AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING 15ME655

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING
Assessment Exam
Course Code Credits L-T-P
SEE CIA duration
Automobile 15ME655 3 3-0-0 80 20 3 Hrs

Course learning objectives: The student will be able to learn

 The layout and arrangement of principal parts of an automobile.
 The working of transmission and brake systems.
 The operation and working of steering and suspension systems.
 To know the Injection system and its advancements.
 To know the automobile emissions and its effects on environment.

MODULE 1

ENGINE COMPONENTS AND IT’S PRINCIPLE PARTS: Spark Ignition (SI) & Compression Ignition
(CI) engines, cylinder – arrangements and their relatives merits, Liners, Piston, connecting rod, crankshaft,
valves, valve actuating mechanisms, valve and port timing diagrams, Types of combustion chambers for
S.I.Engine and C.I.Engines, methods of a Swirl generation, choice of materials for different engine components,
engine positioning. Concept of HCCI engines, hybrid engines, twin spark engine, electric car.

COOLING AND LUBRICATION: cooling requirements, types of cooling- thermo siphon system,
forced circulation water cooling system, water pump, Radiator, thermostat valves. Significance of
lubrication, splash and forced feed system. 10 Hours

MODULE 2
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS: Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear
shift mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller shaft, slip joints,
universal joints ,Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and Torque Tube Drive.

BRAKES: Types of brakes, mechanical compressed air, vacuum and hydraulic braking systems,
construction and working of master and wheel cylinder, brake shoe arrangements, Disk brakes, drum
brakes, Antilock –Braking systems, purpose and operation of antilock-braking system, ABS Hydraulic
Unit, Rear-wheel antilock & Numerical. 08 Hours

MODULE 3
STEERING AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS: Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-
Power Steering, Types of Front Axle, Suspension, Torsion bar suspension systems, leaf spring, coil
spring, independent suspension for front wheel and rear wheel, Air suspension system.

IGNITION SYSTEM: Battery Ignition system, Magneto Ignition system, electronic Ignition system.
08 Hours

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MODULE 4

SUPERCHARGERS AND TURBOCHARGERS: Naturally aspirated engines, Forced Induction,

Types of superchargers, Turbocharger construction and operation, Intercooler, Turbocharger lag.

FUELS, FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR SI AND CI ENGINES: Conventional fuels, alternative fuels,
normal and abnormal combustion, cetane and octane numbers, Fuel mixture requirements for SI engines, types of
carburetors, C.D.& C.C. carburetors, multi point and single point fuel injection systems, fuel transfer pumps, Fuel
filters, fuel injection pumps and injectors. Electronic Injection system, Common Rail Direct Injection System.
08 Hours

MODULE 5
AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS: Different air pollutants, formation of
photochemical smog and causes. Automotive emission controls, Controlling crankcase emissions,
Controlling evaporative emissions, Cleaning the exhaust gas, Controlling the air-fuel mixture,
Controlling the combustion process, Exhaust gas recirculation, Treating the exhaust gas, Air-injection
system, Air-aspirator system, Catalytic converter.

EMISSION STANDARDS: Euro I, II, III and IV norms, Bharat Stage II, III, IV norms. Motor Vehicle Act
08 Hours
Course Outcomes: Student will be able
 To identify the different parts of an automobile and it’s working
 To understand the working of transmission and braking systems
 To comprehend the working of steering and suspension systems
 To learn various types of fuels and injection systems
 To know the cause of automobile emissions, its effects on environment and methods to reduce the
emissions.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Automobile engineering, Kirpal Singh, Vol I and II (12th Edition) Standard Publishers 2011
2. Automotive Mechanics, S. Srinivasan, (2nd Edition) Tata McGraw Hill 2003.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Automotive mechanics, William H Crouse & Donald L Anglin (10 th Edition) Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company Ltd., 2007
2. Automotive mechanics: Principles and Practices, Joseph Heitner, D Van Nostrand Company, Inc
3. Fundamentals of Automobile Engineering, K.K.Ramalingam, Scitech Publications (India) Pvt. Ltd.
4. Automobile Engineering, R. B. Gupta, Satya Prakashan, (4th Edition) 1984.

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UNIT – 1

ENGINE COMPONENTS, COOLING AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

An automobile is a self propelled machine used on the ground for transportation of

passengers and goods from one place to another place. Automobile engineering or automotive
engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with all types of automobiles like car, bus, truck,
jeep, motor cycle etc., and the means of propelling them. Automobile or automotive refers to one
which itself can move. The study of aero plane, helicopter, rocket etc., which fly in air, comes under
Aeronautical engineering and marine engineering deals with ship, motor boat etc., which sail in
water. Today, of course, the automobile vehicle has become a basic necessity and business of making
and servicing automobiles has become one of the biggest businesses in the world.

I.C. Engines are used, in order to obtain motive power of the vehicle. In recent years, a huge
changes are made in the design of automobiles to provide safety, ease of operation, reliability,
comfort, less fuel consumption etc.

The Automobile consists of following basic components or parts. These are,

1. The power plant: It is nothing but the source of power or engine which provides motive power
to perform various functions in the vehicle. The power plant generally consists of an internal
combustion engine (I.C. Engine) which may be either of spark ignition (S.I), or of compression
ignition type. Sometimes gas turbines are also used in certain cars.
2. The basic structure: This includes frame and wheel assembly, suspension system, axles, etc.
3. The power train (transmission system): The power train carries the power from the engine to
road wheels. It consists of clutch, (for non-automatic transmissions) gear box, propeller shaft,
differential.
4. The super structure or car body.
5. The accessories which include electrical system, radio, wind shield wiper, air conditioner etc.
6. The controls: It consists of steering system, Brakes, etc.

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Fig.: Layout of an automobile

S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

Either S.I. or C.I. engines are used to obtain motive power to perform various functions in the
automobile. Modern automotive engines vary greatly in size and design, but the operating principles
are essentially the same as those of first models developed early.
In S.I. engine, a spark plug is an essential component which initiates combustion of fuel. The
spark plug produces an electric spark of high energy, initiates ignition of fuel. In C.I. engine, the high
temperature (greater than ignition temperature of the fuel) of compressed air ignites the fuel and this
is called self or auto ignition. The fuel pump and fuel injectors are the essential components of C.I.
engine.

