The Essence of A Story: When A Person Becomes A Brand

Dipartimento Impresa e Management
Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Marketing

indirizzo in Gestione dei Processi e delle Relazioni di Marketing
Cattedra di Gestione del Prodotto e della Marca
The Essence of a Story:

when a person becomes a brand
Relatore: Candidato
Prof. Marco Francesco Mazzù Valentina De Santis
703091
Correlatore:
Prof. Michele Costabile
Anno Accademico 2018/2019

ἦ θαυµατὰ πολλά, καί πού τι καὶ βροτῶν φάτις ὑπὲρ τὸν ἀλαθῆ λόγον
δεδαιδαλµένοι ψεύδεσι ποικίλοις* ἐξαπατῶντι µῦθοι
Pindar Olympian Ode 1: 28-29

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduzione
Introduction
Chapter One
The Art of Storytelling: The Essence of Stories
1.1 What is Storytelling: An Overview …………………………………………………………….1
1.1.1 What is Storytelling and What are Stories? ………………………………….............4
1.1.2 The Four Elements of Storytelling…………………………………………………....7
1.1.3 The Three Functions of Storytelling………………………………………………….9
1.1.4 The 6S+1 of Storytelling …………………………………………………………….11
1.1.5 Thinking Critically about Storytelling: Narratology ………………………………...15
1.1.6 Vladimir Propp: A Morphology of Storytelling……………………………………...16
1.1.7 Campbell and the Hero’s Journey: Storytelling, Myth, and Identity………………...19
1.1.8 Christopher Vogler: A Practical Application of Campbell’s Theories………………24
1.1.9 Christopher Booker…………………………………………………………………..27
1.2 Corporate Storytelling………………………………………………………………………….29
1.2.1 Storytelling in Marketing: A History ……………………………………………….31
1.2.2 Corporate Storytelling, People Storytelling ………………………………………...38
1.2.3 Practical Insights for Marketers from Storytelling ………………………………….41
1.2.3 G.R.E.A.T: How to Tell a Compelling Story ……………………………………….45
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………47
Chapter Two
The Art of Digital Storytelling
2.1 Digital Narratives: Storytelling Across Mediums ………………………………………….48
2.1.1 Transmedia: A Platform for Digital Storytelling………………………………….49
2.1.2 Digital Storytelling: Theory and Practice ………………………………………...54
2.1.3 Digital Storytelling: Practical Applications for Advertising……………………...55
2.1.4 The Advantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers …………………………..57
2.1.4 The Disadvantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers ………………………..61
2.2 Visual Storytelling…………………………………………………………………………..62
2.2.1 Theories of Visual Storytelling……………………………………………………63
2.2.2 Hallmarks of Effective Visual Communication …………………………………..65
2.3 Personal Storytelling………………………………………………………………………...67
2.4 Digital Storytelling on Social Media and Instagram ………………………………………..68
2.4.1 The History of Social Media ……………………………………………………...69
2.4.2 Instagram: A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words ………………………………72
4.4.3 Instagram and User Engagement …………………………………………………75
4.4.4 Instagram as a Marketing Tool …………………………………………………..80
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...86
Chapter Three
Human Branding
3.1 Human Branding: An Introduction………………………………………………………....87
3.1.1 Human Branding Defined………………………………………………………...88
3.1.2 Personal Branding and the Creation of Human Brands…………………………..90
3.1.3 Congruence and the Appeal of Human Branding ………………………………..93
3.1.4 Brand Attachment: When Brands Become Loved Ones ………………………..96
3.1.5 Human Branding and Marketing ………………………………………………...99
3.2 The Anthropomorphism of Brands: When Brands Seem Human…………………………99
3.2.2 Consumer-Brand Relationships………………………………………………….101
3.2.3 Brand Loyalty and Brand Betrayal: The Many Faces of Personified Brands …..103
3.2.3 Building Brand Value Through Consumer Relationships……………………….105
3.2.4 Personification and Performity ………………………………………………….106
3.3 Average Users of Instagram: A Demographic Analysis ………………………………….108
3.3.1 Drivers of Instagram Usage……………………………………………………...114
3.3.2 Brand Engagement in the Instagram Community ……………………………….116
3.4 From Nobodies to Somebodies: Influencers of on Instagram ……………………………..118
3.4.1 Conceptualisations of the Influencer Phenomenon………………………………120
3.4.2 Metrics of Instagram Influence ………………………………………………….122
3.4.3 Influencer Marketing on Social Media ………………………………………….125
3.4.4 Influencer Marketing on Instagram………………………………………………129
3.4.5Theories of Social Influence……………………………………………………...131
3.5 Celebrities: The Apex of Human Brands ………………………………………………….133
3.5.1 Celebrity Defined ………………………………………………………………..134
3.5.2 The Appeal of Celebrities ………………………………………………………..136
3.5.3 Brand Personality and Celebrities' Personalities …………………………………138
3.5.3 Brand Attachment Through Celebrity Endorsement …………………………….140
3.5.5 Celebrities as Human Brands……………………………………………………..143

3.5.6 Celebrity Branding on Instagram ………………………………………………..145
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...146
Chapter Four
Celebrity Branding Content Strategies on Instagram
4.1 Introduction to Celebrity Branding Content Strategies on Instagram ……………………..147
4.1.1 Self Storytelling, Brand Storytelling …………………………………...………..148
4.2 Case One: From Influencer to CEO: Chiara Ferragni and the Chiara Ferragni
Collection………………………………………………………………………………………149
4.2.1 The Blonde Salad: A History of Influence……………………………………….150
4.2.2 The Ascent of Chiara Ferragni as a Global Celebrity…………………………….153
4.2.3 The Chiara Ferragni Brand Today………………………………………………..154
4.2.4 The Chiara Ferragni Collection…………………………………………………..157
4.2.5 Seriality and Narrative: Theories on the Chiara Ferragni Brand………………….163
4.3 Case Two: A Narrative of Redemption, Cristiano Ronaldo and the CR7 Experience………164
4.3.1 Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro: Celebrity, Athlete, and

Entrepreneur……………………………………………………………………………...165
4.3.2 The Influence of Cristiano Ronaldo on Social Media……………………………...168
4.3.3 Personal Branding, Storytelling, and the Creation of a Narrative of

Greatness…………………………………………………………………………………172
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………..173
Chapter Five
Research Framework, Research Methodologies, and a Review of the Findings
5.1. The Qualitative Research and Methods Employed………………………………………….175
5.1.1 The Interviews……….….……….….……….….……….….….….….….….….……….....176
5.1.2 Interview One: Michele Bertoncello, Partner at McKinsey & Company…………..176
5.1.3 Interview Two: Andrea Patumi, Influencer Manager Digital Dust Agency………..178
5.1.4 Interview Three: Agnese Violati, Co-Founder and Digital Manager The
Maptique……………………………………………………………………………….....179
5.1.5 Interview Four: Giulia Gaudino, Influencer………………………………………..180
5.1.6 Interview Five: Giorgina Clavarino, Influencer………………………………..…..182
5.1.7 Interview Six: Vera Arrivabene, Co-founder of Brand Vibi Venice ……………....184
5.1.8 Summary of the Qualitative Survey………………………………………………………..186
5.2 The Descriptive Quantitative Research……………………………………………………....186
5.2.1.i KKW Beauty ……………………………………………………………………..187
5.2.1.ii Victoria Beckham………………………………………………………………..187
5.2.1.iii Gilda Ambrosio and Giorgia Tordini……………………………………….…..189
5.2.1.iv Serena Williams………………………………………………………………....190
5.2.1.v Sophia Amoruso……………………………………………………………….....191
5.2.2 The Questionnaire……………………………………………………………………...…..192
5.2.2.i The Method………………………………………………………………...……..193
5.2.2.ii The Sections of the Questionnaire…………………………………………….....194
5.2.2.iv Section I: General Information……………………………………………...…..195
5.2.2.v Analysis Section I: Personal Information………………………………………..201
5.2.2.vi Section II: Storytelling and Brand Recall…………………………………...…..202
5.2.2.vii Analysis Section II: Storytelling and Brand Recall……………………...……..210
5.2.2.viii Section III: Purchasing factors………………………………………………....219

5.2.2.ix Analysis Section III: Purchasing Factors………………………………………..221
5.2.2.x Section IV: Practical Applications on Case Studies Analysed…………………..222
5.2.2.xi Analysis Section IV: Practical Applications for the Case Studies
Analysed……………………………………………………………………………..…..224
5.2.2.xii Two-Way Multivariate Analysis of Variance MANOVA and Factor

Analysis………………………………………………………………………………….225
5.2.2.xiii Synthesis of the Findings………………………………………………….…..229
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….....231
Managerial Implications……………………………………………………………………..…..232
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………..233
Introduzione
Il presente elaborato di tesi ha ad oggetto un’analisi della marca quale risorsa chiave per l’impresa, in
particolare l’importanza della narrazione, nello specifico quale racconto di sé stessi, per creare ed accrescere il
valore di un brand.
L’elaborato sarà suddiviso in cinque capitoli, rispettivamente:
● Capitolo Primo: storytelling, corporate storytelling, storytelling applicato al marketing;
● Capitolo Secondo: web storytelling e visual storytelling;
● Capitolo Terzo: human branding;
● Capitolo Quarto: esperienze di storytelling: Chiara Ferragni Collection per Chiara Ferragni e The
Ferragnez e CR7 per Cristiano Ronaldo;
● Capitolo Quinto: esperienze di storytelling: domanda di ricerca e analisi dei dati.
Il primo capitolo offre un quadro di come lo storytelling storicamente è nato e si è sviluppato nel tempo,
partendo da modalità basilari di narrazione (storie, fiabe, miti), fino ad arrivare alla realtà attuale. Il punto di
partenza è l’individuazione delle origini del racconto in senso ampio, da non confondere con la “storia” intesa
quale racconto di fatti ed eventi nella loro sequenza cronologica.
Per definire meglio i confini dello storytelling si utilizza una classificazione fondata su quattro elementi
principali che lo caratterizzano:
- il messaggio;
- il conflitto;
- i personaggi;
- la trama.
Inoltre, vengono delineate le tre funzioni dello storytelling, ovvero la funzione pubblica, la funzione individuale
ed infine quella relazionale (Giorgino, Mazzù, 2018).
Vengono evidenziate le cosiddette 6S+1 dello storytelling, classificazione proposta da Fontana per individuare
le costanti della narrazione, che consistono in: lo storyteller, lo story-architect, story-listener, la story, il set, lo
show. Oltre questi viene, in realtà, descritta anche un’ulteriore figura che è quella dello story-holder, che entra
in azione quando il pubblico diventa co-creatore di racconti (Fontana, 2016).
La ricostruzione effettuata prende in considerazione gli schemi e i modelli narrativi elaborati dai più importanti
autori che si sono interessati alla tematica: Propp, Campbell, Vogler, Booker.
Dopo aver esaminato il quadro generale descritto, l’elaborato si focalizza sulla valenza del brand storytelling,
partendo dalla descrizione di come la comunicazione attraverso un racconto sia in grado di influenzare il
consumatore e quindi di attrarlo e legarlo al marchio. Quindi, si analizzano più specificamente le applicazioni
dello storytelling al Marketing, ripercorrendo anche per questo aspetto le evoluzioni storiche a cui si è assistito.
Come è stato messo in luce nel contesto attuale “il Marketing non riguarda più solo le cose che fai, ma le storie
che racconti” (Godin, 2005).
Una storia è sempre il racconto orale o scritto di episodi ed esperienze, passati o presenti, che coinvolgono uno o
più soggetti e si può definire come una serie di eventi posti in un ordine specifico con un inizio, uno
svolgimento ed una fine (Salmon, 2008).Come notato, lo storytelling non significa raccontare storie, anche
perchè non esiste una locuzione italiana che traduca al meglio questo concetto. Si è ipotizzato di tradurre il
termine con “parlare o dire attraverso un racconto”. Non significa dunque semplicemente raccontare storie, ma
costruire racconti. La storia è una cronologia, il racconto invece è una rappresentazione (Fontana, Mieli, 2014).
In particolare, la storia di un marchio implica una cornice realistica o fittizia nella quale il brand può essere
inquadrato per spiegare qualcosa legato al fondatore, agli highlights e crisi, alla missione ai valori, ai benefici
funzionali ed emozionali, ed all’eredità del marchio (Salmon, 2008).
Quindi, si arriva all’aspetto più rilevante del racconto di marca, che risiede nel corporate storytelling, che
implica dimensioni multiple (individualistica, socio-organizzativa, legale/regolatoria). Le diverse declinazioni
dello storytelling d’impresa mostrano come in tale ambito la narrazione risponde a finalità molteplici ed assume
un’importanza via via crescente.
Particolare risalto è dato alla descrizione dello schema individuato da Nguyen basato su cinque elementi (Glue,
Reward, Emotion, Authentic, Target) che danno luogo al modello G.R.E.A.T., ritenuto di grande utilità per i
marketers per l’elaborazione di storie con le quali i consumatori sono in grado di identificarsi e sentirsi
partecipi.
L’analisi tende dunque a dimostrare come lo strumento della storia rappresenti una fondamentale modalità di
valorizzazione del brand, che affonda le radici in periodi storici ormai lontani, ma che grazie soprattutto ai nuovi
strumenti digitali e all’evoluzione tecnologica ha potuto e continuerà ad avere un ampliamento e uno sviluppo di
tutte le potenzialità.
Il secondo capitolo, infatti, analizza proprio l’impatto della narrazione mediante strumenti digitali, poiché la
crescita e la diffusione non solo dei media tradizionali come televisione, radio e stampa, ma soprattutto dei
media digitali, ed in particolare di Internet e a maggior ragione dei social networks, ha segnato un passaggio
cruciale nello sviluppo dello storytelling applicato al Marketing.
Vengono illustrate le caratteristiche del transmedia storytelling che consente mediante l’uso di una pluralità di
diverse piattaforme digitali di implementare e sviluppare la narrazione. L’introduzione dei dispositivi mobili ha
accelerato ulteriormente tale processo, che era stato avviato dalla diffusione di Internet, contribuendo allo
sviluppo di nuove strategie di comunicazione e creando un ambiente in cui lo storytelling permette di diffondere
con sempre maggiore frequenza le storie. Si tratta di conseguenze del nuovo ruolo assunto dal consumatore
nella gestione dei media: non più spettatore passivo, ma partecipante attivo in un processo in cui gli è consentita
accessibilità costante alla storia. Sotto tale profilo, impatto fondamentale è giocato da media quali Facebook,
Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, che hanno radicalmente alterato la percezione di come le storie vengono narrate
ed il ruolo dell’audience nella narrazione.
L’efficacia di un progetto transmediale nell’accrescimento di engagement verso il pubblico dipende da una
pluralità di fattori e generalmente si ritiene che la stessa storia debba essere diffusa su almeno tre diverse
piattaforme. Ulteriormente è necessaria la considerazione del costo, dell’accessibilità, della funzionalità, della
rilevanza e del valore dell’intrattenimento per il consumatore.
L’uso del digital storytelling assume rilevanza cruciale nel marketing, essendo lo scopo quello di innescare il
coinvolgimento e la purchase intention dei clienti. Ciò nonostante, non sono evidenziati unicamente vantaggi
nell’applicazione del digital storytelling al marketing (connection, identity, brand identification, brand image,
application), ma anche alcuni svantaggi, che possono minarne l’efficacia. Difatti, tra gli errori più comuni sono
segnalati l’uso di messaggi contraddittori o confusi, di menzogne, l’uso di toni inappropriati, il provocare
reazioni forzate.
Con l’uso di strumenti digitali lo storytelling beneficia di un fattore molto importante per il coinvolgimento del
pubblico, cioè l’impatto della comunicazione visiva. Difatti, l’uso delle immagini rende chiaramente più
efficace la narrazione.
Lo strumento visivo e le immagini semplificano la comunicazione, così consentendo strategie di Marketing
incentrate sui social media. L’analisi della tesi è essenzialmente rivolta al social media che nell’ultimo decennio
ha registrato l’ exploit più rilevante e formidabile, Instagram, che proprio sulla sua natura principalmente visiva
ha costruito il proprio successo. Come si dimostrerà, le funzionalità che tale applicazione consente ai propri
users ed utenti rappresenta uno dei fattori che lo rendono tanto indicato come strumento di narrazione. Quindi, il
passo verso la centralità di Instagram, scavalcando social media già in passato attivi e diffusi quali Facebook,
Youtube, Twitter ecc., nell’ambito delle strategie di Marketing delle aziende più lungimiranti, che proprio grazie
a questa scelta hanno avuto un impatto incredibilmente positivo sulle vendite, è stato breve.
Un’ipotesi speciale ed emblematica di come la narrazione incide sulla rappresentazione e sulla visione della
persona, quindi sulla percezione che della persona si ha all’esterno, è il personal storytelling. Questo ha avuto
sempre un grande potere, a maggior ragione in una realtà quale quella attuale in cui le nuove tecnologie di
comunicazione consentono, soprattutto grazie ai social media, di ampliare in modo inimmaginabile la cerchia di
soggetti a cui la storia viene comunicata.
Si ha riprova dell’importanza di una narrazione quotidiana proprio nei casi (soprattutto in quello principale che
verrà esaminato) che saranno oggetto di analisi.
Il terzo capitolo, prima di prendere in esame i casi da cui emerge un’applicazione concreta di quanto teorizzato
in relazione allo storytelling applicato al brand, ed in particolare per quanto riguarda la narrazione di marca,
analizza i processi di umanizzazione del brand (Human Branding), che hanno avuto rilevante impatto sul
Marketing ed in particolare su quello svolto online attraverso i social networks. Lo Human Branding è
strettamente connesso al Personal Branding, e questo processo in cui l’individuo diventa brand, trova il suo
culmine grazie all’uso dei social media. A maggior ragione, nel caso di individui che diventano brand, si è
assistito ad un fenomeno definito come brand love, per cui si intende un atteggiamento particolarmente positivo
nei confronti di un brand che incarna le emozioni, il comportamento e le percezioni dei consumatori, con un
impatto profondo su concetti legati al brand, quali la brand loyalty e la comunicazione WOM.
L’uso dello Human Branding nel Marketing è destinato ad incrementare anche in ragione dell’uso che ne viene
fatto dalle celebrities. Soprattutto, ha influito su una certa visione dei brand come “umani”, il fenomeno della
cd. antropomorfizzazione, in virtù del quale al marchio vengono attribuite qualità umane e un impulso all’uso di
questa tecnica di comunicazione di marketing, è dato da piattaforme di social media come Instagram. Inoltre, la
possibilità di dare veste umana ai brand consente lo sviluppo di relazioni tra i consumatori e i marchi stessi,
nell’ottica di una tendenza diffusa ad attribuire caratteristiche, comportamenti, motivazioni, stadi mentali ed
emozioni tipicamente umani ad oggetti, che sono agenti non umani. L’instaurazione di relazioni tra il
consumatore ed il brand è la molla per generare brand value, soprattutto in un contesto saturato da informazioni
quale è attualmente Internet, nell’ambito del quale la creazione di contenuti unici quali quelli caricati sui social
media contribuisce ad aumentare l’importanza nella creazione di valore per i brand.
Quando ci si trova di fronte ad un “brand umano”, soprattutto, nella forma dei cd. influencer e delle celebrities
di Instagram si pone la necessità di verificare quali sono i tratti che contraddistinguono tali situazioni rispetto a
quello che accade per gli utenti medi di Instagram. Per tali motivi, viene svolta anche un’analisi specifica, sia
demografica che per aree geografiche, per genere, per età, per estrazione sociale, volta a fare luce sulle
caratteristiche degli utenti “medi” di Instagram. Difatti, anche mediante uno studio sui driver che incentivano
all’uso di Instagram, vengono posti a confronto coloro che, attraverso tale strumento si limitano ad
un’interazione con i brand, rispetto a soggetti che, invece, hanno fatto di Instagram uno strumento chiave della
loro attività: i cd. influencer, soggetti che hanno acquisito l’abilità e il potere di indirizzare gli acquirenti
potenziali di un prodotto o di un servizio promuovendo o raccomandando gli articoli attraverso i social media.
Le due figure dell’utente “medio” e degli influencer, ancora, non evidenziano appieno gli effetti e i contorni di
come la narrazione di marca, intesa come narrazione del personaggio che incarna il brand incidono sulla
purchase intention del consumatore.
Difatti, il fulcro dell’analisi consiste nelle differenze esistenti rispetto alle celebrities, in quanto associate a
notorietà e straordinarietà di cui le altre figure indicate sono prive.
Anche il concetto di celebrity ha avuto una sua evoluzione, poiché si è assistito ad una trasformazione dalle
celebrità “tradizionali”, il cui ruolo era principalmente quello di modelli a cui ispirarsi e con cui porsi a
confronto, verso una concezione di celebrity rivoluzionata dall’uso dei social network.
Grande rilevanza ha l’appeal della celebrity, caratteristica su cui ruota la brand personality, e che influisce in
modo fondamentale sulle aspettative dei consumatori. Senza dimenticare che l’appeal è ciò che può determinare
l’ascesa o la caduta di una celebrity.
In particolare, si parte dal ruolo delle celebrity come endorser di prodotti, che è l’attività più diffusa basata
sull’influenza delle loro personalità. Gli studi relativi si sono focalizzati sui concetti di familiarità, attrazione,
credibilità, competenza, e sull’efficacia della promozione di brand e prodotti attraverso celebrities, ma anche e
soprattutto sull’attaccamento dei consumatori alle celebrities testimonial di brand.
Il successivo sviluppo ha visto la percezione delle celebrities spostarsi sul loro valore come Human Brands, nel
senso di essere identificate nei marchi sponsorizzati, fino a giungere ad un processo di collaborazione per lo
sviluppo del proprio personal brand. L’evoluzione è stata segnata dall’uso dei social media, ed in modo cruciale
da Instagram, strumento il cui uso è divenuto talmente popolare nella categoria, da aver rivoluzionato anche le
dinamiche attuali di brand storytelling.
Dunque, terreno fertile per lo sviluppo di Human Brands sono stati i social media, sia per le celebrities
tradizionali che per gli influencer, manifestando tuttavia evidenti differenze che sono messe in luce nella mia
tesi.
Il capitolo quarto, infatti, si concentra sui due brand che in modo più significativo rappresentano come la
narrazione di marca tramite Instagram, ed in particolare la narrazione della vita privata e quotidiana di chi
incarna questi brand, Chiara Ferragni e Cristiano Ronaldo siano stati fondamentali per far raggiungere risultati
eccezionali a livello di vendite e di notorietà.
Proprio questi brand sono la manifestazione tangibile di come gli strumenti di Marketing digitale riflettono il
bisogno dei consumatori di avere un contatto più diretto ed autentico con i brand, superando le forme
tradizionali di advertising, oramai divenute inadeguate. I brand indicati hanno in comune molti aspetti, prima
di tutto il fatto di essere Human Brands, e di puntare sullo storytelling come forma di Personal Branding.
Sicuramente il caso più emblematico è quello di Chiara Ferragni, la cui ascesa da semplice fashion blogger, ad
influencer di fama mondiale, ed infine a musa per milioni di followers, l’ha portata nell’arco di meno di un
decennio ad essere addirittura inserita dalla rivista Forbes nella sua lista “30 under 30” delle figure più influenti
nel mondo del business nell’anno 2015, nonché ad essere oggetto di un Case Study alla Harvard Business
School. Quanto sia imprescindibile per il successo e la purchase intention dei consumatori del brand Chiara
Ferragni Collection la narrazione personale che quotidianamente la sua creatrice compie, è un dato
inconfutabile, soprattutto grazie a come viene utilizzato Instagram, che va bene aldilà della semplice
pubblicazione di immagini che mostrano prodotti e li promuovono, come potrebbe fare un influencer qualunque.
L’altro brand che incarna il suo creatore è CR7, fondato dal grande campione Cristiano Ronaldo,la cui sfera di
influenza va ben oltre il mondo del calcio, essendo riuscito a distinguersi non solo come atleta e testimonial di
vari brand, ma soprattutto come Human Brand e creatore del marchio CR7. Il grande successo che ha
caratterizzato tutte le iniziative che ruotano attorno al calciatore, sono andate oltre al semplice endorsement di
altri famosi top brands, portando il suo personal brand a diventare la sua principale fonte di successo
finanziario. In tal modo Cristiano Ronaldo ha sfruttato un impatto nei social media impressionante, che lo ha
portato a raccogliere complessivamente più di 350 milioni di followers, rendendolo il personaggio più popolare
di Instagram. Questa notorietà rappresenta proprio l’ingrediente principale che gli ha consentito di sviluppare un
personal brand che sullo storytelling ha costruito la propria rilevanza, accresciuta ancor di più nel momento in
cui è divenuto un calciatore della Juventus.
Nel capitolo quinto vengono riportati gli esiti delle analisi svolte, ed illustrati i contenuti della ricerca
qualitativa, che mi ha consentito di sottoporre delle interviste semi-strutturate a tre diverse categorie
professionali, tutte a titolo diverso,idonee a fornire un loro punto di vista sui temi di ricerca, basandosi sulle
attività svolte e sull'esperienza acquisita. Si tratta sia di influencer, che di esperti del settore, nonché di un
Partner McKinsey.
Attraverso lo strumento delle interviste qualitative, che hanno previsto domande formulate ad hoc in relazione
al campo di attività di ciascun soggetto interpellato, è stato possibile ottenere interessanti evidenze dell’efficacia
dell’uso della narrazione del brand tramite Instagram e le IG stories sulla purchase intention, verificando se si
tratta di un aspetto che, in casi diversi da quelli di studio presentati nel quarto capitolo, potrebbe risultare
altrettanto decisivo.
Vengono presentati i punti chiave che sono emersi dalle interviste qualitative, e dalla ricerca quantitativa
descrittiva volta alla identificazione dei driver della purchase intention nel brand storytelling, attuata mediante
la sottoposizione di un questionario a cui ha partecipato un campione di 362 persone. Il questionario, oltre ai
brand analizzati nel quarto capitolo, ha riguardato altri marchi del settore fashion, caratterizzati dall'essere il
creatore del brand anche il personaggio che identifica il brand stesso, una celebrità di fama, e pertanto, con la
narrazione di sé stesso realizza anche il racconto di marca (KKW beauty, Victoria Beckham, The Attico, S by
Serena, Nastygal).
Sulla base dei risultati quantitativi della survey analizzati e presi in considerazione sotto il profilo delle loro
correlazioni statistiche, vengono mostrate le conclusioni e le implicazioni manageriali che dalla ricerca svolta è
possibile trarre.
Introduction
This thesis is focused on an analysis of the concept of a brand as a key resource for a company, and, in
particular, the importance of narrative, and storytelling more precisely, in the creation of and valuation of a
brand.
The thesis will be divided into five chapters, respectively:

