EXPERIMENT (Skills Lab 2)

GRAPHS & EQUATIONS

OBJECTIVES:

❖ To apply the rules of plotting to the numerical results of an experiment.

❖ To linearize parabolic and hyperbolic graphs which will verify the actual relationship
between two physical quantities.
❖ To interpret the graphs and to determine the relationship between two physical
quantities.
❖ To formulate an equation relating two or three quantities based on the data and the
graphs.

THEORY:

A graphical presentation is often used as an effective tool to show explicitly how

one variable varies with another. By plotting the numerical results of an experiment
and observing the shape of the resulting graph, a relationship between two quantities
can be established. The shape of the graph gives us a clue of the relationship of the
variable involved. Some of the common ones are the following:

• A straight-line graph indicates linear relationship between two quantities.

• A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship.
• A parabolic graph tells us of a specific kind of linear or direct relationship.

The specific equation relating the two variables of the graph can only be
formulated when the graph is linearized. We will see how this can be done in the
succeeding discussion.

1. Straight Line Graphs

A. Linear Relationship
Figure 1 shows a straight-line graph that does not pass through the origin. This
is a linear graph. it shows a linear relationship between the two variables. It means
that there is a first-degree relationship between the Celsius readings and the
Fahrenheit readings. The general equation for a linear graph is

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 (1)

where m and b are constants; m is the slope of the lien and b is the y-intercept. The
y-intercept of the line is the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 is zero. If we take 𝑦 = 68°, 𝑥 = 20°,
and 𝑏 = 32° in Fig. 1, the slope can be obtained using Eq. (1):

68° = 𝑚(20°) + 32°  𝑚 = 1.8 or 9/5 (2)

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 Farenheit Reading vs. Celcius Reading

Celsius Fahrenheit
(°𝐶) (°𝐹)
0 32
20 68
40 104
60 140
80 176
Celcius Reading (C)

Fig. 1. Fahrenheit reading vs. Celsius reading.

Substituting the value of the slope obtained in Eq. (2) to Eq. (1) and considering that
the y-axis is ℉ and the x-axis is ℃, the equation relating Fahrenheit reading and
Celsius reading is therefore:

℉ = (9/5)℃ + 32 (3)

We can also extrapolate values from the graph. If we extend the line downward until
the temperature is 0 ℉, we get the corresponding value in Celsius which is 17.8 ℃. By
interpolation, we get values within the line such as 50 ℃ for the corresponding
Fahrenheit reading of 122 ℉.

B. Direct Proportionality
Figure 2 shows a straight line passing through the origin. The zero values for
both variables simultaneously occur. When time is doubled the distance is also
doubled. In this case, we say that the distance is directly proportional to time. In
general, when two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 are directly proportional to each other, the
equation relating them is:
𝑦
𝑦∝𝑥  𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 or 𝑘=𝑥 (4)

where 𝑘 is the constant of proportionality. This equation shows that the quotient of the
two variables is always equal to a constant.

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 Distance vs. Time

Time Distance
(s) (m)
0 0
1 20
2 40
3 60
4 80
5 100
6 120

Time (s)

Fig. 2. Distance vs. time graph.

In Fig. 2, the physical slope represents the constant k:

∆𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦 ∆𝑑
slope, 𝑚 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2−𝑥1  (5)
2 1 ∆𝑡

The physical slope is always our concern in graphical analysis. The value is
independent of the choice of scales and it expresses a significant fact about the
relationship between the plotted variables. For example, the slope of the distance vs.
time graph represents the average speed of the object.

On the other hand, the geometrical slope which is defined to be 𝑡𝑎𝑛 , (where
 is the angle between the straight line connecting the points and the x-axis) depends
on the inclination of the line and hence, on the choice of scales.

2. Parabolic Graphs
In general, a parabolic graph passing through the origin can be obtained for the
quantities x and y obeying the following equations:

y = kx2, y = kx3, y = kx4,…, y = kxn (6)

The relationship between 𝑥 and 𝑦 can be expressed as y  xn. Rewriting Eq. (6),
𝑦
= 𝑘 (constant)
𝑥𝑛

the ratio of 𝑦 and 𝑥 𝑛 is a constant. To verify the actual relationship, one has to linearize
the graph, i.e., plot 𝑦 vs. 𝑥 𝑛 , where n = 2,3,4…

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 Time, t Height, y
(s) (m) Height vs. time

0 0
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
5 25
6 36
7 49
8 64
9 81
10 100
11 121
12 144
13 169 Time (s)
14 196
15 225 Fig. 3. A parabolic graph.

Figure 3 shows a parabolic graph. From Eq. (6), the value of 𝑛 determines the
specific equation relating 𝑥 and 𝑦. By inspection, squaring the time in the data yields
a direct square relationship between height and time. Thus, we say, “height is directly
proportionally to the square of time.” To verify this relationship, plot height vs. square
of time. The result is shown in Fig. 4.