BASIC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

Top dead centre (TDC): When the piston is at its top most position i.e., the position closest to
cylinder head, it is called top dead centre.
Bottom dead centre (BDC): When the piston is at its lowest position i.e., the position farthest from
the cylinder head, it is called bottom dead centre.
Bore: The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is denoted by 'D'.
Stroke length or stroke: The distance travelled by the piston between TDC and BDC is called
stroke of the piston and is denoted by 'L'.
Clearance volume: When the piston is in TDC position the cylinder volume above it, is called

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clearance volume and is denoted by 'Vc'.

Swept volume or piston displacement: The volume swept by piston while moving from TDC to
BDC is called swept volume.
It is denoted by , Vs' .

Vs = L
Compression ratio: It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the volume above the piston
at TDe. It is the ratio of total volume of the cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance volume. It is denoted
by ‘r’ Vs +V
Vc
For Petrol engines, it ranges from 8 to 12.
For diesel engines, it ranges from 15 to 24.
Mean effective pressure: As piston performs power stroke, cylinder pressure decreases. Thus it is
required to refer an average effective pressure throughout the whole power stroke. It is expressed in
bars.
Power: It is the work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same amount
of work in a lesser time.
Indicated Power (I.P.): The power developed within the engine cylinders is called indicated power.
It is expressed in kilowatts (kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram.
Brake Power (B.P.): This is the actual power available at the crank shaft. The indicated power
minus various power losses in the engine like friction and pumping losses in the engine, gives Brake
power. It is measured by using a Dynamometer and is expressed in kilowatts (kW).
Engine torque
It is the force of rotation acting about the crank shaft axis at any given instant of time.
It is given by T = F.r., where T = engine torque, Nm
F = force applied to the crank, N
r = effective crank radius, m

MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE

1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms

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CYLINDERS

The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to develop power. It
has to with stand very high pressure and temperature (around 2800°C). A cylinder block is one
which houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder block and crank case are made integral, then the
construction is called 'Mono block'. The cylinder material should be such that it should retain
strength at higher temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid wear and
tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally cast iron is used. For heavy duty engines
alloy steels are used.
For cooling water circulation, passages are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder block
also carries lubrication oil to various components through drilled passages.
At the lower end of cylinder block, crank case is made integral with the block. At the top,
cylinder block is attached with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves. Besides, other
parts like timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump, etc., are also attached
to it. The materials used for cylinder block are grey cast Iron and aluminium alloys.
The cast iron material has the following advantages.
1. It is relatively cheap and posses good foundry properties.
2. The co-efficient of thermal expansion of cast iron is low.
3. It has high machinability and does not wear too much.

The aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the following advantages.

1. It has higher thermal conductivity than cast-iron. This results in efficient cooling of engine.
so that higher compression ratios may be used.
2. The density of aluminium is about one third that of cast iron. It is a light material.
3. But considering lesser strength of aluminium, thicker sections have to be used to carry same

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load. Further, in case of any loss of coolant, it cannot with stand high temperature and damage may
occur. It wears more than cast iron.
The grey cast iron for cylinder block has the composition; carbon - 3.5 %, silicon - 2.5%, manganese
- 0.65 %.
The Aluminium alloy cylinder blocks have the composition. Silicon - 11%, Manganese 0.5%,
Magnesium 0.4%
CYLINDER ARRANGEMENTS
Multi cylinder engines are preferred over single cylinder engines due to reasons like
(i) Giving smooth torque output (ii) Lighter fly wheel (iii) Engine compactness (iv) Easy balancing.
In multi cylinder engines, the arrangement of cylinders is very important. The following cylinder
arrangements are used to give better performance of the engine. They are,
l. In line arrangement 2.Opposed cylinders type 3.V – engine 4.Radial engine

1. In line arrangement
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in a line i.e., placed side by side vertically with a
common crank shaft. In this type reciprocating forces are nearly balanced.

Fig: Inline arrangement

2. Opposed cylinders type

The two cylinders are arranged horizontally opposite to each other i.e., they are placed 1800
apart facing each other with a common crank shaft. In this type, the reciprocating parts are perfectly
balanced. As two cylinders are not in line, the force in connecting rod produces a rocking couple.

Fig: Opposed type

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3. V - engine
In this type, two cylinders are placed with their axes at 60°. The cylinders are arranged on
two arms of letter “V” with a common crank case and crank shaft it is more compact and rigid and
hence runs more smoothly at high speeds.

Fig: V-engine

4. Radial engine
In this type, a number of cylinders are arranged in radial fashion with a common crank shaft
which is placed at the centre as in figure. The number of cylinders generally used is 5, 7, 9 etc., to
obtain uniform firing intervals. This type is compact in size and gives higher Brake power per weight
ratio. This is mainly used in air craft engines.

Fig: Radial engine

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LINERS (SLEEVES)
Engines make use of removable liners which are pressed into cylinder holes. The cylinder
liners are in the form of barrels and used to reduce the cylinder wear and hence to increase cylinder
bore life. The cylinder wear is more when cylinder block is made up of aluminium alloy. The liners
can be inserted in the cylinder bore to reduce this wear. Whenever the liners worn-out, they can be
replaced easily. Whenever a cylinder block is re-bored beyond allowable limits, liners are used to
restore its original size. These are cast centrifugally and made up of special alloy iron containing
silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium.
The liners may be further hardened by nitriding or chromium plating. In nitriding process, liners are
exposed to ammonia vapour at 5000 0C and then quenched. Chromium plating improves their
resistance to wear and corrosion. There are two types of liners (1) Dry liners and (2) Wet liners.

