA + rB / A Equation 3-7

where rB / A is the position of point B relative to point A, which may written as

rB / A = xi + yj + zk

Figure 3-24 Rigid Body in Motion

Differentiation Equation 3-7 with respect to time gives

 dx di   dy dj   dz dk 
vB = v A +  i + x  +  j+ y + k + z 
 dt dt   dt dt   dt dt 

 dx dy dz   di dj dk 
vB = v A +  i + j + k+x + y + z  Equation 3-7a
 dt dt dt   dt dt dt 
Differentiating the unit vectors with respect to time gives
di dj dk
= wxi = wx j = wxk Equation 3-7b
dt dt dt
Substituting the above equations into Equation 3-7a, we have
 dx dz 
j + k  + [x(ω x i ) + y (ω x j) + z (ω x k )]
dy
vB = v A +  i +
 dt dt dt 

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 34

  dx dz 
j + k  + ω x [xi + yj + zk ]
dy
vB = v A +  i +
 dt dt dt 
v B = v A + v B / A + w x rB/A Equation 3-8

 dx dy dz 
where v B / A =  i + j + k
 dt dt dt 
where vA and vB are respectively velocities of point A and B relative to the reference frame, and
vB / A is the sliding velocity of point B relative to point A.

3.4.1 Pure Translational Motion

For pure translational motion of rigid body, v B / A = 0 and w = 0 . Therefore, Equation 3-8
becomes
vB = v A . Equation 3-9

3.4.2 General Motion without Sliding on Rotating Link

For a general motion without sliding on a rotating link, the sliding velocity, vB/A , is is
zero. Hence, Equation 3-8 becomes
v B = v A + w x rB / A Equation 3-10

Equation 3-11 is applicable to both 2D and 3D motions. For 2D motions in x-y plane, the angular
velocity ω is always in the z direction and, therefore, unit vector k is attached to planar angular
velocities.

3.4.3 General Motion with Sliding on Fixed Link

When a body slides on a fixed link, the velocity of the body is determined by imposing
motion along the direction of sliding on the body. Consider a body sliding on a fixed link that is
inclined at θ to the horizontal in x-y plane, as shown in Figure 3-25. If the magnitude of the
sliding velocity is V, then Equation 3-11 is imposed on the slider. Equation 3-11 is only
applicable to planar (2D) motions.

v slider = V (cos θi + sin θj ) . Equation 3-11

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 35

 y
Slider Direction of Motion

Fixed Link

Figure 3-25: Rigid Body Sliding on Fixed Link (2D Motion)

Problem 3-9
Crank AB of crank-slider mechanism in Figure 3-26 is rotating at 15 rad/s in counter-
clockwise direction. Determine the velocity of slider C and angular velocity of connecting rod
BC.

Figure 3-26

Solution 3-9
First, we determine the velocity of point B from that of A since the point A is stationary
and angular velocity of AB is known. Imposing horizontal motion on the point C (or slider),
velocity of the slider can computed.
Using Equation 3-10,
v B = v A + w x rB / A

 i j k
v B = v A + wk x rB / A 
=0+ 0 0 15
0.2 0.3 0 

v B = −4.5i + 3.0 j (m/s)

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 36

Also
vC = v B + wBC x rC / B

 i j k 

vC i = (− 4.5i + 3.0 j ) +  0 0 ω BC 
0.6 − 0.2 0 

vC = (0.2ω BC − 4.5)i + (0.6ω BC + 3.0) j (1)

Using Equation 3-11
( ( ) ( ))
vC = Vc (cos θi + sin θj ) = vc cos 0 o i + sin 0 o j = VC i (2)

where VC is the magnitude of sliding velocity of C. Equating the i and j components of equation
(2) yields
vC = 0.2ω BC − 4.5
0 = 0.6ω BC + 3.0
Solving the above equations simultaneously gives
ω BC = −5.0 rad / s
vC = −5.5 m/s

Problem 3-10
The crank AB in Figure 3-27 rotates 200 rpm in the clockwise direction. Determine the
angular velocity of the link CD in rpm and the vertical velocity VE of the rack-and-pinion gear if
average diameter of the pinion is 0.6 m.

