POLITICAL SCIENCE

ASSIGNMENT
MADE BY:
NAME: SURBHI ROHATGI
COURSE: B.A. PROGRAM (3RD YEAR)
ROLL NUMBER: 190159

Question: Define public administration. Discuss briefly

evolution and significance of discipline in modern times.
Answer: It is difficult if not impossible to define the concept of public
administration in one sentence. Waldo (1967) corroborated this fact by
asserting that “the immediate effect of all one sentence or one paragraph
definition of public administration is a mental paralysis rather than
enlightenment and stimulation”. In the words of Arora (1985), “to define a
subject is to fix its boundaries or if this turns out to be fuzzy, its essence
and core characters can be identified”. However, this has proven to be
so intricate a problem that public administration is said to be suffering
from a “crisis of identify”. To a layman or amateur, public
administration means public service or public management. Some
people even refer to public administration as the activities of the
executive branch of government either at the national, state or local
level. The word “public” refers to people of a define territory or state. As
the will of the people of a state is represented by the government, the
word “public” also connotes specialized meaning i.e., government.
Therefore, when government carries out any act of administration, it
is called “public administration”. The English word “administration”
has been derived from two Latin words “ad” “ministare” meaning “to
minister to” or “to serve” or “to manage”. Thus, in simple parlance,
administration means the “management of affairs” or looking after
people. It is a management process found in all kinds of organization
from household to the accomplished common goals, an administrative
activity is assumed to have been involved. In other words, every group
activity involves administration.
The following are some of the definitions of administration and public
administration by scholars in the field:
The concept of administration is defined by various writers in the
following ways:
E.N. Gladden: “Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but
it has a humble meaning, for it means, to care for or look after people, to
manage affairs… is determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious
purpose.”
Felix A. Nigro: “Administration is the organization and use of men and
materials to accomplish a purpose.”
Herbert A. Simon: “In its broadest sense, administration can be defined
as the activities of groups cooperating to accomplish common goals.”
John A. Veig: “Administration is determined action taken in pursuit of
conscious purpose. It is the systematic ordering of affairs and the
calculated use of resources, aimed at making those things happen which
we want to happen and simultaneously preventing developments that fail
to square with our intentions. It is the marshalling of available labour and
materials in order to gain that which is desired at the lowest cost in
energy, time and money.”
Pfiffner: “Administration is the organization and direction of human and
material resources to achieve desired ends.”
L.D. White: “The art of administration is the direction, coordination and
control of many persons to achieve some purpose or objective.”
Luther Gulick: “Administration has to do with getting things done; with
the accomplishment of defined objectives.”
George E. Berkley: “Administration is a process involving human
beings jointly engaged in working towards common goals.”
Brooks Adams: “Administration is the capacity of coordinating man and
often conflicting social energies in a single organism, so adroitly that
they shall operate as a unity.”
Keith Henderson:" Administration is the arrangement of men and
materials in the rational carrying out of purposes.”

EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC DMINISTRATION

Evolution of public administration as a separate academic discipline
started from the late nineteenth century.
Although public administration has emerged in the late nineteenth
century as a separate academic discipline, it has its ancient root. In
every social system, political system, economic system can be observed
as well as administrative system has existed in the society since ancient
times. It is clear from the archaeological finds of the Indus Valley
Civilization of ancient India in 2500BC that urban planning and
administration were of a very advanced standard at that time. Ancient
Egyptian civilization also shows that the flooding of the Nile was used for
irrigation with the help of high pyramids. According to Confucian ideas,
the Hun dynasty in ancient China believed that good people should be
hired to do government work. Renowned European empires such as
Greece, Rome, Holy Roman, and Spain were basically administrative
empires. These huge empires were governed by laws and governed
from a single centre, meaning that the administrative side of the
government prevailed.
The evolution of public administration from the end of the
nineteenth century to the present has taken place in the following 5
phases.
● Phase 1- Politics Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926)
● Phase 2 – Principles of Administration (1927-1937)
● Phase 3 – Era of Challenges (1938-1947)
● Phase 4 – Crisis of Identity (1948-1970)
● Phase 5 – Public Policy Perspective (1971- Onwards)