1. Dry liners

Fig: Dry liners

The dry liners are quite thin and uses block metal to give it full length support. These liners
are made in the form of barrel and a flange is provided at the top which keeps the liner in to position.
It is necessary to machine the liner surface accurately both from inside and outside, as the outer
surface of the liner makes contact with cylinder block. By shrinking the liner, it is put in to the
cylinder bore. If the liner is too loose in the cylinder block, results in poor heat dissipation because of
absence of good contact between them. This will result in higher operating temperature. Improper
lubrication results in piston scuffing. Too tight a liner is even worse than the too loose case. This
produces distortion of cylinder block, liner cracking, hot spots and scuffing.
2. Wet liners
Wet liner is pressed into bore of cylinder block and is supported at top and bottom only.
These liners make direct contact with cooling water on the outside and hence do not require accurate
machining on the entire outer surface. A flange is provided at the top which fits into the groove in the
cylinder block. Three grooves are provided at the bottom, middle one is empty and top and bottom
grooves are inserted with rubber packing’s. For water leakage, drainage arrangements are provided
from the middle groove. The wet liners are sometimes coated with aluminium on the outside to make
the surface corrosion resistant.

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Fig: Wet liners

COMPARISON OF DRY AND WET LINERS

Dry liners
1. They may be provided either in the original design or even after wards.
2. No leak proof joint is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is not simple.
4. As dry liners does not make direct contact with cooling water, cylinder cooling is
ineffective
5. Accurate machining of both block and outer liner surface is required, for perfect contact
between them.
Wet liners
1. These have to be included in the original cylinder design.
2. A leak proof joint between the cylinder casting & liner is required.
3. Construction of cylinder block is simple.
4. As cooling water is in direct contact with liner, better cylinder cooling is possible.
5. Accurate machining on the outer liner surface is not necessary

PISTON
The piston is a reciprocating part of the engine and converts the combustion pressure in the
cylinder to a force on the crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the cylinder bore.
The space is provided between piston and cylinder wall and is called "clearance". This 'clearance' is
necessary to provide space for a film of lubricant. Pistons are made of aluminium alloys, cast steel,
cast iron or chrome nickel. Aluminium alloy pistons are used in modern automobiles.
Functions
1. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high pressure gases from combustion
chamber into crank case.
2. It transmits the force of explosion to the crank shaft.
3. 3.It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin.

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Fig: Typical I.C, engine piston

A typical I.C. engine piston is as shown in figure. The piston almost has the shape of an
Inverted bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In some engines, pistons may
be specially designed to form desired shape of the combustion chamber. At the piston top, few
grooves are cut to accommodate the piston rings and the bands left between the grooves are known
as "Lands". They support the rings against gas pressure. The portion below rings is called piston
skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston pin.
The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.
1. Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston which is
desirable from inertia point of view].
2. It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.

The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.

1. It is not as strong as cast iron; hence thicker sections have to be used.
2. Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it. It causes a
sort of grinding.
3. It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls thus decreases cylinder life.
4. The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is their unequal
coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.

CONTROL OF PISTON SLAP

The use of Aluminium alloy piston with cast iron cylinder has a drawback of engine slap. If
cold clearance is kept just sufficient, there is danger of seizure at higher operating temperatures and
if it is kept larger, the engine knocks or slaps when cold. Different methods are used to overcome this
difficult, they are,
1. Cutting horizontal sloe: This method keeps the heat away from the lower part of the piston.
By cutting horizontal slot in the portion just below the oil control ring, skirt portion does not
become very hot and hence does not expand so much.

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Fig: (a) Piston with horizontal slot Fig: (b) Heat dam construction

2. Heat dam: By making heat dam i.e., by cutting a groove near the top of the piston, the heat
flow to lower part of piston can be reduced. Hence the skirt runs cooler and does not expand
too much.

3. Vertical or T slot: In this type, the top of T tends to retard the heat transfer from head to the
piston skirt. The vertical slot allows the skirt of the piston to close when heated i.e., it allows
piston skirt to expand without increase in diameter. However mechanical strength is
decreased on account of slot. Due to presence of this slot, the diameter reduces permanently
which increases engine slap. Hence fully split skirts are not used.

4. Split skirt: In a split skirt piston, skirt is either partially or completely split. When the piston
warms and begins to expand, it cannot find in the cylinder since the skirt merely closes the
split.
5. Tapered pistons: Sometimes the pistons are turned taper, the crown side being smaller in
diameter than the skirt end. As crown portion is exposed to higher tempt than skirt, that side
expands more than skirt and piston diameter becomes uniform under operating conditions.
6. Special alloy pistons: Special alloy having coefficient of expansion nearly equal to that of
cast iron (or low value) have been used in the manufacture of pistons. One such alloy is
"LOEX" alloy It is an alloy having 12-15% silicon, 1.5-3% nickel and 1 % of each of
magnesium and copper Such pistons are costlier.
7. Wire wound pistons: A band of steel wire is wound between the piston pin and oil
controlling, thus restricting the expansion of skirt.
8. Bimetal pistons: The pistons are made from both steel and aluminium. Steel is used to
manufacture skirt portion and aluminium alloy cast inside to form piston head and piston pin
bosses. For steel, coefficient of thermal expansion is quite small, piston will not expand much
and hence smaller cold clearances can be maintained.

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PISTON RINGS
Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are called
compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The bottom ring is called oil ring,
(may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil from the cylinder walls and return it through
slots to the piston ring grooves. A properly constructed and fitted ring will rub against the cylinder
wall with good contact all around the cylinder. The ring will ride in grooves that are cut into the
piston head.

The material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast iron containing silicon
and manganese. It has good heat and WCi.1rresisting qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled face
have also been introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings vary depending
on the engine design. It varies from two to four.
Generally the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring grooves. It exerts
uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is to be cut at the ends so that while inserting the
ring, it can be expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the ring groove. The gap is
almost closed when the piston is inside the cylinder.
Functions:
1. It forms a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion chamber will not escape into
the crank case.
2. It provides easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the cylinder walls.
3. It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls throughout the stroke length. This reduces
ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of oil film is to be controlled and the oil should not go
up into the combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon deposits.

PISTON PIN
Piston pin is also known as wrist pin or gudgeon pin, used to connect Piston and connecting
rod. It transfers combustion chamber pressure and piston forces to the connecting rod. It is in tubular
shape to provide adequate strength with minimum weight. It passes through the piston bosses and
small end of the connecting rod. It is made of low carbon case hardened steel (carbon - 15%, silicon -
0.3%, manganese - 0.5%).
Piston pins are installed and secured to provide a bearing action in the following three ways.
1. The pin is fastened to the piston by set screws through the piston boss and has a bearing in the
connecting rod small end. This permits the connecting rod to swivel as required by the combined
reciprocal and rotary motion of piston and crank shaft.