Figure 3-27

Solution 3-10
The Equation 3-10 is applied between points A and B. From Figure 3-27

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 37

 rB / A = 0.3i + 0.6 j

2π
ω AB = 200 x = 20.94 rad / s
60
The velocity of point B is
v B = v A + w AB k x rB / A = 0 − 29.94k x (0.3i + 0.6 j )

v B = 12.564i − 6.282 j (m/s)

Also
 i j k 
vC = v B + wBC x rC / B 
= (12.564i − 6.282 j ) +  0 0 ω BC 
1.2 − 0.2 0 

vC = (12.564 − 0.2ω BC )i + (− 6.282 + 1.2ω BC ) j (1)

Using Equation 3-10 between points C and D gives
 i j k 
vC = v D + wCD x rC / D 
=0+ 0 0 ω CD 
− 0.3 1.0 0 

v D = −ω CD i − 0.3ω CD j (m/s) (2)

Equating (2) and (1) gives

− ω CD i − 0.3ω CD j = (12.564 − 0.2ω BC )i + (− 6.282 + 1.2ω BC ) j (3)

Equating i and j components of the above equation yields two equations (4) and (5).

− ω CD = 12.564 − 0.2ω BC (4)

0.3ω CD = −6.282 + 1.2ω BC (5)

Solving the above equations simultaneously gives

ω CD = −12.12 rad/s
ω BC = 2.204 rad/s

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 38

The vertical velocity of the rack is equal to the velocity of the point on the gear where it makes
contact with the rack.
v E = −12.12 x0.3 = -3.64 m/s

Problem 3-11
Slider C of the mechanism shown in Figure 3-28 is moving horizontally at 10 m/s
towards the left-hand side. Determine the angular velocities of crank AB and connecting rod BC.

Figure 3-28

Solution 3-11
Using Equation 3-10 between points A and B, the velocity of point A is
v B = v A + w AB k x rB / A = 0 + ω AB k x (0.5i + 1.0 j )

v B = −ω AB i + 0.5ω AB j
Also
vC = v B + wBC x rC / B = (− ω AB i + 0.5ω AB j ) + ω BC k x (1.7i - 2.2j)

vC = (− ω AB + 2.2ω BC )i + (0.5ω AB + 1.7ω BC ) j (2)

Using Equation 3-11, the velocity of point C
vC = 10(cos 0i + sin 0 j ) = 10i (3)
Equating i and j components of equations (2) and (3) gives
− ω AB + 2.2ω BC = 10 (4)

0.5ω AB + 1.7ω BC = 0 (5)

Solving the above equations simultaneously gives
ω AB = −6.071 rad/s and ω BC = 1.786 rad/s

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 39

 3.4.4 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link
Equation 3-8 is application to both planar (2D) and spatial (3D) motions.

Problem 3-12
For the mechanism shown in Figure 3-30, determine the angular velocity of bar BC and
the magnitude of the sliding velocity of the pin at B if crank AB rotates at 4 rad/s in the
anticlockwise direction.

Figure 3-29
Solution 3-12
Using Equation 3-10 between points A and B, we have
v B = v A + w x rB / A vA = 0 ω = 4 k (rad/s) r B A = −0.5i + 1.2 j (m)

v B = 0 + 4k (− 0.5i + 1.2 j )

v B = −4.8i − 2 j (1)
Using Equation 3-8 between points C and B, we have
v B = vC + v B C + w CB x r B / C

vC = 0 and r B C = −2.0i + 1.2 j (m)

where v B C is the sliding velocity and ω CB is the angular velocity of the link CB

v B = 0 + v B C + ω CB k (− 2.0i + 1.2 j )

v B = v B C − 1.2ω CB i − 2ω CB j (2)