PHASE 1: Politics Administration Dichotomy (1887-1926)

Woodrow Wilson’s “The Study of Administration” was the first to
present the demand for separation (Politics Administration Dichotomy)
between politics and administration. His claim to distinguish between
politics and administration was reinforced in the early twentieth century
with the publication of Frank Goodnow’s book, “Politics and
Administration: A Study in Government” (1900). He is known for the
intellectual father of American Public Administration. The fact that the
administration is separate from politics and the administration needs to
be given a separate status for the sake of politics is being propagated to
the masses at this time. It is said that while it is the responsibility of
politicians to make political decisions, but politicians do not have the
experience or excellence needed to implement this decision. Therefore,
to implement these policies (decisions) successfully, qualified and
trained employees are required. Only the administration can rely on
efficient and sustainable implementation of government policy.

The scholars of this phase have practiced more on the (Locus) basis of
public administration. The bureaucratic institution of the government is
the mainstay of public administration. The legislature decides in the
discussion what the will is; the judiciary resolves problems in the
implementation of that state will or policy; On the other hand, the
administration applies that reality with the help of statesmen. Thus, the
division between public administration and politics is drawn and this
phase is marked as politics-administration dichotomy. At the beginning of
the twentieth century, public administration was recognized as a
separate discipline in American universities. At this time the public
administration staff had a very close relationship with public
administration theorists and researchers. The year 1926 is very
important in the theoretical discussion of public administration because
this year L D White published his book “Introduction to the study of
public administration”. This book is considered as the first textbook in
public administration and this book highlights the politics-administration
dichotomy more clearly.

Phase 2 of the Evolution of Public Administration: Principles of

Administration (1927-1937)

1927 is considered to be the beginning of the second phase of the

evolution of public administration as the book “Principles of Public
Administration” by W F Willoughby was published in the same
year. The book is considered the second most important publication in
public administration after White’s book. In this phase of the evolution of
public administration, discussions on public administration have been
tried as scientific discussions since this time. It is thought that there are a
number of scientific principles in the discussion of public administration
that need to be disclosed. If these principles are consciously applied by
the administrators in appropriate places, it is possible to increase work
efficiency and also to develop public administration as a scientific
discipline. Frederick Winslow Taylor’s book Principles of Scientific
Management (1911) speaks about the application of four numbers of
principles to enhance the efficiency of the organization.
 1. The development of a true science of work.

2. The Scientific selection, training, and progressive development of

the workman.

3. The close coordination between the science of work and the

scientifically selected and trained men.

4. Equal division of work and responsibility

In addition to Taylor, Gantt (Gantt chart), Gilbert (Flow Process chart)

and H. Emerson (The Twelve Principles Efficiency) are similarly spoke of
applying scientific principles to repeat skills in the industry. Overall, these
ideas are called scientific management school. This phase is basically
called the golden age in the history of public administration. Because the
aspect of intellectual practice of public administration peaked at this
time.

Phase 3 of the Evolution of Public Administration: Era of Challenges

(1938-1947)

The way in which public administration has developed over the years
with its emphasis on principles has faced some intellectual challenges
with the publication of Chester I Barnard’s book “The Functions of the
Executive” in 1936. In this phase of the evolution of public
administration, basically, the theoretical concept of public administration
is challenged from two perspectives.

First, a new generation of theorists thought that the dividing line

between politics and public administration was never possible.

Second, the administrative theories that have been published since 1940
criticize administrative principles. The question arises as to whether
there is a universal and ultimate principle in the administration.

In the book “Elements of Public Administration”, edited by F M Marx, all

the writers, through their articles, point out the futility of the dividing line
between politics and public administration that has been prevalent for so
long. The way in which public administration was portrayed as a
value-neutral issue is denied by each of these writers.
A new group has set out to promote the idea that scientific management
is not the last word in administration, but that social and environmental
factors are an effective force. This group is known as the Human
Relations School. Modern scholars believe that the research that some
researchers at Harvard University started on the Hawthorne Plant,
initiated by the Western Electric Company in Chicago, started an
ideological revolution in administration and organizational theory.
Researchers such as Elton Mayo, F. J. Roethlisberger concluded from
their research that innovation of principles and its application alone do
not lead to the improvement of production or production methods. The
human component of management is also important. By human
elements, they mean the work environment, the intentions of the director
and staff, satisfaction, and so on.