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2. The piston pin is fastened to the connecting rod by means of a bolt and uses the piston bosses for
bearings. Nowadays, bolt has been replaced by interference fit.
3. A floating pin is used which is free in both the connecting rod and piston. This arrangement is
most commonly used. Circlips are used to prevent end movements.

Fig: (a) Piston pin fastened to piston

Fig: (b) Piston pin locked to connecting rod

Fig. (c) Floating Piston Pin

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CONNECTING ROD

The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end of rod
oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates (turns). It converts
reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the crank shaft. The upper end of the rod has
a hole through it for the piston pin. The lower end must be split type. A combination of axial and
bending stresses act on the rod in operation. The axial stresses are due to gas pressure in the cylinder
and inertia force caused by reciprocating motion. Bending stresses are caused due to centrifugal
effects. Connecting rods are manufactured by casting and forging processes. The rod has an I-beam
cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum weight. Generally rods are made by drop
forging of steel or duralumin and also cast from malleable cast iron.

Fig: Connecting Rod

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CRANK SHAFT
The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the power from
connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank shafts are made of alloy steel or
cast iron.

Fig: Crank Shaft

A simplified sketch of the crank shaft for a four cylinder engine is as-in figure. It consists of
1. Main journals
2. Crank pins
3. Crank webs
4. Counter weights
5. Oil holes

The crank shaft is held in position by a number of main bearings and they form axis for the
rotation of crank shaft. Their number is always one more or one less than the number of cylinders.
The crank pins are the journals for the connecting rod big end bearings and are supported by the
crank webs. The distance between the axis of the main journal and the crank pin centre lines is called
'crank through'. Oil holes are drilled from main journals to the crank pins through 'crank webs for
lubricating big end bearings.
When the engine is running, due to rotation of both crank shaft and connecting rod big end,
each crank pin will be subjected to centrifugal forces. This will tend to bend the crank shaft. To
avoid this counter weights are used. The counter weights are formed as integral part of the crank web
or may be attached separately as in fig.
On the front of the crank shaft, it is mounted with
i. Timing gear or sprocket which drives the crank shaft.
ii. Vibration damper
iii. Pulley for driving the water pump, fan and the generator. On the rear end, it is mounted with
a fly wheel.
On the main bearing journals, thrust bearing is located so as to support the loads in the direction of
shaft axis. Such loads may arise due to clutch release forces etc.

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Fig: Integral Fig: Attached separately

VALVES
Each engine cylinder has two valves however some special racing engines use four valves per
cylinder. Air fuel mixture is admitted to the engine through inlet valve and burned gases escape
through the exhaust valve. The valves also must seal the combustion space tightly.
Since air-fuel mixture admits into cylinder with lesser speed compared to velocity of exhaust gases
which leaves under pressure, inlet valves are made larger than exhaust valves. The inlet and exhaust
valves are 45% and 38% of the cylinder bore respectively. The valve face angle with the plane of
valve head is usually kept 45° or 30°. The movement of the valves is actuated by an eccentric
projection called a cam moving on a rotating shaft - the cam shaft.
The inlet and exhaust valves use different materials as they are subjected to different
operating conditions. The inlet valves are exposed to a temperature of 5000 0C and exhaust valves
have to operate in more severe conditions. To prevent burning, the valve must give off heat to the
valve guide and to the valve seat.
Silicon - Chrome steel (Carbon - 0.4%, nickel- 0.5%, manganese - 0.5%, silicon - 3.5%,
chromium - 8%) is the material used for inlet valves. For exhaust valves, molybdenum is added to it.
Recently austenitic steels are used for exhaust valves. To make it corrosion resistant, the valve may
be coated with aluminium.
The engine valves may be classified into
1. Poppet valve 2.Sleeve valve 3.Rotary valve
Poppet valve is universally used for automobile engines.
Poppet Valve
Its name is derived due to its motion of popping up and down. As the shape resembles a
mushroom, this valve is also called as 'mushroom' valve. It consists of a head and a stem. It is simple
in construction and self centering. Seal ing efficiency maintenance is much easier with this poppet
valve.
Valve Cooling
It is necessary to cool the exhaust valve directly or indirectly as it reaches very high
temperature i.e. about 750°C or even more. Therefore cooling of exhaust valves becomes very
important and is done by providing cooling water jackets near the valve.

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Fig: (a) Poppet Valve Fig: (b) Sodium Cooled Valve

In some heavy duty engines and air craft engines, sodium cooled valves are used. These
valves have a hollow head and stem which is partly filled (about 40% volume of the stem) with
sodium or a mixture of salts. Sodium is a high conductivity metal which melts at 105° C.lt is in
liquid state at operating temperatures. When the valve is in operation, the up and down movement of
sodium transfers the heat to the stem, valve guide, and cylinder block and to the cooling water
circulating in water jackets. This arrangement cools the valve by about 100° C. The sodium goes up
and absorbs heat from valve head and while coming down transfer heat to stem etc.

VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The valves located in .he cylinder head are operated by an eccentric projection called cam
which is driven at half the crank shaft speed. Different valve operating mechanisms are used and are
classified into
a) Side valve mechanism
b) Over head valve mechanism
c) Over head inlet and side exhaust valve mechanism.
a) Side Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is used for L-head engines. In this type, inlet and
exhaust valves are mounted in a single row and operated from the same crank shaft.
Nowadays, this mechanism is obsolete due to complicated shape of the combustion chamber
which leads to detonation.
b) Over Head Valve Mechanism: This mechanism is suitable for I and F head designs. The
cam operates the valve lifter which in turn actuates the push rod. This action rotates the
rocker arm about a shaft or a ball joint in some designs, to cause one end to push down on the
valve stem to open the valve.
Advantages
a) Higher volumetric efficiency.
b) Leaner air-fuel mixtures can be burnt.
c) Higher compressions can be used.

