New Testament Research Paper topic:

Significance of slavery in the first-century world

Kaluba Kapapula

Student ID: 131195

Introduction to New Testament

S1312-31

December 6th, 2021

Christianity - A reflection from a human rights perspective P.G. Kirchschlaeger acknowledges

that addressing the topic "slavery and Early Christianity" is a difficult task for various reasons

and I do share this struggle with him, this was difficult research to especially as a black person.

Kirchschlaeger, outlines reasons why this such a task can be a struggle for one to undertake.

First, he says that it is complex to reach an understanding of slavery of that time. Secondly, there

is the hermeneutic challenge of approaching the issue with a current mind-set that includes the

notion of the abolition of slavery. Furthermore, from a contemporary perspective, a critical

account of slavery and Early Christianity is possible, with the temporal distance protecting one

from the consequences linked to a judgement about slavery. Finally, there is the hermeneutic

challenge of engaging with texts from Early Christianity from an ethical perspective in order to

reach present-day normative propositions, while respecting the original intention of the texts1.

Drawing from this and other scholar’s inspiration, in this research paper on the significance of

slavery in the first-century world, I would like to answer three questions, Firstly, I would to

define slavery by answering the question what is slavery, we can’t understand anything about

slavery if we fail to answer this basic question. Secondly, I would like to address the significancy

of slavery through out the years it was practiced and where it was practiced. And finally, I will

endeavor to zero in on slavery and early Christianity in the first century. my sincere hope is that

these three questions will satisfy the reequipments of this course while also shading some new

light to the topic.

1
P.G. Kirchschlaeger (2016). Slavery and Early Christianity - A reflection from a human rights perspective. Acta
theol. vol.36  suppl.23 Bloemfontein.  http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/actat.v23i1s.4 
What is Slavery?

This question can not just be answered in a sentence, to better understand what slavery is and

was we need to look at: i) Definition, ii) The different categories and groups of slavery iii) The

bases for slavery iv) The Backgrounds of Early Christianity and v) the Biblical View of slavery.

These five questions are set to help us gain a better understand of what slavery really is.

Definition

Slavery can be defined as the institution whereby one person can hold ownership rights over

another2 and according to The Eerdmans dictionary of the early Judaism, Slavery is when a

person is held in servitude by another3. The word slavery is very broad team and was used in to

describe labour and people in different ways, for example the Anchor Bible Dictionary further

says that the usual term for “slave” in Mesopotamia was wardum, which at the same time was

used not only to designate an actual slave but also dependence in the broad sense or servility,

thus corresponding to Heb ʿebed, Aram ʿabdā, Old Pers bandaka, Gk doulos, etc. In the ANE, all

the subjects of the king, including even highly placed officials, were regarded as slaves of the

king. In 1st millennium Babylonia, a large number of terms appeared which were either

completely unattested in the earlier texts or were used with different meanings (for example,

qallu which literally means “the little one” or amēlūtu, the abstract collective term for slaves of

both sexes, which literally means “people”). In addition, in many countries there existed temple

slaves whose status was also hereditary. In Mesopotamia, the main term for such slaves was

širku.

2
Freedman, D. N., Herion, G. A., Graf, D. F., Pleins, J. D., & Beck, A. B. (Eds.). (1992). In The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary.
New York: Doubleday.
3
Collins, Harlow, The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism, 2010, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Slavery was a further form of personal dependence and extra-economic coercion. The slave was

a person deprived of the means of production and was merely a thing belonging to his master

with regard to whom he had only duties and no rights whatsoever.

The different categories and groups of slavery

First century societies and those that preceded them consisted three big social clusters: i)

freemen, ii) semi-free population, and iii) slaves.

Though rare diversity of systems of socioeconomic relations was typical of antiquity, there were

three main kinds of labor: autonomous labor of free peasants and craftsmen, work of slaves, and

work of various groups of the semi-free populace.

Non slaves owned and worked in their own fields and craft workshops independently. There was

also were free hired-labor which existed and can be traced to as early as the later periods of

Mesopotamian history. Palestine, and many other countries.

This category was socioeconomical group was particularly typical of Babylonia in the 1st

millennium B.C., when temples and private individuals were pushed to resort to the large-scale

use of free hired labor in handicrafts and in agricultural work. These multitudes of hired hands

comprised mainly of land-starved free persons.