Let V be the magnitude of the sliding velocity of the pin at B. Using Equation 3-11,
v B C = V (cos θi + sin θj ) (3)

where θ is the angle the sliding direction makes with the horizontal. The angle may be calculated
from Figure 3-31 as

(1st Draft 24/02/2009) 40

  1.2 
θ = 180 − tan −1   = 149.04
o

 2 
Substituting θ = 149.03o into equation (3) gives
v B C = V (cos149.03i + sin 149.03 j )

v B C = V (−0.8575i + 0.5145 j ) (4)

Figure 3-30

Substituting the above equation into equation (2) yields

v B = V (−0.8575i + 0.5145 j ) − 1.2ω CB i − 2ω CB j

v B = −(1.2ω CB + 0.8575V )i + (− 2ω CB + 0.5145V ) j (5)

Equating equations (1) and (4), we have
− 4.8i − 2 j = −(1.2ω CB + 0.8575V )i + (− 2ω CB + 0.5145V ) j
Equating i and j components of the above equation gives
4.8 = 1.2ω CB + 0.8575V (6)

2 = 2ω CB − 0.5145V (7)
Solving the equations (6) and (7) simultaneously gives
ω CB = 1.79 rad/s
V = 3.09 m/s
Problem 3-13
Solve Example 3-7 using the vector analytical method.

Solution 3-13
Using Equation 3-10 between points A and C, we have
vC = v A + w AC x rC / A

where v A = 0 and ( )
r B A = 3 cos 35 o i + sin 35 o i = 2.457i + 1.721 j

vC = 0 + ω AC k x (2.457i + 1.721 j ) vC = −1.7207ω AC i + 2.457ω AC j (1)

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Using Equation 3-13 between points B and C, we have
vC = v B + vC B + wBC x rC / B (2)

The slider velocity vC B = 0.2 m/s needs to be resolved into the i and j components.

From Figure 3-32 and using the cosine rule,

(
R 2 = 3 2 + 2 2 − 2 3 x 2 cos 35 o ) R = 1.78 m
Using the sine rule
sin 35 o sin θ
= θ = 104.89 o α = 180 o − θ = 180 o − 104.89 o = 75.11o
R 3
Using Equation 3-12
(
v C B = 0.2 cos 75.11o i + sin 75.11o j ) v C B = 0.0514i + 0.1933 j (3)

Figure 3-31

Also vB = 0 (4)

r C / B = (3 cos 35 o − 2 )i + 3 sin 35 o j r C / B = 0.4575i + 1.7207 o j (5)

[ Hint: Also r C / B = 1.78 cos 75.11o i + 1.78 sin 75.11o j ]

Substituting equations (3) to (5) into equation (2) gives

(
vC = 0 + (0.0514i + 0.1933 j ) + wBC k x 0.4575i + 1.7207 o j )
vC = (− 1.7207ω BC + 0.0514)i + (0.4575ω BC + 0.1933) j (6)
Equating equations (1) and (6) yields equation (7).
− 1.7207ω AC i + 2.457ω AC j = (− 1.7207ω BC + 0.0514)i + (0.4575ω BC + 0.1933) j (7)

Equating i and j components of the above equation (7)

− 1.7207ω AC = −1.7207ω BC + 0.0514 (8)

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 2.457ω AC = 0.4575ω BC + 0.1933 (9)
Solving the equations (8) and (9) simultaneously gives
ω BC = 0.1333 rad/s
ω AC = 0.1034 rad/s

3.5 Mechanical Advantage Analysis with Instant Centres

Assuming that a mechanism is conservative (i.e. there is no energy loss through friction, heat,
noise, etc.), then from Figure 3-10, the power in, Pin ,is equal to the power out, Pout . Thus

Pin = Tinω in = Tout ω out = Pout Equation 3-12

From the above equation,
 Tout   ω in 
  =   Equation 3-13
 Tin   ω out 

By definition, the mechanical advantage (MA) is the ratio of the magnitude of output force, Fout ,
to the magnitude of input force, Fin . Thus,
 Tout 
Fout  rout 
MA = =
Fin  Tin 
 r 
 in 