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Fig: Detailed view of side valve mechanism

Fig: (a) Side valve mechanism. Fig: (b) Over head valve mechanism

Fig: (c) Overhead inlet and side exhaust Fig: (d) Cam shaft valve mechanism

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Fig: (e) Valve lifter Fig: (f) Valve operat ion

COMPONENTS OF THE VALVE ACTUATING MECHANISMS

The essential components of a valve actuating mechanism are
a) Cam Shaft: It provides a means for opening the valves. It carries one cam for each valve to
be operated. It also provides a drive for the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel pump.
The cam shaft is driven by the crank shaft by means of timing gears or chain drive at half the
speed of crank shaft. It is forged from alloy steel or cast from hardenable cast iron and is case
hardened.
b) Valve tappet (valve lifter or cam follower) : It follows the shape of the cam lobe on the
cam shaft and hence converts angular movement of the cam in to a reciprocating motion. This
is placed slightly eccentric with earn to make the cam wear uniform and is located between
push rod and cam.

c) Push Rod: This is placed between valve tappet and rocker arm and transmits reciprocating
motion of valve tappet to the rocker arm. Push rods are made of steel and may be either solid
or hollow. Hollow push rod is lighter and results in reduced inertia forces. It provides a
passage for the oil to lubricate the valve actuating mechanism.
d) Rocker Arm: It may be solid or hollow and changes (reverse) the upward motion of the push
rod to down ward motion of the valve and vice versa. It is made of steel (forged or stamped)
or iron (cast).

VALVE AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAMS

The valve timing diagram is one which represents position of crank when the valves (both
inlet and exhaust) opens and closes.
When a valve opens or closes, how fast it will rise, how long it will stay open and how fast it
will close depends on the shape of cam lobe and position of cam shaft in relation to the crank shaft.

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The exact number of degrees that a valve will open or close before top or bottom dead centre varies
widely, depending on engine design. This diagram shows the crank position when various operation
(suction, compression etc.) in an engine begin and end.
Theoretically, we know that inlet valve should open when piston is at TOC before suction
and close when piston is at BOC after performing suction stroke. The exhaust valve should open
when piston is at BOC before exhaust stroke and should close at the end of exhaust, when the piston
is at TDC to complete a cycle. But the valves require a finite period of time to open and close
without abruptness. Therefore, a slight lead time is necessary for proper operation of the engine.
The actual valve timing diagrams for a 4-stroke Spark-Ignition engine and diesel engines are as
shown in figures.
a) Inlet Valve: The inlet valve should open few degrees prior to the arrival of the piston at TOC
during exhaust stroke of previous cycle. This ensures full open of the valve and entry of fresh charge
in to the cylinder as soon as the piston begins to descend. If the inlet valve closes at BOC, the
cylinder would receive less charge. To avoid this inlet valve is kept open for few degrees of rotation
of the crank after suction stroke i.e., the inlet valve closing is delayed. As engine speed increases, the
inlet valve closing is delayed longer.
b) Exhaust Valve: It is necessary to open the exhaust valve before the piston reaches end of
expansion stroke. Even though this wastes some of the force of expansion, it removes greater part of
burned gases, reducing the amount of work to be done by the piston on its-return stroke.
It is seen from the valve timing diagram that both the valves (inlet and exhaust) overlap for
13 degrees of crank rotation. In petrol engine, more overlapping is not advisable, because air and fuel
mixture may pass out with the exhaust gases and is uneconomical. But in diesel engine, only air is
drawn during suction stroke and hence such problem will not arise.
This overlapping helps in scavenging, resulting in an increased output.

Fig: (a) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - S.1. Engine

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Fig: (b) Actual valve timing diagram for a 4S - Diesel engine

1. Ignition: There is always a time lag between the spark and ignition of the charge. The charge
takes some time to burn after giving the spark. Therefore, it is necessary to produce the spark early to
obtain proper combustion without losses. The angle through which the spark is given earlier is
'Ignition advance' or 'angle of advance'. In diesel engines, the opening of fuel valve before TDC is
necessary for better evaporation and mixing of the fuel. There is always lag between ignition and
supply of fuel results in early supply of fuel.

Fig: (a) Port timing diagram for 2Spetrol engine Fig: (b) Port timing diagram for 2S diesel
engine

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IG Ignition
EPO - Exhaust port opens EPC - Exhaust port closes
IPO (TPO) -Inlet or transfer port opens IPC (TPC) -Inlet or transfer port closes FVO - Fuel
valve opens FVC Fuel valve closes.
The port timing diagrams for two stroke petrol and diesel engines are as shown in figures (a) and (b).
The main difference between these two is, the charging and scavenging period in the diesel
engine is (90°) greater than that off or petrol engine (70°). This is because there is no danger of loss
of fuel during scavenging of diesel engine.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGNS FOR S.I. AND C.I. ENGINES

(a) In S.I. Engines
The combustion chamber design includes shape of combustion chamber, spark plug location
and deposition of inlet and exhaust valves and it affects on the engine performance and it's knocking
properties.
The three basic requirements of a SI Engine combustion chamber are high power output with
minimum octane requirement, High thermal efficiency and smooth engine operation.
These requirements can be achieved by the following design principles.
a) Largest possible valve should be provided with ample clearance to obtain high volumetric
efficiency.
b) The heat flow should be minimum in the zone around sparking plug to obtain high thermal
efficiency.
c) To prevent detonation the length of flame travel from the spark plug to 'the farthest point in the
combustion space should be as short as possible. This involves spark plug location, valve
position, shape of the combustion chamber.
d) The combustion chamber should be shaped such that the largest mass of the charge burns in a
short time after ignition.
e) Short combustion time is achieved by creating the highest flame front velocity through the
creation of high turbulence.
f) The compression ratio can be increased as far as possible for a given type of fuel to obtain
maximum thermal efficiency.
g) The figure a, b, c & d shows different types of combustion chambers and are designed to obtain
high combustion rate at the start, a high surface to volume ratio near the end of burning and
centrally located spark plug.
h) The T -head design was introduced in ford T model in 1908. It had the disadvantages
(i) Having two cam shaft;
(ii) Being very prone to detonation, the distance across the combustion chamber was long.