Semi-free groups, were subjected to extra-economic pressure and worked from generation to

generation on land that belonged to the palace and temples.

History tells us that there was different source of slavery in the early centuries and a lot of factors

that led to slave labor, among them were: i) by military conquest, ii) by birth iii) by bondage, to

debt, or iv) by violation of law.4

Slavery by military conquest

They were known as war captives, the earliest means for the acquisition of slaves was by

military conquest. Thousands of men, women and children were thus reduced to servitude.

Interestingly to the people in that time this gesture was considered a humanitarian improvement

on the earlier practice of killing all enemies, hence helping to limit the excesses of brutal

punishment which captives received.5 In all probability, slaves were originally foreigners, mainly

prisoners of war. Within all the periods of antiquity, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Hittite, Persian,

and other Oriental rulers carried away great masses of captives from their victorious battles

Slavery by birth

According to the Bible in Exodus 21:4 and Leviticus 25:54 The Children of slaves born within

the owner’s house if the slave was given a wife by his master became the property of the master,

even if the father should later become a free man, but if he came with his own wife according to

Exodus 21:2-4, he is to go with them. 6 Also the other reality was that the sale of children of free

persons into slavery was permitted and was widely practiced, parents could sell their children.

Slavery by bondage, to debt

4
Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1, The
Ancient Mediterranean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

5
Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

6
Estel, New International version. Grand Rapids, Michigan, Zondervan 2017
According to Deuteronomy 15:12-18, people would sell themselves into slavery, hence, debt

slavery was one of the basic sources of replenishing the slave population. However, from time-

to-time debtors were able to gain release from slavery.

Non the less, debt slavery was usually limited by law to a specific period of time, usually to three

or six years, both scripture and history agrees on this one. Debt slavery was widespread, and the

time required to work off the loan sometimes lasted for a long time. The creditor was not allowed

to sell a debtor into slavery to a third person. Usually, the debtor paid off the loan by free work

for the creditor, thereby preserving his freedom.

Slavery by violation of law

In the first century history, free persons could be enslaved for violation of law. For example, in

thieves were turned over to their victims as slaves. The wife and children of a murderer who had

been sentenced to death were also condemned to slavery. According to the law then, if the son

renounced his father, the latter could place upon him the mark of a slave the law permitted a

husband to sell his dishonest or extravagant wife into slavery. Also, a man through whose fault

his neighbor’s field was flooded had to compensate for the damage, and if not in the position to

do this, then he was to be sold into slavery.7

The Significancy of Slavery

7
Driver, G. R., and Miles, J. C. 1968. The Babylonian Laws. Vols. 1–2. Oxford. Oxford University Press
Slave labor was all over the place – in cloistered households, in pits and plants, and on farms.

They also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and

buildings. As a result, they merged easily into the population.8

For understanding the economic contexts of the New Testament, according to Bradley the

significance of the “extended households” in the life of the Roman Empire, and of the slaves

within these households, can hardly be overestimated. Greco-Roman society had come to depend

on persons in slavery as the basic labor force, as essential components of the imperial economy,

and a normal part of the daily life of most families. This extensive use of slave labor produced

much wealth and the leisure that permitted the development of Greco-Roman culture.9

Slaves were used for “an huge diversity of functions in enormously different circumstances”,

some of which when compared to New World slavery seem amazingly responsible: “doctors,

teachers, writers, accountants, agents, bailiffs, overseers, secretaries, and sea-captains”. Two

primary factors led to this situation. First, the Romans had no tradition that made it acceptable

for free men to take orders from anyone except their fathers or their military leaders, either on

the farm, in urban workshops and homes, or in government bureaucracy.10

According to Cicero, working every day to earn a living was beneath the dignity of a citizen and

that working with one’s hands was a “dirty business”. Those citizens who nevertheless entered

domestic work were regarded as serving “in place of slaves” during their employment. Second,

8
Hunt, Peter. Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2018.

9
Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1, The
Ancient Mediterranean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
10
Seelhammer. A Hopkins Bibliography. Vol. 6, No. 3 (FALL 1979), pp. 95-106. International Hopkins Association
1978. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45240850
the Romans used large numbers of slaves to bring greatly admired Hellenistic high culture to

Rome11.

