Chapter 6 Long-term memory: structure
Test yourself – 6.1
1. What was Jimmy G.’s problem, and why did it occur?
Step 1 of 2
Jimmy G. was admitted to a house that was for aged people, and a transfer note
accompanied him stating that he is demented, disoriented, helpless and
confused.
Jimmy G. suffers from a condition called the Korsakoff’s syndrome. This condition
results due to a prolonged deficiency of a specific vitamin, vitamin B. It usually
occurs due to chronic alcoholism. The prolonged deficiency causes the
destruction of temporal and frontal lobes’ areas that leads to permanent and
severe impairments in memory.
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Damage to the memory of Jimmy G. resulted in another condition called as
anterograde amnesia. In this condition, an individual lose the ability to retain or
assimilate new knowledge. He has difficulty in recognizing people he met in
recent times, find his way to a place, follow book’s story, or solve problems, which
take very less time to figure out.
Jimmy G. suffers from another condition called retrograde amnesia. In this
condition, memory is lost for the events that have occurred in past. This case
clearly shows the importance of retaining information about what has occurred in
past.
2. Describe the “time scale” of short-term and long-term memory. Are all
longterm memories created equal?
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
Long term memory (LTM) is defined as a system, which is subjected to
information storage for long time span. It can be described as an information
archive about the events that occurred in the past in lives of people and the
knowledge that one has obtained. This memory type covers a period of time from
around 30 seconds to the earliest of memories.
Although all memories in the mentioned time frame are present in long term
memory, recent memories usually are more detailed. These details and also
specific memories gets fade away with time and as new experiences are added.
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Short term memory (STM) is the capacity of the mind to hold small amount of
information in the readily available and active state for short time period. This
type of memory is said to have duration of few seconds.
The long term memories that are old tend to lose detail and are less vivid than the
recent memories. Some long term memories are stronger than the others.
Stronger memories enable one to recall an event, procedure or fact whereas
weaker memories often need reminding or prompting.
3. How does the example of Tony and Cindy show how LTM and WM work
together? (Hint: James Bond movie)
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
When Tony’s friend Cindy told him that she and Jim saw the new James Bond
movie, his working memory holds the exact words of the statement in mind, as
well as access simultaneously the meaning of words from long term memory
(LTM). This assists him in understanding the meaning of every word that makes
the sentence.
LTM of Tony also possesses a lot of added information about Cindy, movies and
James Bond. He might not think intentionally about all the information but it is
present in his LTM, which count to his capability of what he heard and what he
will interpret regarding the meaning of the sentence.
Therefore, long term memory provides both wealth of background information
and an archive.
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The conversation between Cindy and Tony is thus based upon the difference
between LTM and STM/WM (short term memory/working memory). A lot of
research was conducted in the early 1960s, which was created to differentiate
between long term processes and short term processes.
4. Describe how differences between STM/WM and LTM have been
demonstrated based on (a) the serial position curve, (b) neuropsychological
evidence, and (c) differences in coding.
Answer:
Step 1 of 4
Long term memory (LTM) is defined as a system, which is subjected to
information storage for long time span. It can be described as an information
archive about the events that occurred in the past in lives of people and the
knowledge that one has obtained.
Short term memory (STM) is the capacity of the mind to hold small amount of
information in the readily available and active state for short time period.
Working memory (WM) is a short term memory’s part that is concerned with
immediate linguistic and conscious perceptual processing.
Step 2 of 4
(a)
Primacy effect is defined as the superior memory for stimuli that is conferred at
starting of sequence. This effect’s probable description is that the people
participating had available time to revise words and transmit it to the long term
memory. Recency effect is the effect in which people recall an item, from a list of
items, which was at the end of the list.
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(b)
Neurological studies: Technique of determining dissociations is utilized in memory
research in order to distinguish between LTM and STM. The case of H.M. involves
the absence of LTM but functioning STM. Surgeons removed his hippocampus
region of the brain from both sides to eliminate epileptic seizures. H.M.’s seizures
were eliminated but he could not then form new LTMs. Another case where LTM
was normal but poor STM was seen in a patient named K.F.