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L-head types

I-head T-head
Fig: Design of combustion chambers in S1 engines
Side valve engine was introduced in petrol engines, in 1910 - 30. In this type valves are placed side
by side. It is easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. It had the defects like lack of turbulence,
extremely prone to detonation, slow combustion process etc.
(b) In C.I. Engines
There are many types of combustion chambers used in C.I. Engines. Anyone of these
combustion chambers may produce good results in one field of application, but poor results or less
desirable results in another application

Fig: Design of combustion chambers in CI engines

The open combustion chamber is a non-turbulent type. This is ordinarily used on low speed engines.
Less costly fuels with longer ignition delay may be used with this design.

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The turbulent chamber, pre combustion chamber and energy cell are variations of turbulent
type of chamber. All these types tend to exhibit the same general characteristics.
This type depends on turbulence to produce the required mixing of fuel and air. This does not require
as much excess air as non turbulent type. These are suitable for variable speed operation and also
produce smoother operating engines.

METHODS FOR SWIRL GENERATION

In C.I. engine fuel is injected near the end of compression and mixing of fuel and air take place
inside the combustion chamber. Thus combustion chamber has to perform duty of a carburetor,
within a period of some20 to 35 degrees of crank angle. The combustion chamber design should be
such that it has to provide proper mixing of fuel and air in a short time. To achieve this, an organized
air movement, called air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between the fuel droplets
and air. Different methods are used to generate air swirl in a CI engine combustion chamber. They
are
a) By directing air flow during its entry to the cylinder known as induction swirl. This method is
used in open combustion chambers.
b) During compression, air is forced through a tangential passage in to a separate swirl Chamber
known as compression swirl. This method is employed in swirl chambers.
c) By use of the initial pressure rise due to partial combustion to create swirl turbulence, known as
combustion induced swirl. This method is used in pre combustion chambers and air cell
chambers.
Open combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space is essentially a single cavity
with little restriction and hence there are no pressure differences between different parts of the
chamber during the combustion process. There are many designs of open combustion chambers used
in conjunction with induction swirl. In a 4S 'engine induction swirl can be obtained by
i) Careful formation of the air intake passages
ii) By making or shrouding a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve.
In a 2S engine, the induction swirl is created by suitable inlet port forms. The induction swirl is
generally weak in intensity.
A swirl chamber or divided combustion chamber is one in which the combustion space is
divided into two or more compartments, between which there are restrictions or throats small enough
so that considerable pressure differences occur between them during the combustion process. In
compression swirl a very strong swirl which increases with speed is generated. Due to strong swirl, a
single orifice injector with low injection pressure is required. Also there is greater utilization air,
results in higher mean effective pressure.
The turbulent combustion chambers using combustion induced swirl are not much favoured
now a days. In this type, the two important designs are pre combustion chamber and air cell
combustion chamber. The pre combustion chamber uses single hole pintle type of nozzle and the
initial shock of combustion is limited to pre combustion chamber only. It has multi fuel capability
without any modification in the injection system. The air cell chamber design is smooth running and
easy starting.

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ENGINE RATING
All engines are rated in Power - the measure of rate at which they can do work. There are two ways
of measuring engine power - (1) The power developed by expansion of gases in the cylinder can be
determined by using indicator cards (indicated power) ; (2) By means of measuring instruments like
a prony brake or a dynamometer, the actual power which an engine delivers can be determined
(brake power).
The general methods used to define rated power of an automobile engine are
1) Maximum load carried by the engine continuously. This load is indicated on the basis of mean
effective pressure kpa. for petrol engines M.E.P varies from 640 kpa.
2) Maximum power developed by the engine. In this case the engines are rated in terms of their
maximum capacity. i.e, maximum B.P. that can be developed.
3) Using conventional formula (RAC Ring). For taxation purposes, the Royal Automobile club
made certain assumption for finding out B.P. for a 4S automobile engines. This B.P. is much less
than obtained in case (2) represents the RAC rating of engine.
The assumptions are
Piston Speed:- 1000 ft/min mep - 90 psi
Mechanical efficiency – 75%
Bp – (d2n)/2.5 Where d = diameter of the cylinder, inches n = number of cylinders.

Engine Components
1) Cylinders
2) Oil Pan
3) Inlet and exhaust manifold
4) Cylinder liners
5) Piston
6) Piston ring
7) Piston pin
8) Connecting rod
9) Crank shaft
Materials & their composition
1) Grey cast iron (carbon present in the form of flakes of graphite which makes it more Wear and
corrosions resistant) carbon - 3.5%, silicon -2.5%, manganese - 0.65%. Carbon serves to provide
graphite which improves lubrication; silicon provides wear resistance while manganese increases
the strength and toughness.
2) Aluminium alloys-silicon - II %, manganese - 0.5%, magnesium - 0.4%. Silicon reduces
expansion and increases strength and wear resistance, manganese and magnesium improves
strength of aluminium structure. Pressed steel sheet Cast Iron Special alloy iron containing
silicon, manganese, nickel and chromium Cast-iron, aluminium alloy containing silicon.

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Special alloy (La - ex alloy).

Fine- grained alloy cast iron containing silicon and manganese, chromium plated types. Low carbon
case hardened steel; carbon-I 5%, silicon - 0.3%, manganese - 0.5% and remainder iron
a) Drop forging of steel or duralumin
b) Cast from malleable or spherical graphite cast iron. Cast steel, S.G. Iron (in case of casting)
SAE steels, 1045 and 3140, chrome-vanadium and chrome molybdenum steels (forging)
NUMBERING OF ENGINE CYLINDERS
In multi cylinder engines, the power strokes in various cylinders are not continuous one after
the other, to obtain better engine performance. For example in a 4-cylinder engine the order is not
kept as 1-2-3-4, but is kept as 1-3-4-2 or 1-4-3-2. For a 6-cylinder inline engine, the firing order is 1-
5-3-6-2-4 and in a V-8 engine it is 1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8. In case of in line engines, cylinders numbering is
done from front to the rear, the number one being at the front as in fig. (a). In V engines adopted by
Ford motor company, one group of cylinders are numbered 1 to 4 with number 1 at the front as in
fig. (b). similarly other row is numbered from 5 to 8, with 5 at the front end. In another type used by
general motors’ the cylinders numbering depends on the connecting rods arrangement, starting with
number one at the front of the crank shaft [fig. (c)].