Slavery was a legal-economic institution that economic and political context made it practically

impossible for anyone to conceive of abolishing slavery as a legal-economic institution. From

what I have read, I can conclude that slavery was such a significant institution that benefited the

deployment of societies and made a few privileged individuals live comfortable lives through the

free services of others and because of its significance, one body was willing to abolish it or

atleast fight for its abolition.

Slavery and Early Christianity in the First Century

Early Christianity was connected with slavery in different ways. it is likely that Paul was in

contact with slavery on a regular basis based on his writings. It was almost impossible for Paul to

have avoid slavery in all his mission travels from city to city. When he went to the marketplace

to find other craftspeople or to purchase food for dinner, he would have mingled with both male

and female slaves12.

Therefore, it is likely that Paul was also aware of the sexual abuse of slaves. According to

Barclay, early Christianity mostly experienced slavery as part of the family. Slaveholders as well

as slaves were part of Early Christian circles. The same can be said for slaveholders as members

of Christian community. "In other words, our evidence implies that the 'typical' Christian was as

likely to be a slaveholder as a slave". This ubiquitous ancient institution influenced the

emergence and early development of Christianity, including that of the Christian texts.

11
Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.

12
Glancy, J.A. Slavery as moral problem in the Early Church and today. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press,
2011       
It is impossible to imagine someone like Philemon offering hospitality to a whole church

(Romans 16:23; Philemon 2) without the aid of slaves, one could not maintain a house sufficient

to accommodate a significant number of guests on a regular basis without the assistance of

slaves, at least door-keeping, cooking and serving at table13.

Furthermore, the number of slaves in a household corresponded to the wealth of the family.

Christian texts do not differ from other texts of that time in their perception of the common

composition of a household embracing slavery14 .Slavery is described without any critical remark

on this deeply problematic social institution. They seem to accept it as a given social order15.The

lack of hesitancy about slavery in Early Christianity seems incoherent, because of the Jewish-

Christian belief in the image of God and the Jewish-Christian principle of the love for one's

fellow human being (Lev. 19:11-18). Every human being must be regarded as one's neighbor - in

his/her misery, a human identifies with Jesus Christ (cf. Matt. 25:40.45). In the Gospels, only

Luke 22:51 refers to direct contact between Jesus and a slave. In addition, the imagery of slavery

is part of the parables of Jesus in the Gospels16.

Paul's rhetorical appeal in some sections of his books suggests that he had very concrete

objectives in mind. His intentions seem to have extended beyond the mere alleviation of poverty

by means of charitable giving. Indeed, he appears to have aimed at reforming the structural

inequalities of Graeco-Roman society that were also becoming apparent in the early church.
13
Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1, The
Ancient Mediterranean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

14
Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

15
Harrill, J. Albert. The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr,
1995.

16
Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Slavery is criticized in today’s culture as dehumanizing to both slave and owner, as open to all

kinds of abuse. Yet for the Christian, it provides a suggestive metaphor of willing, loving

submission to God.17

Bibliograph
Arkinson, Field, Holmes. “New Dictionary of Christian Ethics & Pastoral Theology.”
InterVarsity Press. 1995
Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1, The
Ancient Mediterranean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

17
Arkinson, Field, Holmes. “New Dictionary of Christian Ethics & Pastoral Theology.” InterVarsity Press. 1995
Harrill, J. Albert. The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr,
1995.

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003.

Glancy, J.A. Slavery as moral problem in the Early Church and today. Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press, 2011
Hunt, Peter. Ancient Greek and Roman Slavery. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2018.

Bradley, Keith, and Paul Cartledge, eds. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Vol. 1, The
Ancient Mediterranean World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Seelhammer. A Hopkins Bibliography. Vol. 6, No. 3 (FALL 1979), pp. 95-106. International
Hopkins Association 1978.

Estel, New International version. Grand Rapids, Michigan, Zondervan 2017

Driver, G. R., and Miles, J. C. 1968. The Babylonian Laws. Vols. 1–2. Oxford. Oxford

University Press

Freedman, D. N., Herion, G. A., Graf, D. F., Pleins, J. D., & Beck, A. B. (Eds.). In The Anchor
Yale Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday. 1992.
Collins, Harlow, The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids,
Michigan, 2010.

Kirchschlaeger P.G. Slavery and Early Christianity - A reflection from a human rights
perspective. Acta theol. vol.36  suppl.23  Bloemfontein. 2016  

Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery in Early Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.