LTM and STM are made by different mechanisms, which act in an independent
manner. In one of the experiments, participants were asked to remember word at
the end, or beginning, or one that was not presented. It was observed via the
fMRI that probe words from starting of list would activate brain areas linked with
both short and long term memory. Probe words from the list’s end would activate
only that area of brain, which is associated with STM.
Step 4 of 4
(c)
The predominant form of coding in long term memory is the semantic coding,
although visual and audio could also occur. This form of coding is shown by the
errors types that individuals make in efforts, involving long term memory. An
example of this can be, many people don’t remember word tree as bush, which
indicates that tree’s meaning was registered in long term memory.
5. Describe the method of recognition, including how it differs from recall and
how this method was used in the Sachs experiment involving the passage about
Galileo.
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
Recognition memory is defined as the stimulus identification, which was earlier
encountered. Mechanism for calculating recognition memory is stimulus
presentation during the period of study. The same stimulus later is presented
along with others, which were not presented. An example of this is as follows:
In a study period, many different words may be given, which includes ‘house’ as
one of the words. In a test, later, various words are given, which involves few
words, not present earlier, along with house. The task of the participant is to
answer “no” if the word was not presented and “yes” if it was present.
In recall test, an individual must form an item that is to be recalled. For example,
fill in the blanks question could be considered as a recall test. In contrast, a
multiple choice exam is an example of a recognition test.
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Sachs studied coding in LTM by applying recognition. He gave a passage and asked
people to pick specific sentences that were exact same to the sentence given in
passage as well as the sentences that were altered. Many of his participants
recognized the meaning of the sentence but not the exact wording.
6. What is the difference between explicit memory and implicit memory? What
are the two types of explicit memory? The three types of implicit memory?
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
There are two main types of long term memory, namely, implicit and explicit
memory. Explicit memory is composed of memory for personal experiences,
episodic memory, semantic memory, memory for facts and stored knowledge. In
explicit memory, contents can be reported or described. Explicit memory is also
known as declarative or conscious memory.
Implicit memory is the other long term memory’s division that are memories
used without being aware. Thus, implicit memories’ content cannot be reported.
Implicit memory is also known as unconscious or non-declarative memory.
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Explicit memory is of two types, namely, semantic and episodic memory. Episodic
memory is the memory for personal experiences and memory for facts as well as
stored knowledge use the semantic memory.
Implicit memory is divided into three main types that include conditioning,
priming and procedural memory. Priming is the alteration in response to stimulus
that is caused due to previous presentation of the similar or same stimulus.
Procedural memory is the memory for doing things, such as typing notes and skill
memory. Classical conditioning takes place when initially neutral stimulus and
another stimulus are paired, which causes neutral stimulus to take on new
characteristics.
Test yourself – 6.2
1. How are episodic and semantic memory distinguished from each other?
Step 1 of 2
Explicit memory is composed of memory for personal experiences, episodic
memory, semantic memory, memory for facts and stored knowledge. In explicit
memory, contents can be reported or described.
Explicit memory is of two types, namely, semantic and episodic
memory. Episodic memory is the memory for personal experiences
and semantic memory is utilized for facts and stored knowledge. This type of
difference is based on the information type remembered.
Step 2 of 2
According to Endel Tulving, semantic and episodic memory can also be
differentiated on the basis of the type of experience that is associated with each.
According to him, defining memory of the episodic memory’s experience is that it
includes mental time travel, which is defined as the experience of going back in
time in order to reconnect with the past events. This experience of episodic
memory or mental time travel can be described as remembering or self-knowing.
However, memories of past events do not correspond always that they are
accurate.
The semantic memory’s experience includes accessing knowledge about things,
which are not necessarily related to commemorate personal experience. This kind
of knowledge could be of various forms, such as numbers, concepts and
vocabulary. Experience of semantic memory involves accessing things that are
familiar to us. Knowing is the description given by Tulving for semantic memory’s
experience that does not include mental time travel.