Fig numbering of engine cylinders

ENGINE POSITION
The engine may be conveniently placed on the chassis in different positions as given below
(a) Front Position
In most of the lighter vehicles (both private and commercial), the engine is placed at the front
and conventionally rear wheel drives are used. In some of the vehicles drive is also given to front
wheels only. The engine position remains 'the same in heavy commercial vehicles, but the cab is
brought forward over the engine to increase the pay load. The engine position at the front with rear
wheel drive system needs greater length of propeller shafts, as it has to run from front (engine side)

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to the rear (road wheels) of the vehicle. Also, in this system, the number of universal joints required
are more.
(b) Rear Position
In this system, the engine is mounted close to the back axle, thereby reducing the length of
drive from engine to the axle. In this position, length of propeller shaft required is reduced and is
suitable for small cars. This position provides more space to the passengers, results in economy of
drive parts and also better engine service is possible. The fixing of gear shift lever, oil gauge and fuel
gauges, accelerator linkage is very complicated due to missing of natural draft of air during forward
motion of vehicle to the radiator.
The major portion of total weight of the vehicle lies on the rear wheels and hence helping in
traction up the hill. With rear position of the engine, the luggage has to be accommodated at front,
near the driver seat, which is a problem as wheel arches are already occupied a large place there.

(c) Under Floor Position

This position of the engine is in the centre, under the chassis and is used in public service vehicles
and heavy lorries. This position of the engine eliminates the heat and noise in the cab. In this position
the advantages of gravitational flow of the fuel and lubricants are also taken. It also reduces length of
the drive shaft from engine to rear axle. The engine repairs and hence maintenances are easy.

ENGINE COOLING: In the process of converting thermal energy in to mechanical work, as a

result of combustion, high temperatures are produced. This heat is transferred to the cylinder walls,
piston and valves. Unless these parts are adequately cooled, the engine will be damaged. A part of
total fuel energy is converted in to mechanical work and rest is rejected in the form of
1. Heat from engine surface by combined action of conduction, convection and radiation.
2. Heat lost to exhaust.
3. Heat rejected in to the coolant.
In general, engine converts 30 percent of total fuel energy in to useful work, 30 percent is lost
in exhaust heat and cooling system has to remove 30 percent heat energy to maintain engine
temperature. Some energy lost occurs in friction, compression etc. The cooling system maintains
temperature of engine components within certain limits and increases engine performance. Cooling
beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the overall efficiency due to following
reasons.
1. More lost of heat to cylinder walls causes decrease, in thermal efficiency.

2. Combustion efficiency decreases due to less evaporation of fuel at lower temperature.

3. At lower temperature, viscosity of lubricant increases and results in more frictional losses. This
reduces overall efficiency.

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Fig (a): Coolant flows through an engine Fig (b) : Coolant flow path in a system using a
down - flow radiator.

Fig (c): Typical radiator. Water enters the top hose connection - I, then passes into top tank 2.
From there it flows down through core tubes 3. When it reaches bottom tank 4, it has cooled. 5
- Lower hose connections. 6 - Drain petcock.
NEED FOR ENGINE COOLING

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The engine cooling is necessary due to following reasons.

1. As engine temperature increases, the strength of materials used for various engine components
decreases. As an example, in water cooled engines the temperature of cylinder head should not
exceed 270°C, and for air cooled engines, uses light alloys, the temperature should not exceed
200°C.
2. The lubricating oil used in the engine also decides the maximum temperature that can be used.
For different lubricating oils, this temperature range varies from 1600°C to 200°C. If the engine
temperature exceeds this limit, it may deteriorates the lubricating oil or evaporate and burn to
cause piston and cylinder damage. Over heating results in piston seizing also.
3. High cylinder head temperature result in loss of volumetric efficiency and reduces power output.
4. High engine temperature may cause pre ignition and detonation.

METHODS OF COOLING
1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling

1) Air Cooling: Here, the air stream flows continuously over the heated metal surface and the rate of
heat dissipation depends on surface area of metal, air mass flow rate, thermal conductivity of metal,
temperature difference between metal surface and air.
To increase the effectiveness, the metal surface area which is in contact with air should be
increased. This is done by providing fins over cylinder barrels. The fins may be cast integral with the
cylinder or may be attached separately.
Advantages:
1. Absence of radiator cooling jackets and coolant reduces weight of the system.

2. Air cooled engines are useful in extreme climates, where water may freeze.
3. These engines warm up earlier than water cooled engines.
4. Easy maintenance as there is no leakage problem.
Disadvantages:
1. These are noisier, because of absence of cooling water which acts as sound insulator.

2. Heat transfer co-efficient for air is less. Hence less efficient cooling and results in decrease of
highest useful compression ratio.
3. Distortion of cylinder may occur due to uneven cooling all around the cylinder.

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Fig. Cylinder with Fins

2) Water Cooling: In these systems, the water jackets surrounds engine cylinders ana cooling water
flows through these jackets. Heat is conducted through the cylinder walls to the water in the jackets
which removes the excess heat as it circulates through the radiator.

Water cooling systems are classified into two types.

a. Thermosyphon system.
b. Pump circulation system .

(a) Thermosyphon system: In this system the engine is connected to radiator through flexible
hoses. The difference in densities of hot and cold regions of cooling water causes water circulation
between engine and radiator. The water in circulation absorbs heat from engine cylinder and hence
cool it. The heat from the water is then dissipated into atmosphere through the radiator by conduction
and convection. This cools the water which is required for further circulation. Sometimes fans are
used behind the radiator to increase the air mass flow rate and- hence to increase cooling efficiency.

(b) Pump circulation system: This system is similar to thermosyphon system explained above.

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The only difference is cooling water circulation is affected by means of a pump and a thermostat
valve controls the temperature of water.