 T  r 
MA =  out  in  Equation 3-14
 Tin  rout 

Substituting Equation 3-13 into Equation 3-14 gives

 ω  r 
MA =  in  in  Equation 3-15
 ω out  rout 
Consider the mechanism shown in Figure 3-32 and using Equation 3-3, the angular velocity ratio
of the input link to that of the output link is

ω 2 (1,4 − 2,4 )
=
ω 4 (1,2 − 2,2 )
Substituting the above equation into Equation 3-15, the mechanical advantage of the mechanism
shown in Figure 3-33 is

MA =
(1,4 − 2,4)  rin 
(1,2 − 2,2)  rout 

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 Figure 3-32

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3.1 In Figure P3-1, the rotation of the dumping bin BC of the truck about point C is operated by
the extension of the hydraulic cylinder AB. At the instant shown bin BC is rotating about
point C at a constant angular velocity of 10 rad/s in the clockwise direction. Determine
(a) the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration of extension of the hydraulic cylinder AB
(b) the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the hydraulic cylinder AB

Figure P3-1

3.1 Find the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the mechanism shown in Figure P3-2 if
slider B is moving towards the right at a constant velocity V= 10 m/s and θ = 60o.

Figure P3-2 Figure P3-3

3.2 Link AB of the mechanism shown in Figure P3-3 is rotating at 20 rad/s in the anti-clockwise
direction. Using the vector analytical method, determine the sliding velocity and
acceleration of slider C.
3.3 The collar at A in Figure 4 slides along the circular bar, causing the pin A to move at a
constant speed 5 m/s in a circular path of radius R. Bar AC slides in the collar at B, and the

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 collar is pinned to ground at B. At the instant shown, determine the velocity of bar AC
relative to pin B and angular velocity of bar AC.

Figure P3-4

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 CHAPTER 4 ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

4.1 General Motion

To obtain an equation for the acceleration of point B of Figure 4-1, Equation 3-8 is
differentiated with respect to time. Using Equation 3-7b, the result of differentiation is

a B = a A + a B / A + 2ω x v B/A + α x rB/A + ω x (ω x rB/A ) Equation 4-1

The term 2ω x v B/A is called Coriolis acceleration, named after the French Engineer G. C.
Coriolis, who was the first to determine it. Equation 4-1 is applicable to both planar (2D) and
spatial (3D) motions. For planar motions, Equation 4-1 may written as

a B = a A + a B / A + 2ω x v B/A + α x rB/A − ω 2 rB/A Equation 4-2

Figure 4-1 Rigid Body in Planar Motion

4.1.1 Pure Translational Motion

For pure translational motion without sliding, the vector ω, α, a B / A and v B / A are zero. Thus,

aB = a A . Equation 4-3

4.1.2 General Motion without Sliding on Rotating Link

For general motion without sliding on a rotating link, the components a B / A and v B / A are zero.
Hence, Equation 4-2 becomes

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 a B = a A + α x rB/A − ω 2 rB/A Equation 4-4

The term α x rB/A in Equation 4-4 is the tangential component of the acceleration and

ω x (ω x rB / A ) is the normal component. The tangential component is perpendicular to link AB

and the normal component is normal or parallel to AB and points towards the point of rotation.
Note that ω2 in Equation 4-2 is a scalar quantity and therefore, no vector component is attached
to it.

Problem 4-1
In Figure 4-2, link AB has an anticlockwise angular velocity of 12 rad/s and a clockwise
angular acceleration of 250 rad/s2. Determine the angular accelerations of links BC and CD.