Herbert Simon welcomes the application of scientific ideas in the field of

administration and management, but in this case, he considers the
principles given by the proponents of scientific management or
traditional writers as No more than proverbs. He presented the Rational
Decision-Making Model by exposing the ambiguity and inconsistency of
the theory of scientific management. Robert Dahl also (like Simon)
believes that it is not a matter of inventing or applying advanced
methods or techniques of administration, but of judging the social,
historical, sociological, economic and other environmental forces in the
social sphere in which the administration is formed. This is because the
impact of this environmental force on the development of the
administration is particularly significant. Dahl also has argued that there
are three problems in the scientific theory of public administration
(classical theory of administration). The exclusion of the normative
elements from the administrative theory. There have no human aspects
in scientific administrative theories. Those Theories are only based on a
few examples drawn from limited national and historical settings. This
proves that classical theories are unscientific in nature.

Phase 4 of the Evolution of Public Administration: Crisis of Identity

(1948-1970)

The politics and public administration dichotomy and the application of

universal principles in the field of public administration have been
abandoned by the theorists of public administration since the 1950s.
Administrative theorists of this time recognized the relationship of public
administration with politics. As a result, public administration became
dependent on political science. In this situation, there is confusion about
 what is the discussion area of public administration. This is why this
phase of public administration is called crisis of identity in public
administration.

To overcome from this identity crisis, public administration came to be

seen as an interdisciplinary subject.

Emerging Concepts Contributors

Chris Argyris, Douglas McGregor,

New Human Relations theory
Rensis Likert, Warren Bennis.

Comparative Public Administration F.W Riggs and others

Development Administration Edward Weidner, F.W Riggs

Administrative Development F.W Riggs

Phase 5 of the Evolution of Public Administration: Public Policy

Perspective (1971- Onwards)

Another recent development of the administration is the discussion of

public policy perspective. It gained popularity through pluralistic
interpretations, communication theories, and The Science of Muddling
through. The aim of this theory is to establish which social, political and
economic or personal forces are effective in policy making. Robert A.
Dahl, James Wilson, Charles E. Lindblom, Yahoska Dorr, Vincent
Ostrom, all point out the mutual importance of different forces (social,
political and economic, environmental) in policy making. During this time,
the context of politics has gained special importance in the discussion of
public administration. Accusing the conflict between politics and
administration as narrow and self-serving, the new writers have identified
administration as a problem of political theory. This was mainly in the
United States and Europe. Dwight Waldo, Wallace Sayre, Peter Self and
others have emphasized the concept of administrative public policy.
They want to spread the concept that politics is the environment of
administration. They are interested in judging the administration in terms
of relevance, values, democracy and change as much as in politics. This
new trend of public administration is known as New Public
Administration. It was said that the administration would play a more
client oriented and effective role from the point of view of politics. It
should also be noted that since World War II, the discussion of public
administration has been incomprehensible not only in developed
countries, but also in third world countries. So, the word development
administration is significant in administration today.

The third world countries are focused through the comparative public
administration. The main goal of comparative public administration is to
study third world country’s public administration and theory building
through comparative analysis. How much active role the state can play
in planning, policy formulation, policy implementation, how much priority
can be given to the policy of public welfare and public cooperation in
administration is considered as the primary goal in development
administration. F. W. Riggs, Donald C. Stone, John D. Montgomery,
Edward Weidner, Fredrick C. Mosher, and others who have conducted
significant research on development administration. Thus, it can be said
that the concept of the development of the science of administration,
which began in the last half of the nineteenth century, has become more
mature in the latter half of the twentieth century. New interpretations and
analyses have been developed in the field of administration and
management by utilizing the advancement of science and technology.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINSITRATION IN MODERN TIMES

• Emergence of Welfare and Democratic state:

Emergence of welfare and democratic state has led to an increase in

the activities of public administration compared to that of the laissez-faire
state. The state has to now serve all sections of people in the society.
This amount to enhanced responsibilities of public administration. Public
administration is also to regulate and control private economic
enterprises to meet the objectives of the state.