2. Describe the following evidence for the idea that semantic and episodic
memories involve different mechanisms: (a) neuropsychological evidence; (b)
brain imaging evidence.
Answer:
Step 1 of 4
Explicit memory is composed of memory for personal experiences, episodic
memory, semantic memory, memory for facts and stored knowledge. In explicit
memory, contents can be reported or described.
Explicit memory is of two types, namely, semantic and episodic
memory. Episodic memory is the memory for personal experiences
and semantic memory is utilized for facts and stored knowledge. This type of
difference is based on the information type remembered.
Step 2 of 4
(a)
Neuropsychological evidence: At 30 years of age, K.C. rode his motorcycle
outside the freeway exit ramp, due to which he suffered major damage to the
hippocampus region of the brain and its surrounding structures. The episodic
memory of K.C. was lost and he was not able to relive the events of the past. He
knew that some things occurred, this corresponded to semantic memory.
He knows two years ago, his brother died, but does not remember the things
related to the death of his brother, which were experienced by him previously,
like hearing about the situation of the death of his brother. Therefore, the
episodic part of the memory of K.C. has been lost but the semantic memory is
mostly intact.
Step 3 of 4
An Italian woman suffered an encephalitis attack at 44 years of age, after which
her normal health was disturbed. She faced difficulty in the recognition of familiar
people and also while shopping since she could not remember words’ meanings
written on shopping list. These are all related to semantic memories. However,
she could make new episodic memories.
Step 4 of 4
(b)
Brain Imaging Evidence: The brain imaging experiments also provided evidence
for separate mechanisms. Brian Levine along with his coworkers had participating
people keep diaries on audiotape that described their daily personal events.
When these people listened to their audiotaped explanation while in a magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), the recordings extracted detailed or definitive
autobiographical memories, while the rest of the recordings reminded them
simply of semantic facts. The cross section of brain showed that episodic and
semantic memories involve different procedures.
3. What are the connections between episodic and semantic memory?
Answer:
Step 1 of 3
The semantic and episodic memories are connected in many ways. Few examples
of the connections between the two are explained below.
When episodic memories are lost, only semantic memories are left. For example,
a student of sixth grade learns that U.S. government’s legislative branch consist of
the House of Representatives and the Senate. After a few weeks, if the student
remembers what was happening in the class as he was learning these facts, an
episodic memory is acquired by him. If he remembers the Senate and House, he is
having a semantic memory.
After many years, the student probably still remembers the difference between
the House of Representative and Senate (presence of semantic memory) but most
likely forgot about what was happening in the class during that specific time (loss
of episodic memory for that specific event). Therefore, knowledge which forms
the semantic memories is attained at the beginning via personal experience,
which could form the episodic memory’s base.
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By associating with the episodic memory, the semantic memory can be enhanced.
One more connection between the episodic and semantic memories is that the
latter having personal significance is easier to remember as compared with those
that lack personal significance. For example, factual knowledge linked with high
school graduation is personally important semantic memory since it has personal
significance.
Step 3 of 3
By influencing attention, semantic memory can influence one’s experience. For
example, Troy and Steven are watching a game of football. Quarterback snap
against the opposition, rushes hard and then flips ball over linemen that was
coming towards him for completion. Troy remembers later the game’s details that
there was a pass over left side. However, play did not attracted Steven’s attention
as much. The reason for Troy remembering the play is due to his semantic
memory that possesses a lot of football knowledge. On the other hand, due to the
limited knowledge of football, Steven observed the game differently. Hence, he
could just remember that there were passing plays and running plays.
4. What is priming, and why is it called a type of implicit memory? What
precautions are taken to be sure episodic memory is not accessed in an implicit
memory experiment? What is repetition priming? Conceptual priming?
Answer:
Step 1 of 3
Priming takes place when one stimulus presentation, which is called the priming
stimulus, alters response to test stimulus, that is, a subsequent test stimulus.