● Chapter One: storytelling, corporate storytelling, storytelling as applied to marketing;
● Chapter Two: digital storytelling and visual storytelling on social media, focussing on Instagram:
● Chapter Three: Human branding and the differences between celebrities, influencers, average users of
Instagram;
● Chapter Four: storytelling case studies: Chiara Ferragni Collection for Chiara Ferragni and The Ferragnez
and CR7 for Cristiano Ronaldo;
● Chapter Five: storytelling experiences: research and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data.
The first chapter gives an overview of storytelling, both historically and its more modern iterations,
starting from basic narrative structures, including stories, fairy tales, myths, and arriving at the stories which are
told digitally by individuals and brands alike on contemporary social media platforms. Working forward from
an identification of the origins of storytelling in the broadest possible sense, narrative as applied to personal,
relational, and organisational storytelling will be examined in Chapter One. In addition, to better define the
boundaries of storytelling, a classification system based on the four main elements which characterise the
practice are utilised:
● the message;
● the conflict;
● the characters;
● the plot.
Furthermore, the three functions of storytelling are outlined, namely: the public function of storytelling; the
individual function of storytelling; and, finally, the relational function of storytelling. In Chapter One,
additionally, the so-called 6S + 1 of storytelling is highlighted, which encompasses a system of classification
proposed to identify narrative constants, which consist of: the storyteller, the story-architect, the story-listener,
the story, the set, and, ultimately, the show. The figure of the story-holder, which appears when the audience
becomes co-creator of stories is also discussed and analysed.
As a theoretical underpinning to the first chapter, the schemes and narrative models developed by
preeminent experts in the field of narratology- Propp, Campbell, Vogler, and Booker- have been taken into
consideration. In light of their studies, a story is taken to be the oral or written account of episodes and
experiences, past or present, that involve one or more subjects and can be defined as a series of events placed in
a specific order within a clearly narrative structure composed of a defined beginning, middle, and end. As has
been oft noted, storytelling does not mean telling stories or a historical recounting of chronological events, as is
such, there is no Italian phrase that best translates this concept. The term, therefore, is translated as being "to
talk or tell a story through." Hence, storytelling does not simply mean telling stories, but building stories that are
the representation of the hidden and visible world: History is a chronology, but stories are representation.
Following a thorough examination of the fundamentals of storytelling, we turn to corporate storytelling,
and, more specifically, brand storytelling, beginning from a description of brand communication facilitated by
storytelling and its influence on the consumer, and subsequent tying capabilities. Thus, storytelling applications
are analysed more specifically in reference to their value to marketing, retracing recent historical developments
witnessed in the field, which can be summarised in the following quote, "Marketing no longer concerns only
what you do, but the stories they tell."1
Following which, a discussion of brand storytelling in terms of communicating brand identity, value, and
history is entered. In particular, as will be argued, the history of a brand implies a realistic or fictitious frame
through which the brand can be placed in reference to explain something related to the brand’s founder, the
highlights and crisis points in its history, its mission, values, functional and emotional benefits, and the heritage
of the brand.
Thus, we arrive at the most relevant aspect of brand storytelling, which resides in the concept of
Corporate Storytelling, a practice which implies multiple dimensions, be they individualistic, socio-
organisational, or legal/ regulatory. The different variations of storytelling as an enterprise demonstrate the
manifold ways in which, in the field of marketing, narrative responds to multiple aims and has taken on an ever
increasing importance. In this section, particular emphasis is given to the description of the scheme identified by
Nguyen based on five elements - Glue, Reward, Emotion, Authentic, Target- which have given rise to the
GREAT model, which is considered of great utility for marketers in the elaboration of stories with which
consumers are able to identify and feel involved. The analysis, therefore, demonstrates how storytelling, as a
marketing tool, represents a fundamental modality for the enhancement of a brand, and which has its roots in the
distant past; however, owing to the rise of new digital tools and the technological evolution of the last fifteen
years, is a tool with untold potential and room for growth.
The second chapter precisely analyses the impact of storytelling using digital tools, beginning with the
growth and spread of traditional media such as television, radio and print, in addition to digital media, and, in
particular, of the Internet and social networks, which have marked the inception of a crucial step in the
1
Godin S. (2009), All Marketers are Liars: The Power of Telling Authentic Stories in a Low-Trust World, Portfolio, U.S.A.
development of storytelling as applied to marketing. The characteristics of Transmedia, as applied to
storytelling, are examined in light of the plurality of different digital platforms through which to implement and
develop narration. The introduction of mobile devices has further accelerated this process, which was initiated
by the spread of the Internet, helping to develop new communication strategies and creating an environment in
which storytelling allows for the spread of stories with increasing frequency. The consequences of the new role
played by the consumer in managing media production and consumption are also addressed. In particular, the
transformation of consumers from passive spectators to active participants, in a process played out on social
media platforms such by media such as Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and Twitter, which have radically
altered the perception of how stories are told and the role of audience in narration, will be addressed in Chapter
Two. In addition, Chapter Two will examine the effectiveness of a transmedia project in increasing engagement
with consumers, in light of the plurality of factors which affect engagements, including stories which are spread
out and told on a variety of platforms. Furthermore, consideration will be given to the cost, accessibility,
functionality, relevance, and value of consumer entertainment, through the lens of digital storytelling.
As will be further discussed, the use of Digital Storytelling assumes crucial relevance in contemporary
marketing, the aim being to trigger consumer involvement, and, subsequently, purchase intention. However, it
is not only the benefits of Digital Storytelling for marketing which are addressed, the primary advantages being:
connection, identity, brand identification, brand image, application; the disadvantages of storytelling for
markers are also highlighted, in addition to those factors which can undermine its effectiveness. Thus, the most
common errors reported by those working in the field are examined, including: the use of contradictory or
confusing messages, lying, the use of inappropriate tone, and the provoking of forced, or otherwise inauthentic,
reactions.
As with the use of any sort of digital tools, storytelling benefits from the involvement of the public, which
is seen most clearly in impact of visual communication on storytelling as a means of communication. Indeed, as
will be further addressed in Chapter Two, the use of images heightens the effectiveness of storytelling as it
simplifies communication, thus allowing marketing strategies focussed on social media to flourish. The
analytical portion of this thesis is, therefore, essentially aimed at storytelling as it is seen on social media, and
its most formidable platform of the recent decade, Instagram, which has built its success precisely on its
fundamentally visual nature. As will be demonstrated, the features that this application allow, one might even
say, encourage its users to tell their own stories. It is the centrality of Instagram in the social media universe,
which has overtaken other platforms that were active and widespread in the past, such as Facebook, Youtube,
Twitter amongst others, in the context of the marketing strategies of the most farsighted companies, that will be
the focus on Chapter Two.
The engagement created by social media, especially through Instagram, was nourished, therefore, thanks
to the power of visual narrative was further increased when, in 2018, the application added to its functionality
Instagram Stories, as well as the possibility of transmitting content in real time via Instagram Live. The
opportunity to create even more attractive and engaging content for the public, through which to increase
engagement with consumers, is precisely the function which makes Instagram the ideal platform through which
to tell stories, for brands and individual users alike. Not only with regards to the brands under analysis,
Instagram represents a modality which allows users to transform their everyday stories into that of a celebrity.
In addition, a hypothesis of how narration affects the representation and identity of the individual, and,
therefore, the perception of said individual externally and internally, is the driving focus behind the section
entitled Personal Storytelling. The means by which storytelling has always held great power, and how that
power has only intensified in the current world in the wake of the new communication technologies, especially
social media, in terms of the unimaginably large expansion of the circle of subjects to whom the story is
communicated will be addressed. It is the importance of a daily narrative, precisely in the cases mentioned
above, that will be the object of analysis in this section.
In advance of Chapter Four, in which the application of the mechanisms of storytelling as applied to a
branding context are analysed through case studies, is an examination of the ways in which brands are
anthropomorphised. Human branding serves as the focus for Chapter Three in which human brands and
anthropomorphised brands alike are analysed in regard to their impact on marketing, with particular attention
given to the manner in which these mechanisms are carried out online by way of social media networks. The
creation of human brands is closely related to personal branding, and the processes by which an individual
becomes a brand. In addition, in relation to human brands, the phenomenon known as brand love, wherein
consumers hold strongly positive attitudes towards a brand which embodies the emotions, behavior, and
perceptions of consumers, with a profound impact on concepts related to branding, such as brand loyalty and
WOM communication, is also examined in the third chapter.
The phenomenon of brand anthropomorphisation, by virtue of which the brand is attributed human
qualities, has been bolstered by social media platforms, such as Instagram, on which brands who have taken on
human-like forms have a heightened ability to development strong attachments leading to long-standing
relationships with consumers. The establishment of relationships between consumers and brands is a
springboard for generating brand value, especially in an environment as saturated with information as the
Internet today, in which the creation of unique content, such as that which is uploaded on social media,
contributes to an increased importance of creating value for brands. Additionally, it is shown that the use of
mechanisms of human branding in marketing are destined to increase due to their favour with celebrities.
When faced with a human brand in its natural habitat, social media platforms essentially, there emerges a
clear delineation between those who may be said to embody a personal brand - namely, influencers and
celebrities - and average users. Instagram influencers and celebrities, and the traits they embody, which shape
their presence and interactions on Instagram, are analysed in contrast to average Instagram users. For these
reasons, a demographic analysis categorised by gender, by age, by social background, along with location is
undertaken in Chapter Three, aiming to shed light on the characteristics of the average users of Instagram. In
service of which a study of drivers of Instagram usage, including interaction with brands, is examined
comparing average users to influencers and celebrities, with an emphasis on those subjects who have acquired
the ability and power to direct potential buyers of a product or service by promoting or recommending articles
through social media. The two figures of the average user and of the influencer, including Insta-celebrities, still,
do not fully highlight the effects and contours of how brand storytelling, understood as the narration of a
character who embodies a brand, affects consumers’ purchase intentions.
By virtue of which, the fulcrum of the analysis undertaken in this thesis consists of an elaboration of the
differences which exist between celebrities, and their associated notoriety and exceptionalness, and the vast
majority of users of Instagram who can be classified as being average or unexceptional. In addition, the concept
of celebrity is taken under consideration in an evolved form, owing to the transformation from "traditional"
celebrities, which has been witness in recent years. Within the confirms of modern celebrity on social media
platform, a contemporary iteration of stardom emerges, in which the traditional role of celebrities as
inspirational models and points of comparison is overlaid with modern conceptions of accessibility and
engagement. As is such, great importance is given to the individual appeal of celebrities, a feature on which
brand personality revolves, and which has a fundamental influence on consumer expectations, as appeal can
determine the rise or fall of a celebrity.
Beginning from the conventional role of celebrities as product endorsers, which is the most widespread
marketing and advertising activity in which celebrities have traditionally been engaged, we look to the insights
gleaned from the literature in the field of celebrity endorsement. Studies focussed on concepts of familiarity,
attraction, credibility, competence, and effectiveness in brand and product promotion by celebrities, and
consumers attachment to brands and their famous endorsers alike which are formed when celebrities provide
product testimonials in service of their role as celebrity endorsers are touched upon in Chapter Three.
Turning from celebrity endorsement, an analysis of the shifting perception of celebrities and their value as
human brands, by virtue of their identification with sponsored brands, resulting in a collaborative process in
service of the creation of personal brand is undertaken. This processed is marked by the use of social media,
Instagram most crucially, a platform and communication tool which can be said to have revolutionised the
current dynamics of brand storytelling. Social media, it is argued, is fertile ground for the development of
human brands, both for traditionally defined celebrities and influencers alike.
The fourth chapter, therefore, focusses on two brands which best represent how brand storytelling is
engaged in on Instagram, which particular attention paid to how the narration of the private, everyday life of
those who embody these brands is fundamental to achieve exceptional results in terms of sales and reputation.
The human brands chosen to serve as the basis of the case studies examined in Chapter Four - Chiara Ferragni
and Cristiano Ronaldo - are tangible manifestations of how digital marketing tools reflect the need of consumers
to establish more direct and authentic contact with brands, overcoming the constraints and framing of traditional
forms of advertising, which have now become inadequate. The brands mentioned above share notable common
aspects, primarily stemming from their status as human brands and their requisite focus on storytelling as a form
of personal branding as a consequence.
Thus, Chapter Four is centred round a thorough analysis of the mechanisms of storytelling, brand
building, and the creation of human brands occur on social media platforms, specifically Instagram. To serve as
a model of influencer human branding on Instagram, Chiara Ferragni and her associated brands, the Chiara
Ferragni Collection and The Ferragnez, are examined. In doing so, Ferragni's ascent for small-time fashion
blogger to international renown is examined, tracing the steps which she took to grow her base of followers and
to leverage her fame to gain even greater credibility and notoriety in her given field. It is argued that Ferragni,
rather than just being an attractive face behind a brand’s image, has strategically increased her visibility in the
field by internationalising herself and by developing a distinctive brand personality which is both easily
recognisable and differs from her competitors in the field.
Certainly the most emblematic case of personal branding amongst influencers on Instagram is that of
Chiara Ferragni, whose rise from a mere fashion blogger to world-renowned influencer, the muse of millions of
followers, has led her be included in Forbes "30 under 30," as well as being the subject of a Case Study at
Harvard Business School. It is argued that the success of the Chiara Ferragni Collection brand is largely due to
the personal narrative that its creator performs every day for her followers on Instagram. It is irrefutable fact,
moreover, that owing to the simplicity of the publication of content on Instagram, as is further addressed in
Chapter Two, any influencer could engage in this manner of self-promotion; however, Ferragni has made
exceptionally effective use of social media, pivoting between platforms when required, in order to increase her
sphere of influence to continually larger audiences. As will be further addressed in the first case study of
Chapter Four, Ferragni's success on social media is largely due to her abilities as a storyteller, which further
helps to shape her image as a likeable, attractive, relatable young businesswoman, wife, and mother, humanising
her in the eyes of her followers and lending credibility and authenticity to her endeavours.
By way of contrast, Cristiano Ronaldo, and his CR7 brand serves of the basis of case study two. Unlike
Ferragni who has gained fame through her work as a fashion blogger, and is thus a product of the digital
environment, Ronaldo’s celebrity is a result of his position as one of the greatest living athletes in the world at
present. Therefore, it can be said that while Ferragni built her fame by virtue of her online presence, Ronaldo
entered the digital field of play already having amassed a sizable following, and can be seen to have made use of
the platform provided by social media networks to further develop his fan base, while strengthening his
connection to preexisting fans who travelled with his to the medium. Despite these differences in origins, it is
argued that Ronaldo, like Ferragni, is a storyteller of greater competence who has utilised social media to craft a
narrative about his life, both public and private, in virtue of the construction of a human brand. To better
understand the mechanisms at work behind the influencer and the star athlete’s presence on social media, three
key factors are analysed: the creation of an origin myth; the development of a distinct brand personality; and the
creation of a branded line of products for sale. These three elements of brand building as seen to be engaged in
by Chiara Ferragni and Cristiano Ronaldo form the basis of Chapter Four.
CR7, founded by the champion footballer Cristiano Ronaldo, whose sphere of influence goes far beyond
the world of sport, having managed to distinguish himself not only as an athlete and endorser of various brands,
but, above all, as a human brand. The enormous success which has characterised Ronaldo’s initiatives go
beyond simple endorsement, and rather are reflective of the way in which the footballer has carefully
constructed a personal brand, which has become his main source of financial success. This is due, primarily, to
Ronaldo impressive following on social media, on which he has amassed upwards of 350 million million
followers across platforms, making him the most popular figure on Instagram as of this year. This notoriety is
precisely the main ingredient that has allowed him to develop a personal brand that has built its relevance on
storytelling.
It is in Chapter Five which the results of the analysis undertaken into consumer purchase intentions,
brand perceptions, social media usage, and the effects of storytelling are reported. To this effect, the contents of
a qualitative study, complete with research, are illustrated. The aforementioned qualitative studied, which was
composed of semi-structured interviews with representative from three different professional categories, each
with a different professional title and working in different fields. Of those interviewed, there are a number of
influencers and industry experts, as well as a McKinsey partner. Thus, these individuals, based on the activities
performed and the experience acquired respectively, have been found suitable to provide their unique point of
view on the research topics covered in this thesis. Through qualitative interviews, which provided ad hoc
questions in relation to the field of activity of each respondent, it was possible to obtain evidence of the
effectiveness of the use of brand narration on Instagram and, specifically, IG stories on consumers’ purchase
intention, verifying the theoretical contentions made in Chapter Four.
In addition to a qualitative analysis undertaken in the form of interviews with industry experts,
descriptive quantitative research is also presented in Chapter Five. This research is aimed at identifying the
drivers of the purchase intention brought about by brand storytelling on Instagram. In order to collect sufficient
quantitative data, a questionnaire was created analysing a variety of factors which influence purchase intentions,
which was then completed by sample of 362 individuals. The questionnaire, in addition to the brands analysed
in Chapter Four, also examines consumer perceptions of a variety of other brands in the fashion sector, which
are characterised by being strongly identified with the brands founder, typically a figure with some notoriety,
such as an influencer or celebrity. These brands have been chosen not just for their association with a famous
figure, but as examples of narration in the construction of brand identity and image, as will be demonstrated in
the cases of KKW beauty, Victoria Beckham, The Attic, S by Serena, Nastygal. Based on the quantitative
results of the survey, analysed and linked to statistical correlations, a number of conclusions and managerial
implications that can be drawn from the research carried out are shown.
Chapter One
The Art of Storytelling
“You’re never going to kill storytelling because it’s built into the human plan.
We come with it.”
- Margaret Atwood1
1. What is Storytelling: An Overview