Time, t Time squared, Height, y

(s) t2 (m)
(s2)
0 0 0
1 1 1 Height vs. Square of Time
2 4 4
3 9 9
4 16 16
5 25 25
6 36 36
7 49 49
8 64 64
9 81 81
10 100 100
11 121 121 Time Squared (s2)
12 144 144
13 169 169 Fig. 4. Linearized version of Fig. 3.
14 196 196
15 225 225

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In general, if one quantity (𝑦) varies directly with the square of another quantity (𝑥 2 )
we write, 𝑦 ∝ 𝑥 2 . In this case 𝑛 = 2. Thus the equation that correctly expresses the
relationship of height (ℎ) and time (𝑡) in the data is:
ℎ
= 𝑘 (constant)  ℎ = 𝑘𝑡 2
𝑡2

where the constant 𝑘 represents the slope of height vs. time squared graph.

3. Hyperbolic Graphs
Hyperbolic graphs can be obtained for quantities obeying the following
equations:

𝑦 = 𝑘/𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘/𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑘/𝑥 3 ,…, 𝑦 = 𝑘⁄𝑥 𝑛 (7)

A hyperbolic graph indicates an inverse relationship between two quantities i.e.,

𝑦  1/𝑥 𝑛 . The specific equation can be verified by determining the value of 𝑛. For 𝑛 =
1, the equation is 𝑦 = 𝑘/𝑥 .

y vs. x

x y
1 200
2 100
3 67
4 50
5 40
6 33

Fig. 5. A hyperbolic graph.

A. Inverse Proportionality
Figure 5 shows a hyperbolic graph. To linearize it, try 𝑛 = 1 such that 𝑦 =
1/𝑥. Plotting 𝑦 vs. 1/𝑥 yields a straight-line graph as shown in Fig. 6. Hence 𝑦 is
directly proportionally to 1/𝑥 or 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥. In equation form
1 𝑘
𝑦∝  𝑦=  or 𝑘 = 𝑥𝑦 (8)
𝑥 𝑥

where 𝑘 is a constant which is equal to the slope of 𝑦 vs. 1/𝑥 graph.

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 y vs 1/x

x 1/x y
1 1 200
2 0.5 100
3 0.33 67
4 0.15 50
5 0.2 40
6 0.16 33

Fig. 6. A linearized version of Fig.5.

B. Inverse Square Proportionality

Sometimes, plotting 𝑦 vs. 1/𝑥 will not yield a straight line but plotting 𝑦 vs. 1/𝑥 2
will yield one. This kind of relationship is called inverse square proportionality. The
variable 𝑦 is inversely proportional to the square of 𝑥. Figure 7 illustrates such a case.

y vs x

x y
0.6 16.7
0.8 9.4
1.2 4.2
2.1 1.4
2.8 0.8
3.4 0.5
3.9 0.4
4.4 0.3

Fig. 7. A hyperbolic graph

The linearized graph is shown in Fig. 8. This can only be obtained if 𝑛 = 2 such
𝑘
that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 .

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 y vs 1/x2

x 1/x2 y
0.6 2.78 16.7
0.8 1.56 9.4
1.2 0.69 4.2
2.1 0.23 1.4
2.8 0.13 0.8
3.4 0.09 0.5
3.9 0.07 0.4
4.4 0.05 0.3
4.8 0.04 0.2
1/ x2

Fig. 8. A linearized version of Fig. 7.

4. Method of Least Squares

The method of least squares is a statistical way of determining the best-fitting
curve for a given set of data. If the set of data given does not yield any of the given
relationships above, then the best way to plot the results would be through the
application of the method of least squares.

The method of least squares usually yields a straight line whose slope and
whose y-intercept can be solved by applying the following equations:

The slope (𝑚) is:

̅̅̅̅−𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
𝑥𝑦
𝑚= ̅̅̅̅ (9)
𝑥 2 −𝑥̅ 2

The y-intercept is:

̅̅̅̅
𝑥 2 𝑦̅ – ̅𝑥 ̅̅̅̅
𝑥𝑦
𝑏= ̅̅̅̅
2 2 (10)
𝑥 −𝑥̅

where 𝑛 represents the number of samples. After determining the slope (𝑚) and the
y-intercept, the equation for the best line is determined by:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

It is important that experimental data be plotted correctly for accurate graphical

interpretation. To achieve this, the rules enumerated below can be of help. For
Microsoft Excel users, the software provides almost all the necessary tools. All you
need to do is enter the values needed and select the appropriate command.

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 Rules for Drawing Graphs on a Graphing Paper

1. Determination of Coordinates
Determine which of the quantities to be graphed the dependent variable is and
which one is the independent variable. The independent variable is the quantity, which
controls or causes a change in the other quantity (dependent variable) whenever it is
increased or decreased. By convention, plot the independent variable along the x-axis
and dependent variable on the y-axis.