2m 3m

B C

12 rad/s 2m
250 rad/s2
A D

Figure 4-2
Solution 4-1
Since the angular acceleration formula has angular velocity component, first the
velocities of the links BC and CD are determined. Then, the determined velocities are used to
determine accelerations of the links. The velocity of point B
1

v B = v A + ω AB x rB/A v B = 0 + 12 k x (2i + 2j) v B = −24i + 24 j (m/s)

Let ω BC and ω CD be the angular velocities of links BC and CD, respectively. The velocity of
point C in terms of the velocity of point B is

vC = v B + ω BC x rC/B

vC = (− 24i + 24 j ) + (ω BC k ) x (3i ) vC = −24i + (3ω BC + 24) j (1)

Similarly, the velocity of point C in terms of the velocity of point D is

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 vC = v D + ω CD x rC/D vC = 0 + (ω CD k ) x (2j) = −2ω CD i (2)
Equating the two expressions for the velocity of point C, i.e. equations (1) and (2), yields

− 24i + (3ω BC + 24 ) j = −2ω CD i

Equation the i and the j components of the above equation and solving for the angular velocities,
we have
for i component:
− 2ω CD = −24 , ω CD = 12 rad/s
for j component:
(3ω BC + 24) = 0 , ω BC = −8 rad/s
The acceleration of point B in terms of that of point A is
a B = a A + α x rB/A − ω 2 rB / A

( )
a B = 0 − 250 k x (2i + 2j) − 12 2 (2i + 2 j )
a B = 212i − 788 j (m/s).
Let α BC and α CD be the angular accelerations of links BC and CD, respectively. The
acceleration of point C in terms of that of point B is
aC = a B + α BC x rC/B − ω BC
2
rC/B

aC = (212i − 788 j ) + α BC k x 3i − (− 8) (3i )

2

aC = 20i + (3α BC − 788) j (3)

Similarly, the acceleration of point C from point D is
aC = a D + α CD x rD/C − ω CD
2
rC/D

aC = 0 + α CD k x 2j − (12) (2 j )
2

aC = −2α CD i − 288 j (4)

Equating the two expressions for the acceleration of point C (i.e. equations (3) and (4)) gives
20i + (3α BC − 788) j = −2α CD i − 288 j
Equating the i and the j components of the above equation and solving for the angular velocities,
we have
i component: − 2α CD = 20 , α CD = −10 rad/s2

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 j component: 3α BC − 788 = −288 , α BC = 166.7 rad/s2

Problem 4-2
Solve Problem 3-11 if slider C is moving horizontally at 10 m/s and 5 m/s2 towards the left-hand
side.

Solution 4-2
From Solution 4-2,
ω AB = −6.071 rad/s and ω BC = 1.786 rad/s
The acceleration of point B in terms of that of point A is
a B = a A + α AB x rB/A − ω AB rB / A
2

a B = 0 + α AB k x (0.5i + 1.0j) − (− 6.071) (0.5i + 1.0j)

2

a B = −(α AB + 18.428)i + (0.5α AB − 36.857 ) j (1)

Similarly, the acceleration of point C in terms of that of B is
aC = a B + α BC x rC/B − ω BC rC / B
2

aC = −(α AB + 18.428)i + (0.5α AB − 36.857 ) j + α BC k x (1.7i + 2.2 j) − (1.786) (1.7i + 2.2 j)

2

aC = −(α AB + 23.851 + 2.2α BC )i + (0.5α AB − 43.874 + 1.7α BC ) j (2)

Using equation 3-11, aC = 5i m/s (3)

Equating the i and j components of equations (2) and (3) gives
− 28.851 = α AB + 2.2α BC (4)

43.874 = 0.5α AB + 1.7α BC (5)

Solving equations (4) and (5) simultaneously gives
α AB = 242.6 rad/s and α BC = 97.2 rad/s

4.1.3 General Motion with Sliding on Rotating Link

For general motion with sliding on a rotating link, equations 4-1 and 4-2 are used.

Problem 4-3
For the mechanism shown in Figure P2.12, determine the angular acceleration of bar AC
and acceleration of pin A relative to the slot in bar AB if bar AB has an anticlockwise velocity of
2 rad/s and a clockwise angular acceleration of 10 rad/s2.