Throughout human history, the act of storytelling has served as an invaluable tool in the transmission of
messages and in the sharing of “accumulated knowledge and wisdom to help navigate and explain the world
around us.”2 The telling of stories allows us to express our deepest emotions, to convey our experiences to
others, and to forge bond within groups. Notably, storytelling is perhaps one of the oldest, if not the most
enduring, forms of human communication.3 Notwithstanding obvious changes to the medium, storytelling, as a
socially and culturally defined act of imparting information through the model of a tales, stories, and fables,
whether they be factual or fictional, has long existed as a means of effectively delivering one’s message to an
audience. While storytelling may have evolved beyond images etched into cave walls and tales whispered round
open fires, the motivation behind doing so remains the same, timeless and irreplicable.4 Indeed, it appears to
matter little whether the message is conveyed orally or more permanently in the form of print, photography, or
film, storytelling is such a powerful tool that it enables us to share our experiences, beliefs, knowledge,
insights, and feelings to others outside of the constraints and limitations of time or space.
From birth, we are continually exposed to narratives in the form of stories told to us by those around us.5
Nearly universally, from earliest childhood, we are told stories from our parents, grandparents, relatives,
teachers, and peers, making storytelling an integral part of a child’s social, cultural, moral, and practical
education.6 Inasmuch, storytelling is a fundamental human activity through which we understand the world
around us; make sense of our experiences; and shape our group and self-identity.7 Through the medium of
storytelling, we are able to not just share our experiences, but repeat them and relieve them, an action which is
inherently enjoyable for the teller. More importantly, however, the telling and retelling of stories enables us see
ourselves through the lens of archetypes and to cast ourselves as either the hero or villain, lover, rebel, fool or
1
Margaret Atwood Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/margaret_atwood_574317
2
Mancuso J., Stuth K., (2014), Storytelling and Marketing: The Perfect Pairing?, Marketing Insights, vol. 26, no. 3, p. 18.
3
Butcher K. (2018), Tell me a story: applying storytelling concepts to marketing initiatives, Departmental Honors in the Department of Marketing
Texas Christian University Fort Worth, Texas.
4
Mendoza, M. (2015), The Evolution of Storytelling, Reporter Magazine, Reporter Magazine
5
Van Laer, T., Ruyter, K. D., Vsconti, L. M., & Wetzels, M. (2014), The extended transportation-imagery model: A meta-analysis of the antecedents
and consequences of consumers’ narrative transportation. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 797-817.
6
Herskovitz, S., & Crystal, M. (2010). The essential brand persona: Storytelling and branding. Journal of Business Strategy, 31(3), 21-28.
7
Cooper, H., Schembri, S., & Miller, D. (2010). Brand-self identity narratives in the James Bond Movies. Psychology & Marketing,26(6), 557-567.
1
sage of the narrative, shaping our own sense of self-identity.8 However, it is not just ourselves that we are
convincing of our own narratives when we tell stories, we are also helping shape other’s perceptions of identity
and the world. Storytelling, especially when the tale is compellingly told, is perhaps one of the most efficacious
means by which to persuade others: a desirable tool for any marketer.9
As a universal medium through which messages are shared between individuals and groups or
organisations, storytelling has allowed humankind to engage with and disseminate culture; establish emotional
connections; interpret experiences; and shape the social identity of individuals.10 Prior to the advent of written
language, storytelling played a crucial role in the oral transmission of history and the preservation of culture. As
stories were told and retold, narratives became traditions through which experiences could be understood, a
facet of storytelling which is revealed in its etymology from the Proto-Indo-European root *ǵneh₃- to know.11
From its genesis, narrative has played an integral role in our understanding of what it means to know the world
and to know ourselves. It was Aristotle who first posited that what distinguishes humanity from non-human
animals is our ability to tell stories:12 homo sapiens as homo narrans, a creature endowed with the capacity to
both know the world and to interpret experiences in the world through narrative representations.13 Words
themselves possess inherent power: they are capable of describing worlds which may never be seen; they may
seduce their listeners or repulse them; they can inform and educate; they may enchant; they may also hold
transformative powers; but, when used to best effect, they convince their listeners of their speakers rightness. It
is for these aforementioned reasons that advertisers and marketers have adopted storytelling as a medium
through which to shape brand identity.14 Storytelling, as both a medium and a tool, can be seen as a sine qua
non of the human experience.
Indeed, it has been argued that storytelling is such an essential element of the human experience that it is a
defining marker of humanity. For any medium which is so ubiquitous there is a clear danger of
oversimplification or generalisation, storytelling being no exception. It is useful then to clarify what exactly is
meant by “storytelling.” A facile explanation would be that storytelling is the telling of stories; however, such
an definition fails to reveal the layers of representation and simulation which are essential to the medium.15 It is
for this reason that it has often been noted that storytelling cannot be adequately translated into Italian.16 Literal
translations of the term speak to the ways in which communication is facilitated through stories, and, more
8
Woodside, A. G., Sood, S., & Miller, K. (2008). When consumers and brand talk: Storytelling theory and research in psychology and marketing.
Psychology and Marketing, 25(2), 97-145.
9
Woodside, AG. (2010), "Brand-Consumer Storytelling Theory and Research: Introduction to a Psychology & Marketing Special Issue." Psychology
& Marketing, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 531-540.
10
Berardi F. (2016), C’era una volta il brand, la pubblicità nell’era dello Storytelling, l’arte di raccontare la Corporate Identity, Tesi di laurea
Gestione dei processi e delle relazioni; LUISS Guido Carli
11
Giorgino F., Mazzù, M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea.
12
Lucaites, J. L. and Condit, C. M. (1985), Re-constructing Narrative Theory: A Functional Perspective. Journal of Communication, 35: 90-108.
13
Ibidem
14
Wachtman, E., & Johnson, L. S. (2009). The persuasive power of story. Marketing Management, 18(1), 28-34.
15
Fontana A. (2016), Storytelling d’impresa: la guida definitiva, Hoepli Editore, Milano.
16
Ibidem.
2
specifically, the telling of those stories. Yet, storytelling is first and foremost a means by which representations -
be they visual, auditory, or tactile - are used by an individual, or for that matter, a brand, to reach out and engage
with an audience, as is noted by Fontana.17 These representations work in tandem with simulations, imitations of
reality that become real themselves.18 These representations and simulations, in the form of stories, gain their
meaning and comprehensibility by adhering to the structure of easily recognisable narrative forms, while
respecting the rules and conventions of the various canons of storytelling.19
The origins of the modern study of narrative can be traced back to the ancient world, wherein Greek and
Roman scholars sought to understand the structure and meaning of narrative genres, a tradition which has
continued to modern day in discipline of Narratology, which is the study of narrative structures;20 but before
delving deeper into this definition it is perhaps useful to distinguish the following declinations of storytelling:
Story: a series of events retold in a logical and recognisable fashion, typically narrating events as they
occurred in chronological succession, which may form the basis of a story.
Tale: a fictitious or veracious discourse through which a particular story is told.
Narration: an act of enunciation by which a story is conveyed to an audience, be it orally or textually.21
Additionally, it must also be considered that each act of narration is composed of two essential elements: a
story, typically organised as a chronological series of events centred round characters grounded in a particular
environment; and, an act of speech, in which the contents of the story are communicated through structures of
transmission or demonstration to an audience.22 Put simply, a story is what is represented by a narrative.
Aristotle, in his writings on mimesis, created a distinction between praxis, an imitation of what is real, and
logos, an argument. It is these two distinct elements which form the basis of mythos, the plot which guides the
development of a story.23 The epistemic purpose of storytelling, therefore, is to enable humankind to elaborate
upon and interpret reality, as perceived by the individual storyteller and the larger audience.24
17
Ibidem.
18
Ibidem.
19
Fontana A. (2016), Storytelling d’impresa: la guida definitiva, Hoepli Editore,Milano, p.23.
20
Todorov T. ( 1969) Grammaire du Décaméron,The Hague-Paris, Mouton, «Approaches to Semiotics - 3».
21
Fontana A. (2016), Storytelling d’impresa: la guida definitiva, Hoepli Editore,Milano.
22
23
Chatman S. (1987) History and discourse. The narrative structure in the novel and in the film, New Publishing Practices, Parma.
24
3
1.1.1. What is History and What are Stories?
“Most people, in fact, will not take the trouble in finding out the truth, but are much more inclined to accept the first story
they hear.”
― Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War25
The temptation to conflate history with the telling of stories has led to a number of misconceptions as to exactly
what storytelling is and is not. Although derived from the same Proto-Indo-European root *weyd-, meaning to
see - Sanskrit ‘Veda’, Greek ‘εἶδον,’ Latin ‘video’ et cetera - the two terms often appear to overlap in
significance; however, we can broadly define history as being the study of past, whereas storytelling is best
translated and defined as communicating through stories.26 History then could be said to be the organisation and
interpretation of a series of chronological events occurring within a specific time frame and place in the past.27
While a story is defined by its adherence to a system of perceptual representations - linguistic, iconic, symbolic,
and physical signifiers - which communities use as a means of communicating with and understanding the
world symbolically beyond the confines of a specific time and place.28 Stories then shape a simulacra of reality
that becomes more real with each retelling.
However, this definition too is a simplification of the complexity contained within the act of storytelling.
Semiotic theory, compellingly, puts forward the argument that narrative is not just a representation of the world,
but a world in its own right. As Gianfranco Marrone has noted, “a text is not a representation of the world for
the simple reason that it contains it as its content, and if you think about it, it is part of that world with a social
force.”29 Perhaps then it is better to say that a story is a simulation which creates its own reality. Within the
model of simulation as story, there may be real events, which are then represented, simulated, and reported in
turn, but these events are always seen through the lens of a particular narrative argument.30 Whereas History, as
a discipline, tends to restrict itself from entering into the world of fiction, emotion, and symbolism, storytelling
is steeped in these elements by definition.31 Storytelling then can be both rooted in real, historical events as well
as completely fictional narratives, and, as has been often noted, a story, while being a product of the
imagination, is no less effective or consequential than History.32 Indeed, history devoid of the narrative and the
25
Thucydides (1972), History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner. New York: Penguin Press.
26
Delgado-Ballester, E., Fernández-Sabiote, E. (2016). «Once upon a brand”: Storytelling practices by Spanish brands.» Spanish Journal of
Marketing - ESIC, 20. 2, pp. 115-131.
27
Ibidem
28
29
Ibidem.
30
Fona C. (A.A. 2010/2011), La comunicazione aziendale nell’era dello storytelling: la narratologia comenuovo strumento di management, tesi
discussa alla facoltà di Scienze linguistiche e letterature straniere, Università Cattolica di Milano.
31
32
4
representative elements of storytelling is right judged as being a dry, restating of facts and figures, lacking in the
inherently human impulse to impose narrative form to experience.33
Figure 1. History vs. Story as defined by Fontana (2016)
Separating history from storytelling, two distinct sets of criteria begin to emerge for the respective
disciplines. Whereas historians seek to write history through objective description, applying order to facts and
figures, interpreted through the lens of historiography;34 storytellers concern themselves with representations,
perceptions, characters, plots, and scenes as seen through layers of cultural, psycho-social, and emotive
responses, with interpretation as a guiding force.35
However, while there is a clear distinction made between storytelling and history by its practitioners, in
everyday life the two modes of organising experience are fused as one. In reality, for the majority of us, “there
is no logic without imagination, no existence without meaning, no event without perception, and no fact without
enterprise.”36 It can be argued then that storytelling and History do not stand in opposition to each other, but are
33
Barthes R.( 1969), L'analisi del racconto, Bompiani, Milano.
34
35
Plots, and the psycho-social and emotional references that these involve will become fundamental. Storytellers like introspection and the enigma,
fact and given for granted narrators leave them to historians.
36
5
two complementary elements of a wider reality that are united through narration.37 Since the Ancient Greeks,
and the dual concepts of kronos and mythos,38 narrative has brought together history and story, chronology and
representation. It is through narration that experiences and events, arranged chronologically, are then interpreted
and made sense of through representation.39
It should also be noted at this point that just as stories do not have to follow a strictly factual,
chronological sequence of events, neither do tellers have to restrict the contents of said stories to the realm of
the actual. Stories do not have to be true in any verifiable sense, but they do have to tell a truth.40 This
distinction, as seen in Fontana, is defined as the difference between a story of truth and a true story.41 Truth is
objective, true is subjective; they exist in spheres very different from one another and should not be bound by
the same conventions.42
Moreover, it is the context in which a story is told that allows the listener to connect to the narrative and
find the individual truth within it. A well-told story, firmly grounded in a specific space and time context causes
the reader to identify with the protagonist, increasing the effectiveness of the narrative’s impact.43 The context,
or setting in which the story is found, is limitless; it could be in a museum or a shop; at a company’s
headquarters or in the recipient’s home.44 What is crucial, however, is that is the narrative environment fully
engages the reader’s attention, enriching him or her in some way. Compelling stories are transformative and
give the reader an incentive to return time and again, not in small part because of the solutions to life’s
problems, both practical and existential, which stories impart to their audience.45
It is for this reason that while stories do not need to be truthful to tell a truth, a true representation is
necessary.46 For storytellers this entails considering the cultural and social context in which the story is told,
including an understanding of the timing and sequencing of events within the narrative, which is effectively
achieved through precise story-boarding.47 While this process can be applied to the oral tradition of storytelling,
at present, most stories are crafted long before they reach their audience by experts well-versed in the power of
the narrative form.48 Indeed, more stories in the modern world are processed into the form of objects for
consumption - books, magazines, films, websites, social media posts, and all other forms of transmedia - as
37
38
YU, K. (2017). From Mythos to Logos; Jean-Pierre Vernant, Max Weber, and The Narrative of Occidental Rationalization. Modern Intellectual
History, 14(2), 477-506.
39
40
Ibidem.
41
Ibidem.
42
Ibidem.
43
Giorgino F., Mazzù M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea.
44
Ibidem.
45
46
Libaert T. Johannes K.,(2010) La communication corporate, Parigi: Dunod.
47
Giorgino F., Mazzù M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea, pp.118-119.
48
Ibidem.
6
opposed to the more nebulous and ephemeral stories of the past, which existed primarily in oral form.49 Through
careful consideration of the ways in which stories can communicate truth to their audience, marketers can better
communicate with their own audiences and make sense of how to tell stories that convey something true and
compelling about a brand, product, or service to consumers. 50
1.1.2. The Four Elements of Storytelling