2. Labeling the axes

Label each axis with the name of the quantity being plotted and its
corresponding unit. Abbreviate all units in standard form.

3. Choosing the scale

Choose scales that are easy to plot and read. In general, choose scales for the
coordinate axes so that the curve extends over most of the graph sheet. The same
scale need not be used for both axes. In many cases it is not necessary that the
intersection of the two axes represent the zero values of both variables. The number
should increase from left to right and from bottom to top. In cases where the values to
be plotted are exceptionally large or small, rewrite the numbers in scientific notation.
Place the coefficients on the coordinate scale and the multiplying factor beside the unit
used.

4. Location of Points
Encircle each point plotted on the graph to indicate that the value lies anywhere
close to that point. Draw the curve up to the circle on one side. If several curves appear
on the same sheet and the points might interfere, use squares and triangles to
surround the dots of the second and third curves, respectively.

5. Drawing the curve

When the points are plotted, draw a smooth line connecting the points; ignore
any points that are obviously erratic. “Smooth” suggests that the line does not have to
pass exactly through each point but connects the general areas of significance. If there
is a clue that the quantities are linear, then a straight line representing an average
value should be used. There should be more or less equal number of points above
and below the line. For nonlinear curves, points should be connected with a smooth
curve so that the points average around the line. For Microsoft Excel users, this
procedure is automatically done by a specific command.

6. Title of the Graph

At an open space near the top of the paper, state the title of the graph in the
form of the dependent variable (𝑦) vs. the independent variable (𝑥).

Most of the instructions indicated above can also be applied when

you plot using MS Excel.

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Name: __________________________________________________
Date Performed: __________________________________________________
Course Code & Section: __________________________________________________

APPARATUS/MATERIALS:

Computer with Microsoft Excel

EXERCISES:
Plot the data points presented on each table below using the “Scatter with Smooth
Lines and Markers” option under “Insert” tab and “Charts” selection of MS Excel. Select
proper coordinate scales, label axes and add title to your plot.

1. The following data were obtained in an experiment relating time (t) (the
independent variable) to the speed (v) of an accelerating object.

t (s) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

V (m/s) 10 15 20 25 30 35
(a) Determine the slope of the graph.
(b) What physical quantity does the slope represent?
(c) Determine the y-intercept of the graph. What does it represent?
(d) What is the equation of the curve?

Do the following for exercises #2 to #5

(a) Linearize the graph. If necessary, compute different powers of variables and
plot until you get a straight line.
(b) Determine the equation of the line obtained. Indicate the value of n, k, and
other constants or intercepts present in the graph.

2. The data below shows how the electric field (E) due to a point charge varies with
distance (r).

Distance, r (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Electric Field, E (N/C) 81 20.3 9.00 5.06 3.24 2.25 1.65 1.27 1.00

3. The following values represent a particle with an x-coordinate that varies in time.

Time, t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance, x (m) 200 195 160 65 -120 -425 -880 -1515

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4. The following values represent the motion of a particle with a y-coordinate that
varies in time. (Use the “Add Trendline” feature MS Excel to determine the best-fit
line and equation of line/curve. Use a different color for this line, so it can easily be
distinguished.)

Time, t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance, y (m) 0 15 20 15 0 -25 -60 -105 -160

5. Potential energy, Us, as a function of x-coordinate for the mass-spring system.

x-coordinate (m) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Us (J) 375 240 135 60 15 0 15 60 135 240 375

6. Determine the equation, which will represent the best line for the following set of
data and solve for the unknown variables as listed below the table.

Method of Least Squares

𝑥 𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑦
1 0 4.6 0 0
2 1 7.1 1 7.1
3 2 9.5 4 19.0
4 3 11.5 9 34.5
5 4 13.7 16 54.8
6 5 15.9 25 79.5
7 6 18.6 36 111.6
8 7 20.9 49 146.3
9 8 23.5 64 188.0
10 9 25.4 81 228.6

𝑛 = _____ (number of samples)

(x ) i
x= i =1
= __________
n

( y ) i
y= i =1
= __________
n

____ (x x ) i i
x =
2 i =1
= _________
n

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 n

____ (x y ) i i
xy = i =1
= __________
n

The slope (m) is:

𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
̅̅̅
𝑚= = __________ = ___________
̅̅̅
𝑥 2 − 𝑥̅ 2

The y-intercept is:

̅̅̅
𝑥 2 𝑦̅ − ̅𝑥 𝑥𝑦
̅̅̅
𝑏= = ____________ = _____________
̅̅̅
𝑥 2 − 𝑥̅ 2

The equation of the best line for the data is: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 = _____ 𝑥 + _____

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