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 Figure 4-3
Solution 4-3
First, velocity analysis is performed and the result is use in the acceleration analysis.
Using Equation 3-8 the velocity of point A is given as
v A = v B + v A / B + ω BA x rA / B

v A = 0 + v A / B + 2 k x (1.3i + 1.2 j ) v A = v A / B + (− 2.4i + 2.6 j ) (1)

The velocity of the pin A is parallel to the slot on link BA. Using equation 3-11
v A / B = v A / B (cos θi + sin θj ) (2)

 1.2 
where θ = tan −1   = 42.709 , which is the angle between the sliding direction and the
o

 1 .3 
horizontal axis. Substituting (2) into (1) gives
v A = (0.7384 v A / B − 2.4 )i + (0.6783 v A / B + 2.6 ) j (3)

Let ω CA and α CA be the angular velocity and angular acceleration of link CA. The velocity of
point A in terms of that C is
v A = vC + ω CA x rA / C

 i j k 

vA = 0 +  0 0 ω CA 
0.5 1.2 0 

v A = − 1 . 2 ω CA i + 0 . 5 ω CA j (4)
Equating the two velocities of A gives
− 1.2ω CA i + 0.5ω CA j = (0.7384v Arel − 2.4)i + (0.6783v Arel + 2.6 )
Equating the i and j components yields
− 1.2ω CA = (0.7384v Arel − 2.4) (5)

0.5ω CA = (0.6783v Arel + 2.6) (6)

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Solving equations (5) and (6), we have
ω CA = 2.995 rad/s
v A / B = −1.625 m/s
The velocity and acceleration of A relative B are resolved into i and j components as
v A / B = −3.5258(cos 42.709i + cos 42.709 j ) = −2.5907i − 2.3915 j (7)
a A / B = α A / B (cos 42.709i + cos 42.709 j ) = 0.7348α A/B i + 0.6783α A/B j
r
(8)
where α A/ B is the magnitude of the acceleration.
Using Equation 4-1, the acceleration of point A given the velocity of B is
a A = a B + a A / B + 2ω AB x v A/B + α BA x rA / B − ω 2 rA/B (9)
Substitution equations (7) and (8) into (9) gives
 i j k

a A = 0 + 0.7348α A/B i + 0.6783α A/B j + 2  0 0 2 +
− 2.5907 − 2.3915 0 
 i j k
0 0 10 − (10) (1.3i + 1.2j)
2

1.3 1.2 0 

a A = (0.7348α A/B − 137.2171)i + (0.6783α A/B − 112.1815) j (10)

The acceleration of A given the velocity of C is
a A = aC + α CA x rA / C − ω 2 rA/C

 i j k 

aA = 0 +  0 0 α CA  − 2 2 (0.5i + 1.2j)
0.5 1.2 0 

a A = −(1.2α CA + 2 )i + (0.5α CA − 1.2 j ) (11)

Equating the i and j components of the two accelerations of point C yields
0.7348a A/B − 137.2171 = −1.2α CA + 2

0.6783a A/B − 112.1815 = 0.5α CA − 1.2

and solving simultaneously,
α A/B = 171.6582 m/s2
a A//B = 10.9017 rad/s2

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 CHAPTER 5 ROTARY MOTION TRANSMISSION
5.1 Introduction
Rotary motions are general transmitted using gears, belts, ropes or /and chain drives.
These machine elements provide a convenient means of transferring power from one shaft to
another and are necessary to reduce rotational speeds of motors to values required by mechanical
equipment. Belts and ropes use friction as useful agent to transmit power, but are subjected to
uncertainties in the values of coefficient of friction.
In general, gears and chains transmit power efficiently by eliminating slipping. Slipping
is eliminated by replacing roller surfaces with teeth or sprockets, which provide continuous
positive engagement of input and output gears and sprockets. Constant velocity ratio is
maintained between the two engaged gears when the common normal passes through the line of
line of centres (from Kennedy’s theorem).