“A story should have a beginning, a middle and an end, but not necessarily in that order."
- Jean-Luc Godard51
Storytelling is understood to have four principle elements which compose its foundations.52 As defined in the
figure below, storytelling is made up of the message; the conflict; the characters; and, the plot.53 These concepts,
as elaborated below, are fundamental to story craft, and, if devoid of any one of these elements, a narrative can
not be rightly said to be a story.
Figure 2. The Four Elements of Storytelling as defined by Giorgino and Mazzù (2018)
49
Fontana A. (2016), Storytelling d’impresa: la guida definitiva, Hoepli Editore, Milano, p.68.
50
Ibidem.
51
Gibbons, F. Jean-Luc Godard: “Film is over. What to do?', The Guardian, 12, 07, 2011. Accessed April 27.
https://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/jul/12/jean-luc-godard-film-socialisme
52
Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. & Blanchette, S. (2010). Branding through Storytelling. Branding in practice. 2nd edition. Heidelberg: Springer.
53
7
The first fundamental of storytelling is that every story must have a clear message at its heart. Without a
clearly defined and easily comprehensible message at its outset, a story cannot take shape logically. The
message, or premise, of the story is typically a moral or ideology which represents the underlying, formative
theme of the story.54 Additionally, just as without a message there is no story, if there are multiple messages, the
narrator runs of risk of obscuring the moral of the story and confusing the audience.55
A second fundamental aspect of storytelling is conflict as a driving force of narrative.56 Without conflict,
there is no story: disorder is necessary to advance the plot and to disrupt the equanimity of the situation.
Conflict, which is rooted in disruption and fear, stimulates action and propels forward the actors in the plot.57 It
is also what captivates the audience initially and then holds their attention throughout the story.58 The impulse to
apply order to chaos is an essentially human drive, which storytelling makes use of effectively.59 It should be
noted, however, that conflict is morally neutral in the world of storytelling and merely serves as a stage on
which the storyteller can communicate his or her perceptions of right and wrong.60 Moreover, the conflict must
be balanced, providing enough disorder to prove interesting, but not so much so that the message becomes lost
in the chaos of the plot, nor so much so that there is an over abundance of harmony, depriving the audience of
the entertainment it seeks.61
The third fundamental element of storytelling is the characters.62 In accordance with the canonical
structure of narratives, each character present within the story plays his or her own well-defined role.63
Typically this equates to the cast being comprised of a hero, an adversary or enemy, and supporting characters
who assist in the hero’s journey.64 Conflict experienced by the characters drives plot development and growth,
with the hero returning from his quest transformed by the ordeal.65
The fourth and final fundamental of storytelling is plot.66 The plot of a narrative can be defined as the
sequencing and structuring of events which form the basis of a story. Conventionally, stories are designed to
have a clear beginning, middle, and end, with each part serving its own purpose, from the capturing the initial
54
Fog, K., Budtz, C., Munch, P. & Blanchette, S. 2010. Branding through Storytelling. Branding in practice. 2nd edition. Heidelberg: Springer.
55
56
Ibidem.
57
Ibidem.
58
Ibidem.
59
Fona C.( A.A. 2010/2011) , La comunicazione aziendale nell’era dello storytelling: la narratologia comenuovo strumento di management, tesi
60
61
Matthews, R., Wacker, W. 2008. What's Your Story? Storytelling to Move Markets, Audiences, People and Brands. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.
62
63
Ibidem.
64
Campbell J. (2008), The Hero with Thousands of Faces (3rd ed.) Novato, California: Joseph Campbell Foundation
65
Ibidem.
66
8
attention of the audience to conflict which advanced the story and ending in some form of resolution.67 As has
been defined by Giorgino and Mazzù, there are five recurring themes which appear in the majority of narratives:
- The hero’s journey or quest, the hero must rise to the challenge to achieve his or her’s aim;
- Creation or origin stories, the genesis of a people or a brand;
- Transformation, through great suffering the hero is transformed;
- Fall and redemption, a fundamental flaw of character leads to the protagonists fall and, with
some luck, eventual redemption;
- The crossroads, the protagonist is forced to take a decision which is characterised by an extended
period of fear, anxiety, and uncertainty regarding the choice.68
1.1.3 The Three Functions of Storytelling

"Storytelling offers the opportunity to talk with your audience, not at them."
― Laura Holloway69
After identifying the primary elements of which all stories are composed, so too must the functions of
storytelling be clarified. The three functions of storytelling can be defined as such, as elaborated by Giorgino
and Mazzù:70
The public function of storytelling;
The function of storytelling for the individual;
The relational function of storytelling.
67
68
Ibidem.
69
Holloway, L. (2019) Accessed 28 April 2019 https://www.linkedin.com/in/laurabholloway
70
Ibidem.
9
Figure 3. The Different Functions of Storytelling - Giorgino and Mazzù (2018)
Turning to the public function of storytelling, stories facilitate communication between members of a
group, allowing individuals, institutions, organisations, and, as will be addressed in in the proceeding chapter,
brands to shape their own public identities.71 Communicating through stories makes it possible to exist within
the public sphere with a clearly defined identity that appears authentic and transparent to others.72 This is owing
to the fact that stories exist within universally recognisable and comprehensible processes. Stories feel authentic
to their listeners because the framework of storytelling allows their tellers to present content in a manner which
intuitively feels relatable to the audience.73
On the other hand, individual narratives serve a much different purpose.74 Whereas public storytelling
allows the teller to relate to and communicate with the group, the stories that individuals tell themselves allow
them to make sense of their own experiences.75 In this regard, the function of autobiography is to shape self-
identity and is inherently different from the stories we choose to share publicly. Individual narrative can be said
to be self-contained and exist for the individual alone.76
71
72
Ibidem.
73
Ibidem.
74
Ibidem.
75
Ibidem.
76
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli.
10
Relational storytelling, the third function of narrative, is the realisation of public storytelling.77 By telling
one’s own story to others as a means to forge relationships and to define one’s identity through interpersonal
ties, relational storytelling is an essential part of relationship building, including those relationships that exist
between consumers and brands. This form of public storytelling focuses primarily on the ways in which stories
allow individuals to relate to others and favours mechanisms such as mutual legitimisation, socialisation, and
the exchange of experience.78
However, it should be noted that while there are three clearly definable functions of storytelling these
functions do not exist in isolation from each other, rather they exist as overlapping layers of individual
storytelling.79 Narratives told by individuals are composed of elements which are simultaneously private,
relational, and public, as they must represent all dimensions of the individual.80 This is due to the need to
represent the individual both intrapersonally and interpersonally, while still situated in the public sphere;81
conversely, narratives told by brands, in the form of corporate storytelling, need only address the public and do
not necessitate the same level of introspection. For this reason, corporate storytelling only makes use of the
relational and public functions of storytelling, as will be addressed in Chapter 2.2.82
1.1.4 The 6 S + 1 of Storytelling

"Storytelling reveals meaning without committing the error of defining it."
-Hannah Arendt83
Now that the three functions of storytelling have been identified, we turn to the two principal elements of
narration which form the basis of any story: the interconnected cast of subjects, objects, and actions of which a
story is composed; and, some form of transformation, which propels the narrative forward.84 As will be
addressed in the proceeding section, scholars of narratology, beginning with Greimas85 and Propp86 and arriving
at Campbell87 and Vogler,88 have proposed various schemes to classify different elements of narration. Building
from their work, and focussing on the narrative classification devised by Fontana, we will now examine the 6 S
+ 1 of storytelling.89
77
78
Ibidem.
79
80
Ibidem.
81
Ibidem.
82
Salmon C. (2008), Storytelling. La fabbrica delle storie, Roma, Fazi.
83
Arendt, H. “Hannah Arendt (1906-1975)” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed 29 April 2019, https://www.iep.utm.edu/arendt/a
84
85
Greimas A.- Courtes J.,(2007) Semiotica. Dizionario ragionato della teoria del linguaggio, Milano: trad.it. Mondadori.
86
Propp V. ( 2000), Morfologia della fiaba, tard.it. Torino: Einaudi.
87
Campbell J. (2008), The Hero with thousand of faces , III edizione Joseph Campbell Foundation, Novato, California.
88
Vogler C., Il viaggio dell‘eroe.(2010) La struttura del mito ad uso di scrittori di narrativa e cinema, Dino Audino editore, Roma.
89
11
Figure 4. The 6S +1 of Storytelling – Fontana (2016)
In Fontana’s narrative classification scheme, he defines a number of distinct roles played by various
actors in the telling of a story. The first role he identifies is that of the story-architect, the author of the story,
who is its creator and, perhaps, its teller as well. While the story-architect can be a single individual, just as
easily can it be a marketing team, the manager of a company, or any agency tasked with creating content for
given purpose.90 The story-architect may also then be the gatekeeper, who as creator of the narrative has the
additional responsibility of deciding whether or not to involve an audience in the story. Moreover, due to the
complex nature of storytelling, it can often become unclear who it is who is playing these roles.91 It is then
necessary to confront some fundamental questions relating to the accurate identification of the author of any
given story, such as: who is the author of the story? Is the author an individual or a brand? Or, a product or
service? Where is the story set? Why is the author telling that story and not another? What is the responsibility
of the author?92
90
91
Ibidem.
92
Ibidem.
12
An additional consideration is who is the audience, or the story-listener.93 Just as it is vital to identify
who is telling the story, it is just as important to define who is the listener to which the story is addressed. While
there are those stories which individuals tell to themselves, generally there exists an implication that stories are
meant to be told to others. This public and relational nature of storytelling is essential to our understanding of
what stories are.94 Ideally, story-listeners relate to and identify with the story and its author; therefore, it is
essential that the teller of the story manages to involve and engage the audience, including the listeners in the
narrative by arousing their emotions, stimulating their sympathies, and causing them to cease being passive
listeners and begin being active participants in the narrative.95
However, achieving this transformation and actively engaging an audience is no simple feat. A thorough
knowledge and understanding of the audience is necessary for the story’s author: the story-architect must know
everything about his or her audience.96 Balancing the need to engage with an audience and maintain its interest
in the narrative, while conveying the importance of the story, is a challenging achievement for any storyteller, as
the latter is objective, while the former is entirely subjective and determined by the preferences, experiences,
moods, and social-cultural context of the listener.97
The third fundamental constant of narrative is the story itself.98 It can be said that all narratives generally
adhere to a universal narrative framework that is easily understood and identifiable by both the storyteller and
the story’s audience. While there are innumerable variations of how stories may be told, and the particulars of
theme, plot, and characters they entail, it has been proposed that all stories can be fitted within a canonical
narrative scheme.99 As Fontana describes it,100 all stories begin at a neutral position, a baseline of normality
from which the story then unfolds. After setting the scene, the true story emerges: a conflict is introduced which
disrupts the harmony of the initial situation, after which the story progresses through a series of well-calibrated
events forcing resolution through transformation and, finally, a return to normality.101 These steps are outlined
in the figure below:
93
Ibidem.
94
95
Ibidem.
96
Ibidem.
97
Giorgino F., 2017, Giornalismi e società, Milano, Mondadori Università
98
99
Ibidem.
100
Ibidem.
101
Ibidem.
13
Figure 5. The True Story Emerges – Fontana (2016)
Another requisite element of storytelling is the means by which a story is disseminated, usually through the role
of the broadcaster within a communication process channel.102 In Fontana’s conception of storytelling, an
individual, typically possessing specific narrative skills, communicates with an audience through an instrument,
a medium such as the media, social media, person-to-person relationships, or print.103 Naturally, the choice of
how best to communicate with one’s audience is also a well-considered action by the story-architect and
gatekeeper. The implication for marketers, and all actors involved in corporate storytelling, can be surmised as
such: it is not just what you tell, but how you tell it. In essence, one must understand not only how to create
content that will interest consumers, but how best to communicate that content.104
To fully understand how best to communicate content which will be of interest to consumers,
storytelling must also define the set, or the space-time context, in which the story occurs.105 Placing the story
within a particular temporal setting allows the reader to identify with the protagonist and connect the narrative
106
to his or her own reality. In this sense, the setting can be understood to be the environment of the narrative,
102
103
Ibidem.
104
Ibidem.
105
Ibidem.
106
Ibidem.
14
which serves to enrich the reader’s appreciation of the story and provide an incentive by which to compel the
him or her to return to the story, creating an actual and virtual echo recognition system.107
The sixth, and final, constant of storytelling is that of the figure of the story-holder, which can be
defined as a process by which the otherwise passive story-listener becomes engaged in the narrative to an extent
by which he or she is rendered an active participant.108 This transformation is most frequently seen on social
media, where the level of audience engagement is significantly higher than other more traditional channels of
communication.109
1.1.5 Thinking Critically About Storytelling: Narratology

“So, you may ask, what is the use of studying the world of imagination where anything is possible and anything can be
assumed, where there are no rights or wrongs and all arguments are equally good?”
- Northrop Frye110
As elaborated above, storytelling is an essentially human act which has developed and evolved over time, while
remaining a constant of the human experience. Storytelling may have its roots in a time primordial; however,
the history of narratology, or the science of studying narratives, stretches back to the Ancient world, where
storytelling was probed by such thinkers as Aristotle amongst others.111
This tradition was then revived in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as the discipline of narratology,
which examines the structure and function of narratives and their themes, conventions, and symbols.112 From
within the vast sea of literary criticism, there exist a select few currents of thought which distinguish themselves
as exemplars:113 the work of Vladimir Propp, within the stream of Russian Formalism; French Structuralism,
and the studies undertaken by the French School and Greimas; Chatman’s contribution to neo-American literary
criticism; Joseph Campbell’s analysis of archetypes and the narrative form; the distinctly Italian approach to
semiotics presented by Umberto Eco; Bruner’s work on cognitive psychology; the study of narratives in cinema
as exemplified by Vogler; and, finally, Christopher Booker’s recent analysis of narrative form.114 These
scholars, and their work, form the basis of contemporary thinking about narratives and have become canonical
in their own right; however, for the purposes of this thesis, we will turn out attention to Propp, Volger, and
Campbell, with subsequent analysis of the effects of storytelling on advertising, as informed by the studies of
Booker.
107
Ibidem.
108
Ibidem.
109
Ibidem.
110
Frye, N. (1964), The Educated Imagination. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press.
111
112
Definition of Narratology, The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica, Literary Theory, https://www.britannica.com/art/narratology
113
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli, p.23.
114
15
As the French semiotician, Roland Barthes, once wrote,
narrative is present in every age, in every place, in every society; it begins with the
history of people without narratives. All classes, all human groups, have their narratives...Caring
nothing for the division between good and bad literature, narrative is international, trans historical,
transcultural: it is simply there, like life itself.115
Narrative is life itself; it is an inextricable part of the human experience, and, inasmuch, is a powerful tool to be
exploited, as will be addressed in Chapter 1.2. To best understand how narrative may be employed by individual
storytellers and corporate storytellers alike, it is then expedient to turn to the insights gleaned from narratology.
1.1.5 Vladimir Propp: A Morphology of Storytelling

“The number of functions known to a fairy tale is limited."
- Vladimir Propp116
Vladimir Propp, the Russian folklorist, is perhaps best known for his analysis of narrative form, as presented in
Russian fairy tales, in works such as the seminal, Morphology of the Folk Tale.117 Propp argued that based on
his close reading of over 100 traditional fairy tales, or “wonder stories,” there are 31 fundamental functions
which occur sequentially in stories.118 His structural analysis of fairy tales formed the basis for the creation of a
pragmatic model by which to understand and chart the development of narratives.119 These 31 steps, in Propp’s
model are fixed and consecutive, beginning from Absentation and ending in Wedding.120
To summarise Propp’s syntagmatic analysis,121 the course they chart is as follows: the world in which
our characters find themselves initially is characterised by well-being and a lack of conflict, a stasis which is
their ordinary world. This initial phase is followed by a crisis of some kind, whether it be a conflict, disaster,
and mere ill-fate, the protagonist is then forced from the ordinary word to the extraordinary one.122
Subsequently, the protagonist may be warned against certain dangers that could befall him and he makes forays
into the extraordinary world.123 It is then that the antagonist enters the narrative, attempting to trick, trap, or
otherwise impede the journey of the protagonist. It is only then that the protagonist, often aided by mysterious
115
Barthes R. (1969), Analysis of the story, Bompiani, Milan.
116
Shmoop Editorial Team. (2008, November 11). Vladimir Propp Quotes. Retrieved May 25, 2019, from
https://www.shmoop.com/structuralism/vladimir-propp-quotes.html
117
Propp V. ( 2000), Morfologia della fiaba, tard.it. Torino: Einaudi.
118
Bruner J.(2006), la fabbrica delle storie: Diritto, letteratura, Roma-Bari: vita trad.it. Laterza
119
Ibidem.
120
Propp V. (1968), Morphology of the Folktale, University of Texas Press, Austin and London.
121
Volli U.(2007), Manuale di semiotica Bari-Roma: Laterza
122
Propp V. (1968), Morphology of the Folktale, University of Texas Press, Austin and London.
123
Ibidem.
16
figures, is able to understand the traps which have been laid along his way.124 This inevitably leads to
confrontation and struggle between the protagonist and the antagonist, with the hero, after much hardship and
suffering, emerging forged by his experiences.125 Within Propp’s structuralist model, it is only after
confrontation that the hero is transfigured, allowing him to return back to the ordinary world, ideally returning
to marry as a reward for his sacrifice and valour.126 The actors within this model are grouped into seven abstract
character functions that propel the narrative forward through the 31 progressive stages of the narrative.127 While
it should be noted that Propp’s work has been roundly criticised, by scholars such as the anthropologist Claude
Levi-Strauss,128 as being excessively formal and too fixed to a model of narrative progression,129 his work
should not be dismissed for its relevant insights into narrative structure, form, theme, and character
development.
Propp’s canonical narrative scheme sought to organise and place guidelines on narrative to chart its
progression.130 The scheme also attempted to analysis the ways in which the self, be it of an individual,
institution, or organisation, is constructed.131 In doing so, the scheme is also a tool by which to define oneself
and make sense of one’s place in the world, a sort of “metanarrative,” by which the self is created.132 Through
these models personal, institutional, and organisational identity, one is better able to understand oneself and
through storytelling, where one’s own story, which is told and retold endlessly, takes shape.133 It can then be
said that canonical narrative schemes, like the one developed by Propp, are a set of "schematic
representations...of a semi-narrative that the members of a certain culture have elaborated on the basis of
repeated experiences."134
An example of the practical applications of Propp's narrative scheme for marketers and advertisers can
be found in the advert created for the internationally recognised Zippo brand of lighters. The story told in the
advert is structured round a story told by a grandfather to his grandson of how, during the war of his youth, he
found himself under enemy fire and hit by a bullet in the chest, falling to the ground, seeming marked for death.
The story continues when the grandson, who had closed his eyes to listen in rapt silence to his grandfather’s
epic tale, opens his eyes to see his grandfather, alive, touching his chest, from which he draws a Zippo lighter
124
Ibidem.
125
Ibidem.
126
Everard J. (2007), Jerry Everard’s Introduction to Vladimir Propp, http://lostbiro.com/blog/?page_id=522
127
Ibidem.
128
Lévi-Strauss C. (1960), «L'analyse morphologique des contes russes», International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics, 3: 122-149.
129
Claude Lévi-Strauss who, instead of increasing the abstract character of the Propp’s model, prophesies, as does Greimas, to criticize it on the
contrary as too "formalistic". The anthropologist's proposal is therefore to take into account also the surface figures of fairy tales (specific actions,
characters, concrete details) since they would not be irrelevant at all. This conviction derives from the analysis of myths that have uncertain
relationship with fairy tales but which surely possess, in common with these latter, a deep narrative structure. Now, in the analysis of myth, the plane
of surface figures is very important in order to hypothesize about the most abstract and profound levels. For example, in the Bororo myths and in
particular as regards their alimentary dimension, it is not at all arbitrary that some animals appear instead of others. Lévi-Strauss C. (1960),
«L'analyse morphologique des contes russes», International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics, 3: 122-149.
130
131
Ibidem.
132
Bruner J. (2006), the factory of stories: Law, Literature, Rome-Bari: life trad.it. Laterza
133
134
Volli U. (2007), Bari-Rome Semiotics Manual: Laterza
17
from his jacket pocket. The image of the dented object, deformed by the bullet which saved the young soldier's
life, in his hands, and subsequently in the hands of the grandfather who then entrusts this totem of family lore to
his grandson. In a moving final image, the young man puts it in his shirt pocket just above the heart, completing
the sequence of narrative events in a typically defined plot. From extraordinary to ordinary, from challenge to
triumphant return, the narrative tools employed in Zipp’s marketing campaign are emblematic of the narrative
model devised by Propp.135
Figure 6. Zippo: Heirloom, marketing campaign (2019)
Propp’s Canonical Narrative Scheme
Preparation A community or family in their normal state of being;
Complication The villain harms a member of the hero’s family;