Positive priming could result in the rise in accuracy or speed of response to test
stimulus. Negative priming results in the decrease in the accuracy or speed of
response to stimulus.
The defining feature of implicit memory is that one is unconscious of utilizing it. It
occurs when some experience that occurred previously influences one’s
performance on a task, although the previous experience is not consciously
remembered.
Step 2 of 3
Repetition priming is a positive priming type that takes place when test stimulus is
identical to priming stimulus or resembles it. For example, watching word “bird”
would make one respond in a faster way to another presentation of same word as
compared to another word that has not been seen, although one may not be able
to remember watching the bird previously.
Conceptual priming takes place when the basis of the meaning of stimulus is the
enhancement induced by priming stimulus. Both, conceptual and repetition
priming are considered to be implicit type of memory, since their effects can take
place even though the original presentation of primus stimulus may not be
remembered when they are responding to test stimulus.
Step 3 of 3
Researchers take various precautions to reduce the possibility of episodic
memory being accessed in implicit memory experiments. One of the ways is to
present in a task, a priming stimulus, which does not seem like a memory task.
5. Describe the Graf and the Warrington and Weiskrantz priming experiments.
How do these experiments demonstrate that their participants are not aware of
the initial priming stimuli?
Answer:
Step 1 of 3
Peter Graf along with his coworkers tested 3 groups of participants:
i. Eight patients suffering from amnesia and Korsakoff’s syndrome as well as 2
patients from another amnesia type.
ii. Patients under alcoholism treatment but did not suffered from amnesia.
iii. Patients not suffering from amnesia and also had no alcoholism history.
They, then presented to their participants, a lists of words and asked each of
them to rate every word on a 1 to 5 scale, on the basis of how much they liked
each word. Participants, after rating gets completed, are tested in the any of the
following ways:
i. A test which involved recalling the seen words (explicit memory test).
ii. A test in which three letter fragments were presented to them and were then
told to add more letters from the first word coming in their mind (implicit
memory test).
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Recall experiment’s results are shown as follows:
FIGURE: Results of Peter Graf’s experiments
According to the results, patients with amnesia possessed poor recall as
compared with 2 control groups. This confirms the association of amnesia with
explicit memory. Implicit memory test’s results showed that primed words’
percentage that were formed in word completion test showed the patients
suffering from amnesia were as good as controls.
Step 3 of 3
Lawrence Weiskrantz and Elizabeth Warrington performed another experiment of
repetition priming in which they tested 5 patients suffering from Korsakoff’s
syndrome. They presented incomplete pictures and the task of the participant
was to identify these pictures. The first picture that was presented was a
fragmented one and thereafter more complete versions were shown until the
picture was identified.
FIGURE: Results of Weiskrantz and Warrington’s experiments
The results indicated that participants made fewer errors before picture
identification by third day of testing than they did at the training’s beginning,
although they possessed no memory for any of the training of the earlier day.
6. What is the propaganda effect, and why could it be considered a form of
priming?
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
Priming takes place when one stimulus presentation, which is called the priming
stimulus, alters the response to a test stimulus, that is, a subsequent test
stimulus. Positive priming could result in an increase in accuracy or speed of
response to test stimulus. Negative priming results in the decrease in the accuracy
or speed of response to stimulus.
Implicit memory is a phenomenon that occurs in daily life experience. For
example, when one is exposed to advertisements, which applaud the product’s
virtues or just present the name of the product. One might believe that
advertisements do not affect but some can have an effect due to their exposure.
Step 2 of 2
C. Askew and T.J. Perfect conducted an experiment that supported the above
mentioned idea. They had the participants scan a magazine’s articles where each
print page was faced by an advertisement. The members were not informed to
pay any attention to advertisements. They were then asked later to rate various
advertisements on the basis of different characteristics, such as how eye catching,
distinctive and appealing they were. Higher ratings were given by them to the
advertisements they were exposed to as compared to other ones that they had
never seen. The result obtained from this experiment qualifies as an implicit
memory’s effect.