5.2 Gear Drive

5.2.1 Types of Gear
Gears may be divided into three main groups. The groups are parallel-axis gears, non-
parallel-axis but co-planer gears, and nonparallel-axis and noncoplaner gears.
5.2.1.1 Parallel-Axis Gears
Parallel-axis gears are the simples and most popular type of all gear types. They include
spur (shown in Figure 5-1) and helical gears. They can transmit large tongue with high
efficiency.

Figure 5-1: Spur Gear Drive

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 5.2.1.2 Nonparallel-Axis Coplanar Gears
These types of gears have nonparallel axis of rotation unlike spur and helical gears, but
are coplanar. Bevel (Figure 5-2) and spiral gears are type examples of this group of gears. The
common feature of this group of gears is redirection of power from one axis to another, though
the two pair of gears (input and output) are not parallel but coplanar (same xy-plane).

y Figure 5-2: Bevel Gear Drive

5.2.1.3 Nonparallel-Axis, Noncoplanar Gears

These gears are more complex in both geometry and manufacturing than parallel-axis
gears. As a result, these gears are more expensive than parallel-axis and nonparallel coplanar
gears. They include worm gear drives (shown in Figure 5-3).

Figure 5-3: Worm Gear Drive

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 5.2.2 Gear Trains
Shown in Figure 5-4 are two roller discs 1 and 2 having a common contact point at B.
The instant centres are (1, 2), (2, 3) and (1, 3). From the Kennedy’s theorem, the three instant
centres lie on the same line. This implies that the line, which passes through the centres of the
discs, must be the common normal to both discs. For continuity, the velocity of the common
point of contact is
ω 2 rB / A = ω 3 rC / B

ω 2 rC / B IC( 2,3) − IC (1,3)

= = Equation 5-1
ω 3 rB / A IC ( 2,3) − IC(1, 2 )

Circle Pitch
(1,2) B (1,3)
A 1 (2,3) C
1

Figure 5-4 Two Circular Discs in Rolling Contact

Since the instant centres lie on the same line, Equation 5-1 is negative and therefore the two
gears rotate in opposite directions. The equation also shows that the angular velocity ratio
ω 2 ω 3 is inversely proportional to the pitch-radius ratio ( r3 r2 ), the pitch-diameter ratio
( d 3 d 2 ), the pitch-circumference ratio ( c3 c 2 ), or the number of teeth ( N 3 N 2 ). Thus,

ω 2 r3 d 3 c3 N 3
sgn . = = = = Equation 5-2
ω 3 r2 d 2 c 2 N 2

where sgn =-1 if the two engaging gears are external gears and, sgn = 1 if one of the engaging
gears is external (ring, internal or annular ) gear.

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 5.2.2.1 Ordinary Gear Train
Sometimes, a design may call for a high angular velocity ratio that will be impractical to
achieve due to space and material strength limitations. An alternate way of achieving such large
angular velocity ratio is the use of ordinary gear train. Ordinary gear train consists of at least two
pairs of meshing gears, where the output angular velocity of one pair of gears is coupled to the
input of the next pair of gears. Thus, the velocity ratio is changed at several stages.

Problem 5-1
Find the velocity ratio ω8 ω 2 of the gear trains shown in Figure 5-5.

3 6
2 5 8
4 7

Figure 5-5 Ordinary Gear

Solution 5-1
From Figure 5-5, the first stage engagement is between gears 2 and 3. Gears 3 and 4 are
attached one shaft, and so are gears 6 and 7. Using equation (5-2),
 N7 
ω8 = ω 7  −  (1)
 N8 
Since gears 6 and 7 are rigidly attached to the same shaft, ω 7 = ω 6 . Thus,

 N7 
ω8 = ω 6  −  (2)
 N8 
Using equation (5-2),
 N5 
ω 6 = ω 5  −  (3)
 N6 
Substituting equation (3) into (1) yields
  N5   N 5 
ω8 = ω 5  −  −  (4)
  N6   N 6 
Similarly,

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