The hero plans action against the villain;
Transference The hero is given a magical gift;

The hero arrives at the place where he can fulfill his quest;
Struggle There is a struggle between the hero and the villain;
Return The hero escapes;

A task is set for the hero;
The hero accomplishes the task;
Recognition The hero is rewarded.
135
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOQgg7jWxPw
18
1.1.6 Campbell and the Hero’s Journey: Storytelling, Myth, and Identity
“Myths are public dreams, dreams are private myths.”
- Joseph Campbell136
In historian and essayist Joseph Campbell a continuation of the work begun by Propp can be seen, with
Campbell turning his gaze to journey of the hero as the driving force behind his analysis. From the epics of
Homer to storytelling’s more modern iterations, it is possible to distinguish the character of the hero, who is
tasked with the challenge of overcoming seemingly insurmountable feats in order to accomplish his journey.
Campbell’s formative work, The Hero with a Thousand Faces,137 established his theory that within countless
myths, originating from all corners of the globe, the same narratological structure is present, what he termed,
monomyth.138 Campbell’s definition of monomyth states that, while the particulars may be different, legends are
universally, immutably composed of the same series of events and episodes, as told in unvarying succession,
throughout the world. Summarily put, Campbell argued that all heroic myths, despite their superficial
differences and innumerable variations, are essential a retelling of a singular foundational monomyth. In his
view, myths serve as “very precise models of the mechanisms of the human mind, true psychologically valid
and emotionally realistic maps of the psyche, even when they represent fantastic, impossible or unreal
events.”139
Through tracing the manifold permutations of stories, both as told by the individual and collectively,
Campbell posited that the existential questions which face humanity can be answered, addressing such themes
as morality, existence, and origin.140 The hero’s journey, which can defined as the basis for all stories, whether
they be ancient myths, biographies, fairy tales, or even advertisement as will later be discussed, forms the basic
structure of all narratives.141 Campbell theorised that underneath the world of phenomena there lay an eternal
source of time, suffering, and death, and it was the hero’s quest to peel back this layer of phenomena and reveal
what existed before and beyond words.142 Through tremendous suffering and personal sacrifice, the hero could
access this eternal source, free to return with the truths the source had imparted, a transcendent gift potent
enough to liberate humanity.143 Thus, Campbell’s model of the hero’s journey can be seen as a vade mecum to
understanding, interpreting, and harnessing the power of narrative, by both storytellers and marketers. As has
been noted, “the hero's journey is the recognition of an excellent model, a set of principles that govern the way
136
Joseph Campbell Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 25, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/joseph_campbell_129831
137
Campbell J. (2008), The Hero with Thousands of Faces (3rd ed.) Novato, California: Joseph Campbell Foundation
138
Bruner J.(2006), la fabbrica delle storie: Diritto, letteratura, Roma-Bari: vita trad.it. Laterza
139
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli,p.23.
140
141
Ibidem.
142
Vogler C., (2010) Il viaggio dell'eroe. The structure of the myth for use by fiction writers and cinemas,Dino Audino editore, Rome.
143
Campbell J.(2008), The Hero with thousand of faces(3th ed.)Novato, California :Joseph Campbell Foundation.
19
we live and the world of the narrative.”144As the hero journeys within the narrative,145 so too does the storyteller
and his audience, echoing the ways in which we seek to transform the world from "transparent to
transcendence.”146
Figure 7. Campbell’s The Hero’s Journey - TheAretical.com147
Summarising Campbell’s studies, we can identify and establish a number of distinct, universally
traceable components to a hero’s journey, as elaborated by Christopher Vogler.148 The defining feature of the
hero’s journey is transformation, with visible change in behaviour at each of the twelve steps along the way.
144
Vogler C., (2010) Il viaggio dell'eroe. The structure of the myth for use by fiction writers and cinemas,Dino Audino editore, Rome.
145
Eco U. (1994), "Six walks in narrative woods", Harvard University Press, Boston.
146
Barthes R.[et al.]L'analisi del racconto ( 1969),Milano:(Trad.: L. Del Grosso Destreri e P. Fabbri) Bompiani
147
TheAretical (2019), The Hero’s Journey in Advertising, last seen 28 may 2019, http://www.thearetical.com/blog/the-heros-journey-in-advertising
148
Vogler C., (2010) Il viaggio dell'eroe. The structure of the myth for use by fiction writers and cinemas,Dino Audino editore, Rome, p. 27.
20
These steps resemble the canonical scheme devised by Propp and can be summarised as follows:
Ordinary World At the beginning of each story, the protagonist is situated within an ordinary, recognisable
world
Call to Adventure The hero is called to adventure, establishing the tasks which must be undertaken and
accomplished
Refuse the Call A period of resistance to the call to adventure and to change more generally
The Mentor The hero encounters a mentor, usually in the form of a wizened sage, who offers
encouragement, wisdom, and the magical tools necessary for the hero to accomplish his
or her objective
Cross the First The point of no return at which the hero enters the Special World and can no longer return
Threshold to the Ordinary World
Tests, Allies, and After crossing the first threshold, the hero then encounters allies and enemies within the
Enemies extraordinary world, who them aid or impede his or her ability to face tests
Approach the The hero crosses the second threshold, arriving at the place he or she had sought on the
Inmost Cave quest
Ordeal A feat of endurance, the hero must face the most dangerous point of his or her journey
Reward The hero takes possession of a treasure as a reward for successfully navigating the ordeal
The Road Back The hero returns home to the Ordinary World
Resurrection The hero crosses the third threshold which brings about a confrontation with the enemy,
experiences resurrection, and is transformed by the experience
Return with the The triumphant hero returns from his or her journey, bringing with him or her an elixir,
Elixir some form of treasure or valuable lesson, which is then shared with the Ordinary World149
Like Propp’s canonical narrative scheme, the hero’s journey serves as the basis of any story - a narratological
insight which can be used as the foundation of a brand’s story, as will be further discussed in Chapter 1.2;
however, unlike Propp’s scheme, it has been postulated by scholars such as Vogler, that Campbell’s model is, in
fact, a flexible structure.150 It is not necessary then to follow each step in strict succession, but to consider the 12
phases as a guide for individual and collective transformation.
Additionally, Campbell defined seven principle archetypes, which represent the characters present in a
story, and are fundamental to understanding his narratological theories.151 The seven narrative archetypes, as
149
Interpretations of Joseph Campbell and the Hero’s Journey:https://msu.edu/~jdowell/pdf/Joseph Campbell PathHero.pdf
150
151
discussa alla facoltà di Scienze linguistiche e letterature straniere, Università Cattolica di Milano, pp.124-125.
21
established by Campbell, owe much of their lineage to the pioneering research by Carl Jung, one of the founders
analytical psychology, who maintained that “there is a collective unconscious, similar to the individual one.
Fairy tales and myths are equivalent to the dreams of an entire culture and spring from the collective
unconscious."152 In his conception of archetypes, they serve an instrumental function as a means by which to
understand the universal, archaic patterns and images stemming from the collective unconscious, which are
present in all human cultures.153 In narratology, and in Campbell’s interpretation of archetypes more
specifically, they serve to elucidate the role of any given character within a larger story.154
However, as with the canonical narrative structure established by Propp, the archetypes which the
characters are defined by are not pre-existing and established roles in the Ordinary World, but temporary
functions which the characters perform in order to realise their role in the journey.155 These approaches to
understanding narrative highlight the necessity for functionality in the theme, characters, and plot that compose
the basis of a story; and, incidentally, form the basis round which brands build their own stories, as will be
addressed in the proceeding section. Campbell’s seven archetypes, which are distinguished by their
psychological and narrative and/or dramaturgical function in a story, are as follows:
The Hero The protagonist of the story, whose purpose is to hear the call to adventure, leaving the
ordinary world to face great suffering, in the hopes of completing the quest and
returning to ordinary world to restore balance. We identify with the hero and see the
world from his or her perspective
The Mentor A supportive figure who provides the hero with the encouragement, wisdom, and
training necessary to complete the hero’s quest
Threshold Guardian These guardians are tasked with protecting the special world - and its treasures - from
outsiders. They test the hero’s commitment and worthiness
Herald Characters who announce the arrival of meaningful change in the story and issue
challenges to the hero
The Shapeshifter A masked character, who conceals his or her intentions and loyalties, while attempting
to mislead the hero
The Shadow Representative of our darkest, hidden desires, abilities, and qualities. This character
can also represent our greatest fears. The shadow mask is often worn by the hero’s
enemies
Trickster A force of instability, tricksters revel in disturbing the status quo and causing chaos in
the ordinary world. They employ humour to ridicule the world around them and force
the other characters to acknowledge the absurdity of the situation156
152
153
Feist J, Feist GJ, (2009) Theories of Personality, New York New York; McGraw-Hill.
154
155
Interpretations of Joseph Campbell and the Hero’s Journey:https://msu.edu/~jdowell/pdf/Joseph Campbell PathHero.pdf
156
discussa alla facoltà di Scienze linguistiche e letterature straniere, Università Cattolica di Milano, pp.124-125.
22
These concepts, of narrative progression and archetypes, while not explicitly conceptualised for marketers,
nevertheless contain valuable insights into the ways in which brands can exploit narrative structures to better
communicate with their audience. Storytelling, as will be further elaborated upon in section 1.2, allows brands
to harness the universally recognisable structure of narratives to tell their own stories, shape brand identity, and
connect to consumers on an emotional level.157 To captivate an audience, whether it be children listening to a
bedtime story or consumers to which a product is to be sold, it is essential to understand the role of storytelling
in doing so.
An example of the practical application of Campbell’s narrative scheme for marketers can be found in
the recent “Welcome Home” advert for Apple’s HomePod Home, directed by the legendary Spike Jonze.158
Figure 8. The Hero’s Journey in Apple’s “Welcome Home” Marketing Campaign - (2018)
157
158
HomePod™, "Welcome Home," directed by Spike Jonze, last seen 28 May 2019
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=209&v=BLAnTQfFXOI
23
1. The story begins with our hero, who lives a prosaic life in an anonymous city, hemmed in on all sides
her humdrum existence
2. When our protagonist turns on her HomePod, her environment begins to expand, signalling her call to
adventure. There moment where she appears to question whether or not she should engage with this
extraordinary force
3. Once she heeds the call to adventure, the walls are gradually coaxed open, after which the hero of the
advert crosses the threshold into an extraordinary, beautifully vibrant world
4. There is a moment of doubt, in which the protagonist questions whether she really wants to continue her
journey or return to the relative safety of the ordinary world
5. She then enters a cave of color and light, moving deeper into the terrain of the extraordinary world
6. She then encounters a literal reflection of herself, with whom she dances
7. She is called home to the ordinary world
8. She looks back at the world she's leaving behind, as if contemplating what she's learned and want she
can now impart on the ordinary world
9. Our hero travels back to the ordinary world
10. She returns to exactly where she started, on the couch in her once again ordinary apartment, visibly
transformed into someone happier and more full of life
After her adventure, our hero returns transformed by the knowledge that a high-quality device makes a space
feel bigger and more vibrant, rendering the message of the campaign clear: Buy Apple HomePod, and you too
can feel this apotheosis.
1.1.7 Christopher Vogler: A Practical Application of Campbell’s Theories

“A myth... is a metaphor for a mystery beyond human comprehension. It is a comparison that helps us understand, by
analogy, some aspect of our mysterious selves. A myth, in this way of thinking, is not an untruth but a way of reaching a
profound truth.”
― Christopher Vogler159
In his interpretation of Campbell’s theory of narrative archetypes, The Writer’s Journey, the American
cinematographer and screenwriter Christopher Vogler has argued that Campbell’s archetypes, far from being
rigidly defined, are infinitely flexible and varied.160 In his reading of Campbell, he posits that archetypes,
fundamentally, are expressions of the society from which they have arisen, and, while certain themes are
159
Vogler, C. (1998) THe Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers. Los Angeles: Michael Weise Productions.
160
Vogler C., Il viaggio dell‘eroe.(2010) La struttura del mito ad uso di scrittori di narrativa e cinema, Dino Audino editore, Roma, p.27.
24
universal, they are coloured by the historical context from which they sprung.161 In Vogler’s view, stories are
inherently shaped by the context in which they are told: history dictates their structure; convictions dictate their
characters and plots; and, the storyteller dictates the theme, tone, and mood.162 Accordingly, storytellers must
then define context as well as content, motive, and objective, before then identifying who it is they want to tell.
Perhaps most importantly, Vogler emphasises the need to define one’s audience, or target audience, as of
primary importance for storytellers.163
In the context of marketing, the use of archetypes in storytelling gains importance as a means by which
to effectively reach a target audience, therefore, marketers must first understand what it is that will best reach
the hearts and mind of consumers.164 It is then imperative for marketers to carefully identify not just consumer’s
needs, but also their values and beliefs, their habits and preferences, and the language with which best to reach
them: in essence, marketers need to understand what stories their audience want to hear.165 Through the lens of
Vogler’s interpretation, Campbell’s archetypes can be surmised as being such for marketers:
The Hero The individual consumer, who is on a quest to find a treasure, in this case the product or
service
The Mentor A trusted person, possibly a celebrity or influencer, who offers expert advice and opinions
on a product or service
The Threshold Threshold experiences in life, such as ceremonies or other major life events, where the
Guardian consumer must make choices about how to act
The Messenger Someone, perhaps a friend or acquaintance, who encourages the consumer to make
changes
The Shapeshifter A force which causes the consumer to doubt product choices, this could be an offer from a
competitor or the negative judgement of a mentor in respect to a particular brand
The Shadow Doubts, fears, and questioning about purchasing a brand’s products or services
The Trickster The consumer’s desire to change166
By identifying these figures in the consumer’s narrative of product purchasing and brand engagement, marketers
are better able to construct stories which appeal to the consumer on an individual level, making him the
protagonist and hero of his own journey.
161
Ibidem.
162
Ibidem.
163
164
165
Ibidem.
166
Nudd T. G., Schwart R., Royer T., Hepinstall K. (2012), “7 Basic Types of Stories: Which One Is Your Brand Telling?”, Adweek.
http://www.ninjamarketing.it/2012/11/19/raccontare-il- brand-attarverso-sette-modelli-narrativi/
25
An example of Vogler’s narrative scheme in regards to marketing emerges from Lotto New Zealand’s
2018 marketing campaign; although, it should be noted, that in this particular example, not all of the stages of
the hero’s journey are shown, but rather are merely implied.167The advert begins with a story already in
progress, where the protagonist, a young boy, doughy boy named Dylan, who we can infer is subpar peewee
athlete.168 The ball that rolls in the opening shots to Dylan is representative of his call to adventure, and the
kick is his way of crossing the mythical threshold that separates the bold from the timid. He avoids enemies, has
a moment of reflection where he confronts his own limitations, and eventually succeeds in his ordeal to pass the
ball. The apotheosis, in which the young hero of the advertisement feels "the tectonic plates of his life shifting"
as he ascends to a new realm of greatness communicates a single, simple message to audiences: if you win the
lottery, you will feel like a kid who's just kicked the game-winning ball. This message, told in the form of an
easily understood story, which is relatable above all else, is emblematic of the use of narrative in a marketing
context.
Figure 9. New Zealand Lotto “Dylan” Marketing Campaign - (2018)
169
167
The Aretical (2019), The Hero’s Journey in Advertising, last seen 28 may 2019, http://www.thearetical.com/blog/the-heros-journey-in-advertising
168
Dylan Lotto New Zealand Ad, (2018), Last Seen 28 may 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=60&v=fegb2SqFCBA
169
Dylan Lotto New Zealand Ad, (2018), Last Seen 28 may 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=60&v=fegb2SqFCBA
26
1.1.8 Christopher Booker
“We are in fact uncovering nothing less than a kind of hidden, universal language: a nucleus of situations and figures which
are the very stuff from which stories are made.”
- Christopher Booker170
Continuing in the vein of Propp, Campbell, and Vogler, the British journalist and author, has identified seven
basic plot structures to which narratives adhere. Just as there are significant insights which can be gleaned from
the narratological analysis of his predecessors for marketers, so too does Booker’s work provide value tools for
corporate storytellers.171 Summarised below are the seven essential plots which he has identified:
Overcoming the The hero is charged with defeating an evil force