This result obtained is linked to the propaganda effect. In this kind of effect,
participants are more inclined to rate to the statements they have heard or read
before as being true. This is because they were exposed to these statements
before. This kind of effect includes implicit memory as it can function even when
individual are unaware about hearing or seeing the statement before. An
individual may even have thought that the statement was not true when they first
heard it.
7. What is procedural memory? Describe the mirror drawing experiment and
other examples from the chapter. Why is procedural memory considered a form
of implicit memory?
Answer:
Step 1 of 3
Procedural memory is also known as skill memory since it is memory for
performing different things, which usually need action. Amnesia patients
mastering a skill, where they do not remember the practice that lead to the
mastery is an example of the procedural memory’s implicit nature.
Step 2 of 3
H.M., who suffers from amnesia due to the removal of his hippocampus, practiced
the mirror drawing task. In this task, a picture is supposed to be copied, while
looking in a mirror.
After a few practice days, H.M. developed mastery in mirror drawing. However,
each time he drew it, he thought that he was doing it for first time. This ability of
H.M. to trace the object in mirror, although he could not remember doing it
before demonstrates procedural memory.
Step 3 of 3
Another illustration of procedural memory is seen in other amnesia patients, like
Jimmy G and Clive Wearing. Jimmy G. was able to tie his shoes, whereas Clive
Wearing could play a piano. People who are not able to create new long term
memories are still able to learn new set of skills.
Procedural memory’s implicit nature can be understood from individual
experiences. Everyone does not remember when or where they learned various
basic skills, however, they usually have very less trouble doing them.
8. What is classical conditioning? Why is it a form of implicit memory?
Answer:
Step 1 of 2
Classical conditioning takes place when pairing of two stimuli occurs. These two
stimuli are as follows:
i. Neutral stimulus, which does not cause a response initially.
ii. Conditioning stimulus, which does not cause a response.
A classical conditioning example from the laboratory would be presenting a
specific tone to an individual followed by air or puff to the eye that results in the
individual to blink. The puff, in the beginning could not cause an eye blink,
however the tone alone results in an eye blink after a number of pairings with the
puff of air. This demonstrates implicit memory as it can take place even if the
individual do not remember the original pairing of the air puff and tone.
Step 2 of 2
Another example of classical conditioning was that of Cliff who suffered from a
frightening accident a few days ago. A red colored SUV smashed into his car;
however he was able to get out without any serious injuries but was shaken
emotionally. After the accident, whenever he sees a red car, he starts feeling
anxious.
The example of Cliff involved a condition in which red cars were the neutral
stimulus and the accident that resulted in an emotional reaction was the
conditional stimulus. This example of acquiring an emotional reaction to earlier
neutral cars is a classical conditioning’s effect.
9. Describe how memory loss is depicted in movies. How accurate are these
depictions?
Answer:
Step 1 of 3
There have been various movies that feature a person who is suffering from
memory loss. Accuracy of such depictions varies a lot from the actual cases and
sometimes shows the types of memory loss that occurred in reality. In some
cases, the movie shows the actual cases but use incorrect terminology.
Step 2 of 3
In the movie “The Bourne Identity” featuring Matt Damon as Jason Bourne, the
character loses its memory and does not even remember his identity. While
searching for his identity, he finds out that certain people are trying to kill him. As
he has lost his memory, he does not remember the reason why people are trying
to kill him. This movie shows that Jason has lost his past’s episodic memory but
the semantic memory is still intact. Also the procedural memory from his training
period as an agent in the CIA is still intact.
This condition shown in the movie is known as psychogenic fugue. Different
symptoms associated with this condition include lack of personal information and
other memories of past.
Step 3 of 3
There are other movies that are closer to fiction than reality. In the movie Total
Recall, Arnold Schwarzenegger plays the character of Douglas Quaid who lives in a
world where implanting memories is possible. Douglas implants an artificial
memory in himself of a holiday on Mars. Due to this, a chain of nightmarish
events were triggered.