Fig (a): Thermosyphon Cooling System

Fig (b): Pump Circulation System

Advantages of this system over Thermosyphon system are:

(a) No need to place the radiator header tank above the engine level, as water circulation is
effected by pump.
(b) Radiator may be placed on the side or on the rear, if necessary.
(c) Cooling water circulation is proportional to both load and speed.
(d) Because of efficient cooling, water jacket size can be reduced. This results in overall decrease
in engine size.

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THERMOSTAT VALVES
It is to be noted that the cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the
overall efficiency of the engine. A thermostat is used to regulate the rate of cooling. It keeps the
cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.
Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles.
1. Bellows or aueroid type
2. Wax or hydrostatic type
Bellows type thermostat:

Fig.Bellows type thermostats

This thermostat consists of metallic bellows filled with some volatile liquids like alcohol,
acetone, ether etc., whose boiling temperature ranges between 70-85°C. One end of bellows contains
a valve and to the other end a frame is attached' which fits in to the cooling passage. The thermostat
is fitted in the water hose pipe at the engine outlet. After the engine has started, cooling system
should not operate during warming up duration~ that engine warms up early. During this warming up
period, the liquid inside the bellows has not yet changed its state and hence does not exert any
pressure on the valve. Therefore the valve remains in closed position.

If the temperature of the cooling water exceeds a pre-determined as 80°C the liquid inside the
bellows. Vaporizes and exerts a pressure on the valve. The valve opens and allows water circulation
through the radiator, As water temperature rises, valve opens gradually, thus controls the flow of
water through the radiator according to engine cooling requirement.

Wax thermostat:
It is also known as Dole thermostat. This thermostat is more reliable to operate within the
specified temperature range and is not sensitive to pressure variations. The heat carried by the
coolant is transmitted to the copper loaded wax having high thermal expansion coefficient. The
expansion of copper loaded wax makes the rubber plug to contract against the plunger and hence

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exerts a force on it in upward direction. This makes the plunger to move upward and opens a valve in
the thermostat (Not shown). This allows the coolant to flow through the radiator.

Fig: Wax thermostat

ENGINE LUBRICATION
Lubrication is the most important phase of vehicle maintenance. Without lubrication, engine
cannot run smoothly even a few minutes. Inadequate lubrication results in engine troubles like scored
cylinders, burned out bearings, misfiring cylinders, dirty spark plugs, stuck piston rings, engine
deposits and sludge and more fuel consumption.
Dry or solid friction is a result of direct contact between two metallic surfaces or due to inter
locking of irregularities on metal surfaces, produces lot of heat and causes wear of the metal surface.
Hydrodynamic lubrication means, introduction of lubricating oil between two surfaces. There
is no physical contact between them and only resistance to motion is resistance offered by the oil
itself.
In boundary lubrication, the introduction of lubricant between surfaces will not cause complete
separation between them. The surfaces touch at their high spots. Boundary lubrication exist in piston
rings and valve train.

OBJECTS OF LUBRICATION
The main objects of lubrication are
(a) It reduces power loss by minimizing friction between moving parts.
(b) Decreases wear and tear of the moving components.
The lubrication also serves other purposes like.
1. Cooling effect: The lubricant absorbs heat from hot moving parts and dissipates it to the

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surrounding air through the crank case.

2. Cushioning effect: The lubricant serves as a good cushion against shocks present in the engine.
For example, instant combustion causes sudden pressure rise and the resultant shock goes to the
bearings through piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Then the lubricant present in the main
bearings absorbs this shock.
3. To act as cleaning agent: As lubricating oil circulates, it absorbs so many impurities and oil
may be further purified by filtration. Ex.: oil dissolves carbon particles during its circulation.
4. Sealing action: It maintains an effective seal on the piston rings and avoids entry of high
pressure gases into the crank case.

ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to
1. Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication).
2. Wet sump system.
(a) Splash lubrication b) Pressure feed lubrication
3. Dry sump system

1. Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed with the petrol.
i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less, it causes damage to the
engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive carbon deposits in the cylinder head and
produces poor emissions. This method is used in scooter and motor cycles [two-stroke engines].
2. Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that serves as the
oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the cylinders and bearings
flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is pumped and recirculated to the engine
lubricating system. The wet sump system is again classified into a) Splash lubrication system.
a) Pressure feed system.
b) Semi pressure feed system.

(a) Splash Lubrication System: It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was used in early
motor cycles. The lower end of the connecting rod consists of a scoop like structure as in the
figure. The oil is stored in the oil trough (being delivered from the crank case oil sump).
When the engine runs, the connecting rod oscillates and the scoop takes the oil from oil trough
and splashes on to the cylinder walls each time when it passes through BDC position. This
lubricates engine walls, gudgeon pin, main crank shaft bearings, big end bearings etc. The oil
dripping from the cylinder walls, collects in the tank where it is cooled by air flow.

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Fig: Splash lubrication system

(b) Pressure Feed System: This system is most commonly used in modern car engines. In this
system, the oil forces oil under pressure to the main bearings, connecting rod and cam shaft bearings
and also to the timing gears. Drilled assuages in the crank shaft carry oil from the main bearings to
the connecting rod bearings. The cylinder walls, piston pin, piston and piston rings are lubricated by
oil spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft. For the cam shaft and timing gears, there is a
separate oil line from the main oil gallery. The basic components of the wet lubricating system are
pump, strainer, pressure regulator, filter etc.

Fig: Full pressure feed lubrication system

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3. Dry Sump Lubricating System: In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is called
scavenging pump and is located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil from this pump is
carne to an external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s the oil through filter to the
cylinder and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and bearings in to the sump is again removed by
scavenging pump (sump pump), which supplies oil to the reservoir. As the capacity of sump pump
is greater than oil pump, oil will not be accumulated in the engine base. The oil pump draws oil
from the supply tank and delivers it under pressure to the engine bearings and oil pressure of 400-
500 kpa is maintained in main and big end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100 kpa is maintained
in timing gears and cam shaft bearings etc. This system is suitable for lubricating sport cars, jeeps
etc.

Fig. Dry sump lubrication system

ARUN.R, Assistant Professor, Dept., of Mech., Engg. SVIT, B’LURU-64. Page 37