Monster
Rags to Riches The protagonist rises from poverty to great wealth in an arduous journey
The Quest The protagonist endures a long journey, replete with dangers and trials to test his or
her mettle, in search of a treasure
Voyage and Return The protagonist finds himself in a strange land and must make the long journey to
return to his or her place of origin
Comedy The protagonist, who is light and cheerful, must overcome conflict to arrive at a
happy ending, or resolution
Tragedy A character flaw or ill-fate leads the protagonist to an unfortunate end, either due to
punishment or death
Rebirth An event, or series of events, forces the protagonist to amend his or her behaviour
and becomes a better person in the end
By tapping into Booker’s insights on plot structure and typology, marketers can better craft stories that feel
organic and authentic to consumers, while at the same time being easily comprehensible to them.172 Just as
Vogler’s insights into Campbell’s archetypes can be employed to good effect to help consumers identify with a
brand’s story, so too can plot be used to encourage consumers to see themselves as engaged in the narrative,
with themselves as the protagonists.173
170
Booker C.,(2006),The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories, Bloomsbury Academic
171
Ibidem.
172
173
Ibidem.
27
In addition, Booker contends that while all narratives fall within his scheme of categorisation, there a
select few archetypal structures which are of particular use to marketers and advertisers, as are highlighted
below:
Overcoming the monster: The classic David versus Goliath narrative structure is often used by firms
seeking to outshine a bigger, more powerful competitor. One such example is Apple’s classic 1984
advert, which introduced the Macintosh PC to consumers while directly attacking its larger competitor,
IBM, as illustrated in the figure below:
Figure 10. Apple Macintosh - (1984)
Rags to riches: A particularly popular narrative theme for the American market, rags to riches stories are
exceptionally useful for myth building round brand founders, such as has been seen in the case of
Howard Shultz, Oprah, or Richard Branson. These types of stories are especially effective when the
protagonist faces numerous setbacks to return victorious.
The quest: Storylines which follow the quest model take audiences on a journey where there is a clearly
defined goal, such as the founding of a business. This is in line with the movement towards greater
transparency, especially in startups.
28
Rebirth: During the course of the story, events transpire to force change in the protagonist, rendering
him or her a better person and greater leader. This is seen in the myth building surrounding figures like
Steve Jobs, who was fired from Apple and later returned triumphantly, or Elon Musk, who was fired
from PayPal and went on to found Tesla and Space X.
1.2 Corporate Storytelling
“Stories constitute the single most powerful weapon in a leader’s arsenal.”
Dr. Howard Gardner174
As has been elaborated in the preceding section, storytelling is not just one of the oldest, but also one of the
most powerful, forms of communication.175 Stories contain a power so potent, not just because they are with us
from birth;176 but, also because they are easily remembered;177 their narrative being much more compelling than
facts and figures; their tales more affective than cold reason.178 Indeed, stories hold such sway over the mind
that memories are narratives in and of themselves, information being indexed, stored, and retrieved in the form
of tales we tell ourselves.179 On a social level, their power holds true, allowing us to make connections, form
bonds, express ourselves and our experiences, and make sense of the world through the stories we tell to one
another.180
It should come as no surprise then that marketers and academics alike have come to view storytelling,
and the insights gleaned through narratology, as an interpretive tool to better understand the ways in which
consumers structure, process, and judge their consumption experiences.181 While those in academia have largely
contented themselves to applying storytelling as an interpretative methodology of consumers’ intentions and
behaviours, those in the corporate world, working in advertising, communication, branding, and management,
have turned to stories as a means by which to better reach those listening.182 As a tool, storytelling has proved
itself effective time and again for manifold purposes: from affecting the perceptions of stakeholders; to
differentiating a brand from its competitors; to shaping consumers’ purchase intentions; to building brand
identity, credibility, and reputation.183 The strength of stories has also been demonstrated from an internal
174
Gardner, H. https://www.gse.harvard.edu/faculty/howard-gardner
175
Kaufman, B. (2003). Stories that sell, stories that tell. Journal of Business Strategy, 24(2), 11-15.
176
Worth, S. E. (2008),Storytelling and narrative knowing: An examination of the epistemic benefits of well-told stories. Journal of Aesthetic
Education, 42(3), 42-56.
177
Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J., & van Riel, A. (2013),The impact of storytelling on the consumer brand experience: The case of a
firm-originated story. Journal of Brand Management, 20(4), 283-297.
178
179
Schank, R. C. (1999). Dynamic memory revisited. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
180
Fischer, W. (1985). The narrative paradigm: In the beginning. Journal of Communication, 35, 74-89.
181
Adawal, R., & Wyer, R. S. (1998). The role of narratives in consumer information processing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 7(3), 207-245.
182
Escalas, J. E. (2004). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1&2), 168-179.
183
Janssen, S., Van Dalfsen, C. K. A., Van Hoof, J. J., & Van Vuuren, M. (2012). Balancing uniqueness and similarity: A content analysis of textual
characteristics in Dutch corporate stories. Public Relations Review, 38(1), 32-39.
29
perspective184 as storytelling has been found to encourage employee engagement,185 and as a fundraising and
recruitment tool.186
Storytelling, with its demonstrable impact on the affective responses of listeners,187 is an ideal tool by
which to build a brand and should be a central focus of any communications strategy intended to strengthen the
brand externally.188 Inspiring consumers and captivating their imaginations through the use of stories is now
seen as the principal means by which brands are able to forge meaningful, affective bonds with the public.189
These emotional bonds lead in turn to more favourable associations with the brand and help to distinguish it for
the sea of its competitors.190 Moreover, well-crafted narratives which tell the story of a brand’s origin have the
proven potential to influence consumer perceptions,191 even when those brands have fallen from public favour
and have been long abandoned.192 This is due to the persuasive effects of storytelling, as elaborated earlier in
Chapter One.193 Succinctly put, stories are simply more memorable than other forms of communication as they
touch their listeners emotionally and factually: they have the power to both educate and move their audiences.
Consumers who are exposed to brand stories have better brand experiences, better understand the benefits of the
product or service, and have fewer negative perceptions overall.194
These effects can be explained by what is known as narrative transportation theory,195 which postulates
that when consumers are told stories they become immersed or otherwise absorbed by them, and thus
transported. It is this process of transportation, in which narrative processing is given prominence over
analytical processing, which imbues stories with their persuasive effects.196 Narrative processing, it should also
be noted, leads to fewer negative thoughts, stronger emotional responses, and a decreased ability to analyse
critical arguments:197 certainly an attractive state of affairs for those in the business of persuasion.198 However,
184
Roper, S., & Fill, C. (2012). Corporate reputation, brand and communication. Harlow: Pearson.
185
Ibidem..
186
Fog, K., Budtz, C., & Yakaboylu, B. (2005). Storytelling - Branding in practice. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
187
Van Laer, T., Ruyter, K. D., Vsconti, L. M., & Wetzels, M. (2014). The extended transportation-imagery model: A meta-analysis of the
antecedents and consequences of consumers’ narrative transportation. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 797-817.
188
189
Escalas, J. E. (2004). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1&2), 168-179;
190
Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J., & van Riel, A. (2013), The impact of storytelling on the consumer brand experience: The case of a
firm-originated story. Journal of Brand Management, 20(4), 283-297.
191
Schmitt, B., Zarantonello, L., & Brakus, J. (2009). Brand experience: What is it? How is it measured? Does it affect loyalty? Journal of
Marketing, 73(3), 52-68.
192
Brown, S., Kozinets, R. V., & Sherry, J., Jr. (2003). Teaching old brands new tricks: Retro branding and the revival of brand meaning. Journal of
Marketing, 67(July), 19-33.
193
Thompson, C. J., Rindfleisch, A., & Arsel, Z. (2006). Emotional branding and the strategic value of the Doppelgänger brand image. Journal of
Marketing, 70(January), 50L 64.
194
Mossberg, L. (2008). Extraordinary experiences through storytelling. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 8(3), 195-210.
195
Edson Escalas, J. (2004) Imagine Yourself in the Product: Mental Simulation, Narrative Transportation, and Persuasion, Journal of Advertising,
33:2, 37-48,
196
Ibidem.
197
Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2002). In the mind’s eye: Transportation-imagery model of narrative persuasion. In M. C. Green, J. J. Strange, & T.
C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 315-341). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30
it is not enough to simply tell a story to engage an audience, for transportation to occur a certain level of
attention must be paid to the crafting of a story on the part of the teller, and, on the part of the listener, a
willingness to receive the message which the story imparts.199 This process may be helped or hindered by
idiosyncratic experience and preexisting knowledge of the story’s topic, along with personal factors such as
gender and education.200 Despite the clear benefits of using storytelling as a means of persuasion, perplexingly
stories continue to be an underexploited form of brand communication.201
1.2.1 Storytelling in Marketing: A History
“And do you know what is the most-often missing ingredient in a sales message? It’s the sales message that doesn’t tell an
interesting story. Storytelling - good storytelling - is a vital component of a marketing campaign.” - Gary Halbert202
Working from the premise that storytelling is a natural human process by which individuals organise their
experiences, the insights gained into the ways in which narration affects both perception and behaviour can be
extrapolated to include consumption contexts.203 Indeed, researchers and scholars working in diverse fields have
begun studying how consumers view their exposure to and experiences with stories told by brands, a process
which has only intensified in the years since the widespread introduction of social media.204 From these studies
has emerged an understanding of the four basic capabilities of brand storytelling, which can be defined as the
ability: to give meaning and identity to a brand; to make sense of reality; to orient the consumer within the
market; and, to understand and categorise the individual experiences of consumers.205
Understanding a story to be ‘‘an oral or written performance involving two or more people interpreting
past or anticipated experiences’’206 in which a ‘‘series of events in a specific order, with a beginning, a middle
and an end”207 take place, we can further identity chronology, causality, and character development as being
essential hallmarks of any story. In the context of brand storytelling, chronology implies that the narrative
198
Love, H. (2008). Unraveling the technique of storytelling. Strategic Communication Management, 12(4), 24-27.
199
Van Laer, T., Ruyter, K. D., Vsconti, L. M., & Wetzels, M. (2014). The extended transportation-imagery model: A meta-analysis of the
antecedents and consequences of consumers’ narrative transportation. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 797-817.
200
Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2002). In the mind’s eye: Transportation-imagery model of narrative persuasion. In M. C. Green, J. J. Strange, &
T. C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 315-341). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
201
Barker, R. T., & Gower, K. (2010). Strategic application of storytelling in organizations. Toward effective communication in a diverse world.
Journal of Business Communication, 47(3), 295-312.
202
Halbert, G. (2003). http://www.thegaryhalbertletter.com/
203
Chiu, H. C., Hsieh, Y. C., & Kuo, Y. C. (2012). How to align your brand stories with your products. Journal of Retailing, 88(2), 262-275.
204
205
Ibidem.
206
Boje, D. M. (1995). Stories of the storytelling organization: A postmodern analysis of Disney as Tamara-Land. Academy of Management Journal,
38(4), 997-1035.
207
Bennet, A., & Royle, N. (2004). An introduction to literature, criticism and theory. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited, p.55.
31
content of an advertisement be temporal, in essence, it too must have a beginning, middle, and end.208 While
causality necessitates that there be a temporal relationship between events in the advertisement: it must tell a
story with an obstacle to overcome and a treasure to be won.209 Finally, the protagonist of the story, be it in a 30
second spot or an epic, must reach the audience on an emotional level, revealing his or her psychological state in
some way.210 Thus, we can say that brand storytelling rests on the telling of a story, set within a factual or
fictional framework, as a means to communicate something about the brand’s origins, its founder and history, its
highs and lows, its values and mission - in short, the brand’s identity.211 In order to do so effectively, a brand’s
story must be authentic, concise, reversible, and humorous; however, the value of each of these elements is
dependent upon the product type experience, it should be noted.212
It should come as no surprise then that marketers have begun to exploit storytelling practices in order to
improve metrics of marketing success, such as brand awareness and conversion rates.213 The need to generate
“valuable, relevant, and compelling content”214 has driven marketers to shift their tact from creating
transactional advertisements to content, stories which intertwine consumers’ experiences, aspirations, and
perceptions with brand initiatives.215 At a strategic level, narrative content creation, and storytelling more
generally, ties in seamlessly to the concept of branding, inasmuch as they both seek to engage with consumers
effectively and affectively. At the heart of this desire is the need to communicate with the masses on a level
which is intuitively understood by all; “a core story [that] is the set of brand values transformed into a single,
unique, meaningful message, an expression of the company's culture.”216 Thus, it can be said that storytelling -
as a marketing resource, a tool to regulate social relationships, a means of communication, a device by which to
educate and train, and a management strategy - is one of the most powerful "persuasion weapons"217 in any
marketers arsenal.
Narrative has not always been part of the marketers’ arsenal to the extent which it is seen today;
however, it has been an essential medium by which to tell brands’ stories for nearly a century, if not longer. As
early as the 1930s in the United States and the advent of radio and television, it has been understood that stories
208
209
210
Deighton, J., Romer, D., & McQueen, J. (1989). Using drama to persuade. Journal of Consumer Research, 16(3), 335-343.
211
Fog, K., Budtz, C., & Yakaboylu, B. (2005). Storytelling - Branding in practice. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
212
213
Schembri, S., B. Merrilees, and S. Kristiansen. "Brand Consumption and Narrative of the Self." Psychology & Marketing, vol. 27, no. 6, 2010, pp.
623-637.
214
Pulizzi, Joe. "The Rise of Storytelling as the New Marketing." Publishing Research Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2, 2012, pp. 116-123.
215
Salmon C. (2008): Storytelling. La fabbrica delle storie, Fazi, Roma.
216
Godin S. (2009), All Marketers are Liars: The Power of Telling Authentic Stories in a Low-Trust World, Portfolio, U.S.A.
217
Salmon C. (2008): Storytelling. The story factory, Fazi, Rome.
32
are able to captivate audiences in a way that traditional advertisements cannot.218 The soap operas of the early
twentieth century, which were born out of long-form advertisements designed to promote and strengthen the
reputation of detergent manufacturers, are just one example of this history.219 Looking to the marketing
strategies popularised in the 1950s and ‘60s, we see a holistic transformation of the industry.220 In the heyday of
advertising, the era of the so-called Mad Men, a transactional approach was the primary strategy in use, in
which marketers concerned themselves with capturing an ever growing share of the market and volume.221
However, as advertisements grew in their ubiquity, so too did consumer awareness and understanding of the
mechanisms behind the campaigns, making it progressively more difficult to catch market attention and reach
goals of scale.222
This led in turn to the development of the relationship model of marketing, which sought to foster long-
term, two-sided relationships between consumers and brands; a task facilitated by an increasing reliance on
storytelling.223 It was no longer enough to enumerate the assorted benefits of a brand’s products or services to
sway consumers,224 the public wanted to be told a story, to know where the brand began, where they are now,
and what they plan to do in the future.225 This process coincided with the zenith of mass communication brought
about by the television which occurred in the 1980s, in which brands began to focus on conveying their value
through the use of microstories.226
The economic and technological boom of the 1990s, and the widespread introduction on the Internet,
only intensified the pace of communication, forcing advertising to become sharper, more graphic, and more
intuitive.227 These developments, in parallel to the rise of mass communication technology, have arrived at
present in the digital era and the narrative worlds which exist on social media. Online storytelling, as will be
further discussed in Chapter Two, places the brand in a subordinate role in the story, and instead positions the
218
Ibidem.
219
Ibidem.
220
Ibidem.
221
Christopher M. (2002),Relationship Marketing. vol. [Rev. ed.], Routledge, EBSCOhost,
lib.tcu.edu/PURL/EZproxy_link.asp?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,uid&db=nlebk&AN=86066&site
=ehost-live.
222
Fransen, Marieke L., Peeter W.J. Verlegh, Amna Kirmani, and Edith G. Smit (2015), “A Typology of Consumer Strategies for Resisting
Advertising, and a Review of Mechanisms for Countering Them,” International Journal of Advertising.
223
Christopher, M.(2002), Relationship Marketing. vol. [Rev. ed.], Routledge, EBSCOhost,
lib.tcu.edu/PURL/EZproxy_link.asp?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,uid&db=nlebk&AN=86066&site
=ehost-live.
224
Pham, M. T. H. (2013). Susie Bubble is a sign of the times: The embodiment of success in the Web 2.0 economy. Feminist Media Studies, 13,
245–267.
225
Butcher K. (2018), Tell me a story: applying storytelling concepts to marketing initiatives, Departmental Honors in the Department of Marketing,
Christian University, Texas.
226
See in this regard http://www.ninjamarketing.it/2011/11/23/lim Terrace-dello-storytelling-per-la- advertising /.
227
lib.tcu.edu/PURL/EZproxy_link.asp?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&AuthType=cookie,ip,uid&db=nlebk&AN=86066&site=ehost-live.
33
brand as the animus by which to shape the story and brings it into being, seeking to forge relationships and
touch heart strings, not educate or inform.228
Relationship marketing attempts to establish contact with and, subsequently, consistent interaction with
a customer, as a means by which to foster a sense of brand loyalty between the two parties. However, in order to
implement an effective relationship marketing strategy, a business must first implement the strategy across all
business functions so as to keep the strategy from being siloed to solely marketing objectives;” and second, it
must emphasise “customer retention over customer acquisition.”229 The diagram below illustrates the
differences the relationship between transactional and relationship marketing:
Figure 11. The relationship between transactional and relationship marketing - Christopher (2002)
How did marketing arrive at this point? What has been the driving force behind the transformation
which has occurred in the marketing world in recent years? The term storytelling, as understood not in the
conventional sense but as applied to corporate storytelling, first emerged in the 1990s in the United States;
228
See in this regard http://www.ninjamarketing.it/2011/11/23/lim Terrace-dello-storytelling-per-la- advertising /.
229
lib.tcu.edu/PURL/EZproxy_link.asp?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t
rue&AuthType=cookie,ip,uid&db=nlebk&AN=86066&site=ehost-live.
34
although, as indicated in the previous section, the concept itself is an ancient one.230 Notwithstanding narrative’s
vast history as a more general tool of communication, education, and sense making of the world, the medium as
applied to marketing can only be said to have gained prominence within the last fifteen years.231 It is within this
period of time that marketers have shifted their focus from the product, to its logo, to its story: from brand
image to brand story, in effect.232 Indeed, brand storytelling has never been more widely used as a marketing
tool, and, aided by social media, never have stories spread more quickly or to a greater audience.233 This has led
to a situation in which stories created by brands are no longer in the complete control of those who produced
them, so are effective are they are communicating their message.234
Despite the loss of control that storytelling may entail for brands, storytelling remains a powerful
communication tool to be capitalised on, as is supported by the literature in the field.235 This is due to the power
of narrative to distinguish a brand from its competitors and ensure that it is perceived by consumers as being
more than just another interchangeable and easily replaceable commodity.236 In addition, it has been proven
that storytelling leads to unique, positive brand associations, which serve to heighten brand equity;237 better
communicate brand values;238 strengthen consumers’ affective brand connections;239 and encourage positive
brand attitudes and purchases intentions.240
These positive aspects of consumer - brand relationships built on storytelling, however, do not come
without their difficulties, the burden of which falling squarely on the business itself.241 In order to forge long-
term relationships with consumers, brands need to carefully consider the stories they tell and how they tell
them.242 The need for storytelling has grown so great in recent years that the position of Chief Storyteller or
Chief Content Officer, a formerly unknown role in the era prior to the advent of social media, has become an
essential position to be filled for untold companies.243 Content creation, or the telling of stories as it may be
rightly labelled, allows brands to shape compelling narratives that consumers want to be part of, which in turn
increases word-of-mouth advertising, resulting in a heightened attachment to the brand by existing customers
230
Giorgino F., Mazzù M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea, p.116.
231
Ibidem.
232
Ibidem.
233
Ibidem.
234
Henning-Thurau, T., Malthouse, E. C., Friege, C., Gensler, S., Lob- schat, L., Rangaswamy, A., & Skiera, B. (2010). The impact of new media on
customer relationships. Journal of Service Research, 13(3), 311-330.
235
Muniz, A.J., Schau,H.J.(2007).Vigilante marketing and consumer-created communications. Journal of Advertising, 36(3), 35-50.
236
Kaufman, B. (2003). Stories that sell, stories that tell. Journal of Business Strategy, 24(2), pp.11-15.
237
Lundqvist, A., Liljander, V., Gummerus, J., & van Riel, A. (2013),The impact of storytelling on the consumer brand experience: The case of a
firm-originated story. Journal of Brand Management, 20(4), pp.283-297.
238
Herskovitz, S., & Crystal, M. (2010). The essential brand persona: Storytelling and branding. Journal of Business Strategy, 31(3),pp. 21-28.
239
Escalas, J. E. (2004). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(1&2), 168-179.
Herskovitz & Crystal, 2010),
240
241
Giorgino F., Mazzù M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea, p.116
242
243
Pulizzi, Joe. "The Rise of Storytelling as the New Marketing." Publishing Research Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2, 2012, pp. 116-123.
35
and a rise in new followers.244 Telling stories, by sharing thoughts and experiences, is such a powerful action
that it can be likened to the pleasure we feel when we indulge in sex, food, and exercise - three activities with a
rich literature on the effects they cause to the reward centre of the brain.245 In addition, with the growth of so-
called “second-screen technology,” such as tablets and smartphones, the ability to interact with consumers is
even further heightened, allowing brands more frequent opportunities to tell their stories and create new
occasions for customer engagement.246
This type of engagement, between brand and consumer, mirrors the traditional relationship between the
storyteller and the audience, as truly effective narration not only communicates experience, but draws the
listener in and prompts self-identification with the story; thereby engendering a level of personal investment in
the story that would not otherwise exist. As has been noted by scholars such as Woodside, audiences best relate
to stories through point of communion known as indices, which are formed round shared experiences that kindle
a sense of connectivity between the storyteller, the story, and the audience.247 In addition,
Indices in stories can cause automatic (implicit) awareness, comprehension, and empathy among
listeners/viewers...the more indices we have for a story that is being told, the more places the story can
reside in memory. Consequently, we are more likely to remember a story [vs. a lecture] and to relate the
story to experiences already in memory...the more indices, the greater the number of comparisons with
prior experiences and hence the greater learning.248
Looking to indices as specific moments within a narrative in which the storyteller, or content creator as it may
be, has a heightened capacity to touch his or her audience on an emotional level leaving behind a memorable
impact, reveals an opportunity for brand engagement that should not be underestimated. If storytelling as
applied to marketing is understood as being more than just convincing a customer to purchase a product, but
instead a process involving him or her in the narration of a relatable, emotionally resonant story, indices then
serve as entry points into a life story in which may also include acts of purchase.249
Such indices are a fundamental component of mediating consumer-brand relationships through digital
technology today, in which there is an “unprecedented scale to interactivity, viral marketing, and consumer-
generated content.”250 In as much, indices serve as unique opportunities for brand communication, in
combination with the tools of modern consumer research, including: CDJ (consumer decision journey) analysis;
244
245
Mancuso, J., & Stuth, K. (2014.),A Portrait of Modern Media, https://www.ama.org/publications/MarketingInsights/Pages/a-portrait-of-modern-
media.aspx
246
Ibidem.
247
Woodside, AG.(2010) "Brand-Consumer Storytelling Theory and Research: Introduction to a Psychology & Marketing Special Issue." Psychology
& Marketing, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 531-540.
248
Ibidem.
249
Salmon C. (2008), Storytelling. La fabbrica delle storie, Roma, Fazi. p.34
250
Dahlstrom, P, et al. (2019) Digital and Multichannel Excellence, McKinsey & Company. Accessed 30 April, 2019
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/consumer-packaged-goods/how-we-help-clients/digital-and-multichannel-excellence
36
transactional analysis of clickstreams and online buzz; and Enhanced Marketing Mix Modeling (E-MMM).251
These factors compose what is known as “Social Media GRPs,” which is a proprietary metric designed to
measure brand impact on social media.252 In addition, it may be used in a multi-channel context, to accelerate
sales growth across channels, by indicating opportunities for engagement, such as the sort which is typically
brought about by the usage of narrative techniques in the construction of content for social media.253
Within the myriad ways in which we as humans convey our experiences and inner worlds to the larger
world around us exist many possibilities for engagement. We may use thought processes ranging from rational
decision making to symbolic portrayals of self to communicate our beliefs, values, and priorities, but, in essence
we have an “inherent desire to communicate who we are.”254 Our social and cultural practices, including those
centred on product consumption, are likewise means by which to relate our values to the world.255 Indeed, brand
consumption, the study of “how consumers use brands to construct their self through the utilization of emotions
and interaction”256 provides keen insights as to how individuals express their beliefs, values, priorities, and
identity to the larger world around them, revealing correlations between political affiliations and value with
even inconsequential, quotidian purchases.257 Even in situations involving high-risk decisions and luxury
products, the desire for consumers to express something of themselves to the world, to “makes a statement about
me”258 is present.
As has been proven time and again, the choices consumers make are intrinsically tied to the need for
self-expression, a desire so potent that even brands themselves take on human traits in the customer’s mind,
forming a humanistic relationship between the consumer and the product.259 As has been illustrated by
Fournier,260 a brand has the capacity to be an active relationship partner, in either a two-way or three-way
relationship between the brand, consumer, and/ or community opinion.261 The extreme degree to which
consumers associate and identify with chosen brand obligates marketers to craft stories which do not merely
represent the brand, but also are relatable to the target audience;262 a process which has only intensified with the
251
Ibidem.
252
Ibidem.
253
Ibidem.
254
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life.
255
Schembri S. (2009), « Reframing brand experience: the experiential meaning of Harley- Davidson », Journal of Business Research, Vol. 62, 1299-
1310.
256
Ibidem.
257
Khan, M. 2018. How to Create a Mind-Blowing Instagram Video Strategy, April 2019, https://www.jeffbullas.com/create-mind-blowing-
instagram-video-strategy/
258
Maynard, M. (2007), Say “hybrid” and many people will hear “Prius.” The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com
259
Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 24, 343-
373.
260
Ibidem.
261
Belk, R. W. (1988),Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 139- 168.
262
37
widespread introduction of the Internet in the early 2000s, and the subsequent emergence of social media
platforms, like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and the ilk.
The growth of social media has radically altered our shared conception of storytelling, and with each
new platform comes new challenges and new opportunities for marketers and their campaigns. The days of a
one-way exchange between a company and a customer no longer exist, and storytelling has asserted itself as an
increasingly effective and widely accepted tool to facilitate two-way communication between brands and their
target audiences.263 In contemporary marketing, therefore, a radically assessment of the industry’s aims needs to
be undertaken. It is not enough for the consumer to be satisfied by a particular product or service nowadays,
instead the history, the identity, the story which accompanies the purchase needs to be conveyed to the
customer. This heightened necessity has led to a situation in which, as some scholars have argued, “the need to
believe in today's consumer brands can be compared to the need of the ancient Greeks to believe in their own
myths.”264
1.2.2 Corporate storytelling, People storytelling
“Marketing is no longer about the stuff that you make, but about the stories you tell.”
- Seth Godin265
To summarise the findings of the preceding section, narration gives meaning where there was none, it organises
information and experiences in a manner which is easily comprehensible to most, and helps us to define
identity, forge bonds, and understand the greater world around us. Whether the story be mythical, emotional,
allegorical, it generates a sense of belonging in its listeners and creates desire to engage and become
involved:266 an attractive proposition for any marketer. Storytelling constitutes: entering into a relationship with
the other; revealing parts of oneself that are normally kept hidden; entertaining while involving the audience;
and creating a connection along the way.267 Brands, and they products and services they offer, cannot exist in
isolation, they are dependent upon the world around them, with the exception being monopoly situations or dire
necessity; therefore, it is incumbent upon marketers to engage with storytelling and learn how to tell a good
story.268
The secret to storytelling is understanding what it is about stories that spark our imagination, touch our
heartstrings, and cause us to identity with others. We need look no further than the entertainment industry to
realise the power of narration. In 2017 alone, “Americans spen[t] $10 billion a year going to movies and 35
263
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri (2014), Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity, p.28.
264
Lewis G. (1998), L’ Odyssée des marques, Paris.
265
Godin, S. (2018) https://www.sethgodin.com/
266
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli,p.35.
267
Ibidem.
268
38
hours a week of TV. Add to that, video games are a $15 billion industry.”269 It has been postulated that
entertainment generally, and the stories found in television, film, novels, and videogames more specifically, are
so compelling because the narrative form they assume mimics the way in which our brains function. As
communications expert Rob Biesenbach has noted, “when we hear a story, it triggers the same area of the brain
as when we experience an event. There is little distinction between story and experience”270 at a neurological
level. Stories deepen emotion understanding and connection, transforming their audiences: an invaluable
instrument for any brand attempting to reveal their value to a customer.271 Corporate storytelling, like those
narratives shared by individuals, contain multiple dimensions, as elaborated below:272
Fig. 12 The Multiple Dimensions of Corporate Storytelling - Fontana (2016)
The individualistic dimension: the stories we tell to ourselves about who we are and what our values are;
The Social-organisational dimension: the stories we tell to others and how that information is organised
in a manner which is intelligible to the group;
The legal/ regulatory dimension: the form which stories take and the stories we choose to tell as
informed by social and legal rules that exist within a specific group settling to which we belong.273
269
Odell, Patty. “How to Unleash the Power of Storytelling in Marketing.” Chief Marketer, 15 April 2019, www.chiefmarketer.com/how-to-unleash-
the-power-of-storytelling-in-marketing/.
270
Ibidem.
271
272
273
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli, p.23.
39
It is essential to identify and clarify the dimension in which the stories told by brands function to better
anticipate their impact on the public.
In corporate storytelling, the story of the brand, the work of the collective endeavors of a company are
highlighted, including the brand’s origins and history, the founder(s) and those employed, the processes by
which the organisation carries out its activities, the product or service the brand offers, and, perhaps most
importantly, the identity and values which the brand entails.274 These stories are told from the perspective of
consumption, which colours their telling and reception by the audience.275 We can state, therefore, that
storytelling serves a number of distinct purposes in the corporate world, some of which overlap with the
functions of individual and organisational storytelling, and some of which are unique to brand narratives, as
stated below:
1. As a means of organising mental activity, such as is seen in autobiographical memory and the concept of
narrative as the defining feature of humanity, homo narrans;
2. As a device by which to generate value through consumption, consumption narratives;
3. As a socialisation tool and a means by which to create and share social knowledge, epistemic gossip;
4. As a means of day-to-day consumption, lifestyle and experiential marketing;
5. As a supervision process to regulate sensory input and to practise specific skills, gatekeeping;
6. As a educational aid that makes use of different forms of media to align the stories of individuals with
the stories told by the group, cohesion narratives.276
As storytelling grows progressively more important to company promotion, further nuances and declinations of
narration will doubtlessly emerge; however, what is clear from a close examination of the last fifteen years is
that it is not enough simply to build a brand, we must begin to tell stories about it, stories which shape the
brand’s image and communicate its history and values in some essential way.277 A communication strategy
based on these principles, and fundamentally rooted in the desire to create a connection between “the creation,
extraction and regeneration of the value of a brand”278 forms a state in which all products are stories and
marketing is storytelling.279 Narratives, therefore, should be considered to represent a replenishable resource
274
275
Ibidem, pp.31-33.
276
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli, p.23
277
Ibidem.
278
Ibidem.
279
Ibidem.
40
that can be exploited time and again as a means by which to generate inspiration, develop strategies, establish
connections with consumers, and, ultimately, persuade customers to purchase a given product or service.280
1.2.3 Practical Insights for Marketers from Storytelling
“Purposeful storytelling isn’t show business, it’s good business.”