• Industrial Revolution:

The industrial revolution gave rise to socio-economic problems making

the government to assume new roles and responsibilities such as
protection and promotion of the rights of workers in industrial
establishments, etc. Consequently, the state has enacted a number of
Industrial and Labour laws and it is imperative for public administration to
implement such laws in order to meet the requirements of labour
welfare.

• Scientific and Technological Development:

Scientific and technological developments have brought about welcome

additions in infrastructure such as power, transport and communication
system. The invention of telephone, telegraph and other mechanical
devices such as typewriter, tele-printer, and calculators, photocopying
machines, computers, fax and the electronic mail has brought
revolutionary changes in office administration. All these have made
possible ‘big government’ and ‘large scale administration’. Besides
changing the ethos and character of public administration, the revolution
in information and communication technologies have contributed to
improved delivery of services to people.

• Economic Planning:

Centralized economic planning has been pursued in many developing

countries as a method for socio-economic development. It requires a
large number of experts and elaborate administrative machinery for plan
formulation, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Apart from the
reasons cited the rapid growth of population, modern warfare, increase
in natural and manmade disasters, decline in social harmony, increase in
violence due to conflicts, communal riots, ethnic wars, terrorism, etc.
have increased the importance of public administration. It goes without
saying that public administration is not only the operative but also the
most obvious part of the government. It is government in action and
occupies a significant place not merely as an instrument of governance
but also as an important mechanism for preserving and promoting the
welfare of community. It has substantive impact upon the life of the
people. It is a vital process charged with implementation of
pre-determined, welfare oriented, and developmental objectives

● Basis of the Government:

A Government can exist without a legislature or an independent
judiciary. But no Government can exist without administration.

● An instrument for providing services:

Public administration mainly concerned with the performance of various

activities performed by government in the public interest. Felix A. Nigro
aptly remarks, “The real core of administration is the basic service which
is performed for the public”.

● An instrument for implementing policies:

Modern governments go a long way in formulating and adopting sound

policies laws and regulations. It should not be forgotten that such
policies, laws, etc. are not merely printed papers. Such paper
declarations of intent are translated into reality by public administration
thus converting words into action and form into substance.

● A stabilizing force in society:

Public administration is a major force for bringing stability in society. It

has been observed that though government often changes, but violent
change is seldom experienced by administration. An element of
continuity between the old and the new orders are provided by public
administration. It does not hold true only of constitutional changes of
government in democratic countries, but is also reflected when there is
revolutionary changes in the form and character of government.

● An instrument of social change and economic development:

Public administration’s role as a change agent is particularly crucial in

developing nations. It is expected of the state at present to work for
accelerating socio-economic change and not to be a passive agency to
maintain the status quo.

● Technical Character:

The present-day government is expected to provide various services to

its population. The increase in the number of functions undertaken by
the government require highly specialized, professional and technical,
services. Modern public administration usually represents a galaxy of all
of a nation’s occupations.

According to Gerald Caiden public administration has assumed the

following crucial roles in contemporary modern society:

• Preservation of polity;

• Maintenance of stability and order;

• Institutionalization of Socio-Economic changes;

• Management of large-scale commercial services;

• Ensuring growth and economic development;

• Protection of the weaker sections of society;

• Formation of public opinion; and

• Influencing Public policies.

Public Administration plays an important role in development of a

country both in developing and developed countries. There is a need of
socio- economic development of the less developed countries. Public
administration influences the person in each and every stage of their life.
It acts as an instrument of change and forces of stabilization in society.
One important thing is that public administration should be
result-oriented; place-oriented; change oriented; time oriented and
should be committed to people. This will definitely bring about
development in the society and help developing countries in the process
of development.