- Peter Guber281
Storytelling, traditionally, has been understood to be the telling of stories, however, in the contemporary world
of business, it can also be understood to be an integral component of marketing and strategic planning; and, as a
means by which to build brand identity, communicate brand values, and confer brand value.282 Well-told stories,
as has been suggested by Gunelius, understand how to employ the critical elements of fictional narratives and
tell stories based on facts in tandem.283 Using these tools, stories are able to not just project an image of a
lifestyle desired to be representative of a brand, but can reenforce the consumer’s own lifestyle and values,
thereby creating a positive association with brand identify. Furthermore, relatable stories that feel true to life
have not only the ability to maintain strong tie ties with pre-existing customers, but are also able to attract new
ones.284 In the words of P&G corporate marketing director Roisin Donnelly, “Every story needs to have content
and emotion...the brands that are really succeeding today are the ones that differentiate themselves through
storytelling.”285
To successfully make use of storytelling, companies must rely upon strategic brand management: the
considered design, creation, and execution of a brand.286 Brand management is based upon the principle that
long-term, trusting relationships between consumers and companies are built on emotional ties. Without the
careful fostering and management of such ties, companies fail to add value to their brands, therefore impeding
their ability to maintain and expand their customer base and, ultimately, their ability to succeed financially.287
Advertising has traditionally been considered the most effective means by which to capture and retain the
attention of consumers and is inherently well-suited to the application of narrative, as “every business regardless
of its size or line of business has a story to tell and it is capable to improve their business results by using
280
281
Guber, P. (2019) https://www.peterguber.com/
282
Ibidem.
283
Gunelius, S. (2013), 5 Secrets to Use Storytelling for Brand Marketing Success. Accessed 1 May 2019. http://www.forbes.com/
284
285
Bacon, J. 2013. Brand Storytelling: Narrative Theory. Accessed 27 April 2019. http://www.marketingweek.co.uk/trends/brand-storytelling-
narrative- theory/4007279.article/
286
287
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri,Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity,p. 28
41
storytelling to market their products.”288 This begins with considering every transaction as an opportunity to tell
a story and make a connection.289
In as much, storytelling should be understood as an essential tool for causing breakthroughs between
brands and consumers, as Birkinshaw notes, “Storytelling has always been important in business, of course, but
in today’s environment, with executive and investor attention stretched thin by information overload, the softer
stuff is ever more important for getting ideas noticed.”290It is this “softer stuff,” the content which pulls on
consumers’ heartstrings, which is at the root of any compelling, affective story, and has led many of those in the
corporate word to engage with narrative in the hopes of reinventing their respective business models.291
Storytelling at a corporate level, moreover, shares many of the same traits as individual
storytelling; however, its objectives vary in meaningful ways. While the goal of the stories we tell
ourselves and others as individuals maybe expression or sense making generally, corporate storytelling
seeks to share specific goals with the public and generate sense making operations.292 In order to
achieve these objectives, companies need to understand the type of stories that will compelling their
audiences and how to tell such stories in an appealing manner. Without careful consideration of these
two functional elements of narrative, stories lack credible persuasiveness.293 It is not just enough to tell
any story, any way, instead “in a story, you do not only weave a lot of information into the telling but
you also arouse your listener’s emotions and energy…it demands vivid insight and storytelling skill to
present an idea that packs enough power to be memorable”294
As an increasing number of companies are engaged in an attempt to master social media so as to reap the
untold riches of the medium, it is incumbent upon marketers to look to every possible avenue in which
storytelling exists to discover how storytelling may best be exploited.295
In service of this aim, it is argued by Aaker et al. that marketers must look beyond the private sector to the
world of nonprofits to achieve engagement with audiences, which is defined as “truly making people feel
288
Matthews, R., Wacker, W. (2008),What's Your Story? Storytelling to Move Markets, Audiences, People and Brands. New Jersey: Pearson
Education.
289
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri,Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity,p. 28
290
Birkinshaw, J. (2018) Telling a Good Innovation Story, McKinsey & Company. Accessed 30 April, 2019 https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-
insights/innovation-and-growth/telling-a-good-innovation-story
291
Birkenshaw, J. (2018) Telling a Good Innovation Story, McKinsey & Company. Accessed 30 April, 2019 https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-
insights/innovation-and-growth/telling-a-good-innovation-story
292
Fontana A., (2016), Storytelling d'impresa: La guida definitiva, Milano, Hoepli, p.89-90
293
McKee, R. (2003). Storytelling that moves people: A conversation with screenwriting coach, Robert McKee. Harvard Business Review, 80, 51-55.
294
Ibidem.
295
Aaker, J., Smith, D., Singer, D. (2011) THe power of storytelling: what nonprofits can teach the private sector about social media, McKinsey &
Company. Accessed 30 April, 2019 https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/marketing-and-sales/our-insights/the-power-of-storytelling-what-
nonprofits-can-teach-the-private-sector-about-social-media
42
emotionally connected to helping you achieve your goals through storytelling, authenticity, and establishing a
personal connection.”296 In order to do so, marketers must create messages which:
Empathise with your audience. Audiences must be able to engage with the brand and manner which feel
easily relatable, such as by using images which evoke a sense of empathy and shared experience.297
This is most easily achieved through the telling of compelling stories which force audiences to consider
the reality of the storyteller.298
Emphasise authenticity. Passion, when it is genuinely felt, is contagious, meaning that the more
authenticity is conveyed, the greater connection is wrought.299 This also extends to the need for
transparency, as brand communication should be perceived as being heartfelt, as opposed to in service of
a financial bottomline.300
Match the media with the message. How and where you the story is told is just as important as the
content of the message.301 Thus, mixed-media should be exploited whenever possible. In addition, the
use of celebrity endorsers is highly effective.302
In addition, to fully exploit the power of storytelling in a marketing campaign, marketers need to think
about more than just applying narrative structure or elements of character development to their work; rather,
they need to place the ability to influence consumers’ emotions and psychology at the heart of their strategy. In
order to tap into this ability, stories must contain these essential elements of persuasion:
The story must express why and how change occurs in life: as is further elaborated in Chapter 1.1, stories
typically follow a conventional plot progression, from normalcy to conflict to resolution.303 Compelling stories
take their listeners on a journey in which the ordinary world is thrown off balance and the everyday is eschewed
in favour of change through action. This results in a climax to the action, usually some form of transformation
brought about by meeting a certain goal, after which the protagonist returns home, changed for the better, to set
the world right again.304 The same narrative structure and plot progression can be applied to marketing
campaigns, whereby an ad becomes a journey and a conflict an ideal opportunity to highlight a product as a
solution.
296
Ibidem.
297
Ibidem.
298
Ibidem.
299
Ibidem.
300
Ibidem.
301
Ibidem.
302
Ibidem.
303
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri,Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity,p.28
304
Woodside, A. G. (2010). Brand-consumer storytelling theory and research: Introduction to a Psychology & Marketing special issue.Psychology &
Marketing, 27(6), 531-540.
43
Figure 13. Traditional Narrative Plot - Vu (2016)305
Stories must also give a voice to skeptics:306 skeptics, those who “hunt for the truth beneath the surface of life,
knowing that the real thoughts and feelings of institutions or individuals are unconscious and
unexpressed”307should not be ignored or otherwise suppressed. Rather, by addressing the concerns and
skepticism of the public, marketers are able to subtly build brand integrity, while, at the same time, tell credible,
compelling stories.308
A protagonist must be identified in the story:309 it is essential to establish exactly who is the main character of
any given story, as it is he or she who leads the journey and is, generally, the character to whom and with whom
the audience relates and identifies.310 As the protagonist faces obstacles that impede his or her journey, the
audience’s identification with the hero increases, rendering the story all the more effective.311 In the context of
marketing, due to the hesitancy and skepticism the general public has towards trusting the voice of brands, more
effective inroads can be made by influencers.312 On social media platforms, influencers are the protagonists and
305
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri (2014),Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity,p. 28
306
307
Woodside, AG.,(2010) "Brand-Consumer Storytelling Theory and Research: Introduction to a Psychology & Marketing Special Issue."
Psychology & Marketing, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 531-540.
308
Hellber M., (2015),Visual Brand Communication on Instagram: A study on consumer engagement, Department of Marketing Hanken School of
Economics, Helsinki.
309
Ibidem.
310
Woodside, AG.,(2010) "Brand-Consumer Storytelling Theory and Research: Introduction to a Psychology & Marketing Special Issue."
Psychology & Marketing, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 531-540.
311
Ibidem.
312
Ibidem.
44
their position allows them to speak with an authenticity and credibility which can be difficult to otherwise
achieve.313
By understanding these methodology elements of narratives, marketers are better able to craft stories that
consumers can engage with; that feel credible and relatable; and are memorable. It is not enough to assume that
by imposing narrative structure a campaign will become a compelling story, instead it must tell a story, in a
recognisable fashion, that the audience actually wants to hear.
1.2.5 G.R.E.A.T: How to Tell a Compelling Story
“At its very core, marketing is storytelling. The best advertising campaigns take us on an emotional journey – appealing to our
wants, needs and desires –
while at the same time telling us about a product or service.”
- Melinda Partin314
In the analytical scheme devised by Nguyen, whether or not a marketing campaign based on the
storytelling model will succeed is determined by five basic elements, which compose the acronym G.R.E.A.T:
glue, reward, emotion, authentic, and target.315 These elements are addressed in the figure below:
Figure 14. G.R.E.A.T and its Importance to Storytelling - Nguyen (2014)
313
Cole, N. “Your 2017 Instagram Strategy: Let Influencers Tell Your Brand Story.” Inc.com, Inc., 27 April 2019, www.inc.com/nicolas-cole/your-
2017-instagram-strategy-let-influencers-tell-your-brand-story.html.
314
Partin, M. (2018) https://www.linkedin.com/in/melindapartin
315
Nguyen, V.(JBI). 2014. Storytelling Marketing – Marketing bằng cách kể chuyện. Article from jbi.nguyenvu.me. Accessed 15 February 2019.
http://jbi.nguyenvu.me/storytelling- marketing-marketing-bang-cach-ke-chuyen/
45
Glue: Glue is the connection between the message being marketed and what consumers trust in and
know to be true. It identifies those consumers who already view themselves as being loyal to a given
brand and aims to reinforce their perception of being type of person who buys a specific brand.316
Reward: Compelling storytelling is driven by a sense of reward, whether it is a quest to find a mythical
treasure or more mundane, pragmatic goals, such as weight loss or financial success. By tapping into this
desire for accomplishment, consumers can be engaged on a more effective level.317
Emotion: Great stories are those that not only capture the attention of their audience, but affect them
emotionally. The heart, rather than the head, is often times the quickest and most effective route in
influencing consumer behaviour.318
Authentic: Authenticity and credibility are key for any story to be effective. This does not mean,
however, that every story must be verifiably factual, but it does mean that the story the brand tells must
be true to the brand.319
Target: Successful stories are consistent with the target audience, meaning that they are designed from
their conception to be appealing, relevant, and relatable to specific segments of the population, grouped
by commonalities in behaviour, lifestyle, and perspective.320
Working from the model of assessment devised by Nyugen,321 five key metrics by which to judge the efficacy
of narrative-based marketing campaigns emerge, ideally to be applied as part of any strategic brand
management scheme. In summarise, it is not enough for marketers to tell stories, they have to be compelling,
and the most compelling stories weave elements of loyalty, conflict and reward, emotion, authenticity, and
relevance to a specific target audience into their narratives.
316
Nguyen, V.(JBI). 2014. Storytelling Marketing – Marketing bằng cách kể chuyện. Article from jbi.nguyenvu.me. Accessed 18 February 2019.
http://jbi.nguyenvu.me/storytelling- marketing-marketing-bang-cach-ke-chuyen/ Ibidem.
317
Ibidem.
318
Ibidem.
319
Ibidem.
320
Ibidem.
321
Ibidem.
46
Conclusion
"If you're going to have a story, have a big story, or none at all."
- Joseph Campbell322
We all have our own stories to tell and we all have stories to which we relate so strongly that they begin to
become our own. It should come as no surprise then that narratives hold sway over our hearts and minds in a
way that facts and figures rarely do. Nor should it come as any great revelation that those in the business world
have adopted storytelling as their own, making it one of the most commonly heard buzz-words of late.323
“Stories make presentations better. Stories make ideas stick. Stories help us persuade,”324 stories are, simply put,
powerful. Successful brands not only need to have quality products, clear communication channels, and a well-
defined target market nowadays, they must also be in possession of a compelling story which communicates the
brand’s unique values, identity, and history is one fell swoop. Content creation is not enough, instead that
content has to tell something meaningful about the brand in a relatable fashion. In a world where brands have
become they own “macro-cosmos, the products naturally have become micro-narratives.”325
Within these macro-cosmos there exist significant “organisational efforts to communicate, differentiate,
and enhance the brand visà-vis key stakeholders groups and networks. A corporate brand proposition requires
total corporate commitment to the corporate body from all levels of personnel. Ongoing management of the
corporate brand resides with the chief executive officer and does not fall within the remit of the traditional
directorate of marketing.”326 Corporate identity then can be understood to be the lifeforce of any given company
and an embodiment of its value: stories then are the conduit by which identity is expressed. Moreover, stories
are the basis of micro-narratives for products, which are essential in securing a firm hold on the market and in
the minds of consumers and stakeholders alike.
The challenges of narrative marketing, in fields various applications - advertising, promotion, products,
propaganda, products and their packaging - over diverse forms of media - print, digital, online - will be
elaborated in Chapter Two.
322
Campbell, J. (2018) https://www.inc.com/dave-kerpen/you-need-to-become-a-better-storyteller-heres-some-inspiration.html
323
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri (2014), Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity, p.26
324
Snow, S. (2014). Why storytelling will be the biggest skill of the next 5 years. Article from Hubspot blog. Accessed 09 March
2019.http://blog.hubspot.com/opinion/why-storytelling-will-be-the-biggest-business-skill-of-the-next-5-years
325
Vu, Thu Thuy Medina, Siiri (2014), Storytelling Marketing and its impact on Developing Company Brand Identity, p.26
326
Baumer A., Magerko B. (2009), Narrative Development in Improvisational theatre. In second Joint International Conference on Interactive Digital
Storytelling, Guimaraes, Portugal.
47
Chapter Two
The Art of Digital Storytelling
“We tell ourselves stories in order to live. We interpret what we see, select the most workable of the multiple choices. We live
entirely, especially if we are writers, by the imposition of a narrative line upon disparate images, by the "ideas" with which we have
learned to freeze the shifting phantasmagoria which is our actual experience.”
- Joan Didion327
2. Digital Narratives: Storytelling Across Mediums
Storytelling, as it has been traditionally understood, has often assumed to be the exclusive province of oral and
written communication, primarily in the form of stories, tales, fables, and other canonical narrative forms.
Albeit in recent decades, the definition of storytelling has been expanded to include media such as television,
radio, and print; however, with the rise of the Internet in the first two decades of the twentieth century,
contemporary storytelling, more often than not, takes place online and involves activities that go beyond
conventional definitions of what storytelling entails. So, why do people tell stories? Does all the media content
have to have a story?
Stories are important to people so that they are able to understand life.328 The growth of new media
forms such as those seen on social media, which have emerged in the digital era, have resulted in marked
changes to the manner in which consumer tastes, preferences, and tendencies develop.329 The Internet has
signalled the coming of a profound transformation in the way in which information is created, collected,
interpreted, and interacted with by the public, leading to a heightened need to examine the mechanisms behind
storytelling and how they are affected by the medium through which they are broadcast.330 A similar sort of
reckoning has proceeded each major, technological advance of media, from the printing press to the introduction
of 24-hours news;331 nevertheless, the changes brought about by the Internet have had, perhaps, the greatest
impact on storytelling. Surpassing the preceding four generations of communication technology- from speech to
writing to print to broadcast332 - digital storytelling takes one person’s story and gives its a platform to reach the
world.
327
Didion, J. (2006). The White Album, New York: Knopf, p. 11.
328
Beinhocker, E. D. (2006). The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity and the Radical Remaking of Economics (2nd Edition), Boston: Harvard
Business School Press, p. 126-127.
329
Alexander, L. (2018). What Is Digital Marketing? Retrieved from https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/what-is-digital-marketing
330
Konzal, A. W. (2011). Entertainment Architecture: Constructing a framework for the creation of an emerging transmedia form (Doctoral
dissertation, Queensland University of Technology), p.36.
331
Peters, J. D. (2008). History as a communication problem. (Ed. Barbie Zelizer). Explorations in Communication and History. New York:
Routledge
332
Scolari, C. A. (January 2009). Transmedia storytelling: implicit consumers, narrative worlds, and branding in contemporary media production.
International Journal of Communication, (p.586-606).
48
As addressed in Chapter One, storytelling has been an essential part of the human experience for
thousands of years, existing in all cultures and at all points of human history.333 Human beings, it seems, have a
profound, innate desire to tell stories, both to themselves and to others; nevertheless, until very recently, few
individuals had a platform at his or her disposal by which to broadcast their experiences and ideas to the world.
In contemporary society, however, the Internet which has acted as a prodigious leveller,334 has allowed an even
increasing number of everyday people to have access to an audience which hitherto would have been beyond
belief. Today a teenage girl in her bedroom can conceivably have the same reach as an established media outlet.
In the new media world of transmedia platforms, not only is more information available than ever before, but it
is also possible to interact with content in ways that have never been possible before. Transmedia, as will be
further elaborated in Chapter 2.1.1, as a communication technology strategy, allows stories to told, shared, and
retold, thereby ensuring their preservation.
2.1.1 Transmedia: A Platform for Digital Storytelling

“Storytelling is the most powerful way to put ideas into the world today.”
- Robert McAfee Brown335
Communication technologies, be they print or digital, rely upon storytelling as their foundation, so deep do the
roots of narrative as a fundamental form of human communication run.336 However, what differentiates
transmedia storytelling from other more traditional forms of storytelling is the capacity of the audience to
engage with the stories they are told, changing them in elemental ways, and transforming the audience from
passive observers to active participants.337 Moreover, at the heart of any successful transmedia experience is a
meaningful story, one which touches its listeners and inspires its retelling, leading to the creation of new
narratives with which to engage.338
Prior to the advent of the Internet, mass media entailed what we think of as being conventional channels
of communication - television, newspapers, radio - platforms that are inherently one-sided and offer few
avenues for active participation by the public.339 Certainly, newspaper readers could take it upon themselves to
write a letter to the editor to be published, just as listeners could call-in to their favourite radio programmes;
333
Boyd, B. (2009). On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition and Fiction. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
334
Konzal, A. (2011). Entertainment Architecture: Constructing A Framework for the Creation of An Emerging Transmedia Form, PhD Thesis,
Dipl.-Kfm. European Business School, Oestrich-Winkel, Germany.
335
Robert McAfee Brown Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 26, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/robert_mcafee_brown_177916
336
Ibidem.
337
Snibbe, S. (2016). An Industry Perspective of Transmedia Storytelling.
https://www.coursera.org/learn/transmedia-storytelling/lecture/KIDnA/an-industry-perspective-of-
transmedia-storytelling , Accessed 27th April 2019
338
McIntyre, S. (2016). Welcome to Transmedia Storytelling, last seen 20th april 2019 https://www.coursera.org/learn/transmedia- storytelling.
339
Ibidem.
49
however, these means of participation pale in comparison to the level of engagement seen in the new media era.
Advances in communication technology such as social media sites, smartphones and tablets, and channels for
video distribution, have accelerated the creation and spread of information.340 In comparison to previous
technological leaps which have occurred in the field of communication, the Internet can be said to be the most
well-developed and to have brought about the most accelerated change to the accessibility of information.341
This change has been readily embraced by a new generation of consumers who have now not only adapted to,
but have come to expect access to information at an unforeseen speed and ease. The introduction of mobile
devices has only accelerated this process, and, in doing so, further democratised the Internet as a system of
communication. This has brought about an egalitarianism in media which has never existed before. However,
the levelling of the playing field, as it were, which has followed in the wake of rapid advancement of internet
technology has not just lead to the development of new communication strategies, it has also created an
environment in which storytelling as a medium thrives and stories themselves are spread with increasing
frequency. As Jenkins has noted, “Online, stories never die.”342
Turning to the communication strategies which have arisen as a consequence of the growth of the
Internet, we arrive at the concept of transmedia storytelling, a term which, through it feels to be quintessentially
modern in nature, actually has its roots in a history nearly as old as storytelling itself.343 Transmedia storytelling
is, essentially, the telling of a story on a multi-sided platform. For the Ancient Greeks this meant transposing an
oral tradition to written word or physical form in the shape of statues;344 this in turn led to other forms of
storytelling, from novels to film; which in turn led to the concept of multimedia storytelling in the twentieth
century; all of which have resulted in the transmedia storytelling which occurs online today.345 What
distinguishes multimedia story from transmedia storytelling, however, is the audience's ability to interact with
media and become active participants in the story. The term, which was first coined by Marsha Kinder in
1991,346 and later gained greater recognition through the work of Henry Jenkins,347 has yet to have a commonly
accepted definition.348 Nevertheless, we can broadly state that “[t]ransmedia storytelling represents a process
where integral elements of a fiction get dispersed systematically across multiple delivery channels for the
purpose of creating a unified and coordinated entertainment experience. Ideally, each medium makes its own
340
Ibidem.
341
Arthur, W. B. (2009). The Nature of Technology: What It Is and How It Evolves. New York: Free Press, p.186.
342
Jenkins, H., Ford, S. and Green J. (2013). Spreadable Media: Creating Value and Meaning in A Networked
Culture (1st Edition). New York and London: New York University Press.
343
Gambarato, R. R. (2013). Transmedia project design: theoretical and analytical considerations. Baltic Screen Media Review, 1, p.82.
344
Mcdonald, R. and Parker, J. (Summer 2013). When A Story IS More Than Paper. 7/2013. Young Adult Library Service, p.27-31.
345
Dille, F. (2016). History of Transmedia Storytelling, last seen 18 april 2019, https://www.coursera.org/learn/transmedia-
storytelling/lecture/KIDnA/an-industry-perspect: Evolution, ive-of-transmedia-storytelling.
346
347
Mcdonald, R. and Parker, J. (2013), When A Story IS More Than Paper. 7/2013. Young Adult Library Service, p.27-31.
348
50
unique contribution to the unfolding of the story.”349 Working then from the definition first elaborated by
Jenkins, transmedia storytelling is the unfolding of a narrative across multiple, distinct, media platforms with
the intention of creating of multifaceted story.350
Figure 15. The Dispersion of Storytelling on Multi-Platforms - Jenkins (2013)
As is elaborated in the figure above, different facets of the same story take shape on different platforms, from
which a complete story is formed; none of these pieces stand alone, nor are they experienced in isolation.
Rather, each part of the story is told on a different platform, and is told differently as a consequence.351 Their
differences, whether slight or significant, ideally create a sense of balance and serve to reinforce the overarching
narratives of the story as a unique entity, a story world in and of itself.352
The concept of world building through narrative is predicated upon the notion that when stories are
broken up and told across multiple platforms, the audience in turn follows these narrative bread crumbs from
one platform to another, rendering the formerly passive listener an active participant in the narrative.353 As an
349
Jenkins, H., Ford, S. and Green J. (2013). Spreadable Media: Creating Value and Meaning in A Networked Culture (1 st Edition). New York and
London: New York University Press.
350
Ibidem.
351
Scolari, C. A. (2009). Transmedia storytelling: implicit consumers, narrative worlds, and branding in contemporary media production.
International Journal of Communication, (p.586-606).
352
Gomez, J. (2010a), ‘About Starlightrunner Entertainment’, http://www. starlightrunner.com/about. Accessed 23 February 2019 ——. (2010b),
What Is Transmedia?, http://www.starlightrunner.com/ transmedia. Accessed 23 February 2019.
353
Jenkins, H. (2009), The revenge of the Origami unicorn: Seven principles of transmedia storytelling,
http://henryjenkins.org/transmedia_entertainment
51
active participant, the audience has both the opportunity to engage with the story on an individual and a social
level. In a consumption context, this means that not only will the consumer potentially have greater levels of
brand engagement, but will also be more likely to spread the same story to other consumers across various
platforms and channels of communication.354 Consumer participation in the building of story worlds can take
several forms: the creation of content on blogs, social media sites, and video hosting platforms; the sharing and
forwarding of existing content; the ranking of content and commenting on said content online; and, the
communication which occurs between fans and followers online.355 Without these elements of audience, or
consumer, participation, story worlds fail to materialise and cannot be said to be a transmedia project.
For a transmedia project to succeed in engaging its audience it must take a number of factors into
consideration, beginning with devising a strategy for which platforms are to be utilised and how the story will
unfold across said platforms.356 It is generally advised that the story be told over at least three different
platforms and that each platform contributes in some way the telling of the whole story, with consideration give
to the sequencing and algorithms used.357 In addition, considerations of cost, accessibility, functionality,
relevance, and entertainment value for the consumer must also be made.358
Cost principle: multiple platforms must utilised for the project to achieve active participation and the
architect behind the story must be able to afford using as many platforms as possible.
Accessibility principle: the platforms must be easily accessible and available for consumers to facilitate
participation.
Functionality principle: the platforms must function well without glitches or errors that demotivate
consumers from participating.
Relevance principle: the portion of the story being told on a single platform must relate to the story as a
whole to avoid confusing the consumer.
Entertainment principle: the consumer must enjoy participating in the story.359
Without these essential elements transmedia storytelling projects inevitably fail to succeed and should be a
foundational consideration for all digital storytellers.
354
Zalucuzskowska, A. ve Robinson, L. (2013). Bolton storyworld – You make the story? Assessing a transmedia narrative/work in progress. Journal
of Media Practice, 14 (4), p.262.
355
Gomez, J. (2010a), ‘About Starlightrunner Entertainment’, http://www. starlightrunner.com/about. Accessed 23 February 2019 ——. (2010b),
What Is Transmedia?, http://www.starlightrunner.com/ transmedia. Accessed 23 February 2019.
Jenkins, H. (2009), The revenge of the Origami unicorn: Seven principles of transmedia storytelling,
http://henryjenkins.org/transmedia_entertainment
356
Deniz H. (2018), Transmedia Storytelling as the New Generation Storytelling form on media: “Rafadan Tayfa” Case Study, The Online Journal of
Communication and Media, Volume 4, Issue 2.
357
Zalucuzskowska, A. ve Robinson, L. (2013). Bolton storyworld – You make the story? Assessing a transmedia narrative/work in progress. Journal
of Media Practice, 14 (4), p.269.
358
Ibidem.
359
Mcdonald, R. and Parker, J. (2013), When A Story IS More Than Paper, Young Adult Library Service, p.30-31.
52
In addition, the content designed for transmedia contexts can be analysed based on seven principles, as
devised by Jenkins.360 The first is identified in the contrast between spreadability and drillability that exists
between the diffusion of narrative brand content, and the drillability which is obtained when it is possible to go
deep into the stories, increasing the engagement of the public. The second principle concerns the contrast
between continuity and multiplicity, that is the difference between narrative coherence and incoherence. The
third principle consists of the search for a balance between immersion and extractability, therefore between the
absorption of the reader or the viewer in the story and his or her ability to derive specific and particular indices
from the narration. The other principle is that of worldbuilding, which is the construction of universes of
meaning in which to place other narrative elements. Additionally, Jenkins identifies seriality, subjectivity,
performance as key to the development of strategic narrative content.361
Figure 16. The Transmedia Narrative Act in the Model of External Corporate Storytelling - Giorgino and
Mazzù (2018)
Consumers are no longer satisfied playing a passive role in the consumption of media; whereas once
audiences were content to watch a film or read a novel, they now want to be active participants in the narrative
process, with constant accessibility to story and a guiding hand in its unfolding.362 Facebook, Instagram,
Snapchat, Twitter and the like have radically altered our perceptions of how stories are told and the role of the
audience in telling them, making the audience not just the recipient but the hero of the narrative. In the era of
digital storytelling, transmedia narratives, spread out on multiple platforms, tell stories in fragments, keeping
360
Jenkins H.(2007), Cultura convergente, Milano, Apogeo
361
Giorgino F., Mazzù M.F. (2018), BrandTelling, Milano, Egea, p.124.
362
Sandler, K. (2013),Teaching media convergence. Cinema Journal, 48 (3), p.84-87; Hefner, H. (2016),An Industry Perspective of Transmedia
Storytelling. https://www.coursera.org/learn/transmedia-storytelling/lecture/KIDnA/an-industry-perspective-of- transmedia-storytelling.
53
their audiences riveted to the story as it plays out bit by bit, slowly coming together as one cohesive story.363 In
transmedia storytelling, therefore, audience participation is a guiding principle owing to the fact that audience
involvement in the story can reduce their persuasive resistance.364
2.1.2 Digital Storytelling: Theory and Practice
“Technology and social media have brought power back to the people.”
- Mark McKinnon365
Storytelling, as has been previously addressed, is a constant of human experience; however, that does not mean
that it is also static as a medium of communication. The emergence of new media, and, more specifically, the
Internet and social media, has brought about significant changes to the medium in recent years. The narratives
which are shared online, known as digital storytelling, take on many forms and are shaped by different
understandings, intentions, characteristics dependent upon the field to which they are applied.366 To better
understand how digital storytelling can be applied to platforms such as Instagram, and to concepts such as
human branding, we must first define what digital storytelling entails.
A relatively new concept, digital storytelling is a rapidly developing field of communication which has
“emerged as part of broader cultural shifts, including a profound change in models of media communication.”367
In essence, digital storytelling can be characterised as the application of canonical narrative conventions to the
digital environment.368 How these conventions of narrative are applied take on multifarious dimensions as
stories which serve as their conduit may make the form of images, videos, text, memes, gifs, or any other form
of media found online.369 In doing so, a pleasurable union between the ancient craft of storytelling and modern
communication technology is achieved, as has been noted by Nguyen. “There is always a pleasure in making
stories of one's own life because the material is readily accessible, authentic and endearing; and the experience
of narrating with multimodal means is new, exciting and inspirational. This is the power of storytelling coupled
with the appeal of digital technology”.370
In the telling of stories online, there are different levels of participation which are afforded to the
audience, from the relatively passive engagement which occurs when reading a web site on one end of the
363
Paez, S. (2016). The Industry of Transmedia Storytelling, https://www.coursera.org/learn/transmediastorytelling/lecture/Kutop/sergio-paez-the-
role-of-visual-storytelling.
364
Moyer-Gusé, E. and Nabi, R.L. (2010). Explaining the effects of narrative in an entertainment television program: overcoming resistance to
persuasion. Human Communication Research, 36, (p.26–52).
365
Mark McKinnon Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 28, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/mark_mckinnon_546881
366
Scolari, C. (2009). Mapping conversations about new media: The theoretical field of digital communication. New Media and Society 11(6) 1-22.
367
Hartley, J. (2010) Digital storytelling around the world. In: 27th National Informatics Conference, Ankara, Turkey, p.23.
368
Chung, S. K. (2007),Art education technology: Digital storytelling.
369
Couldry, N. (2008), Mediatization or mediation? Alternative understandings of the emergent space of digital storytelling. New media & society,
10(3), p.374.
370
Nguyen, A. (2011). Negotiations and challenges in creating a digital story: The experience of graduate students. PhD. University of Houston,
p.25.
54
spectrum, to the full-engagement which takes places when the individuals are able to share their own stories on
platforms such as Instagram.371 With each medium through which digital storytelling transpires there are
specific demands placed upon both the author and the audience. It is for this reason that social media and other
forms of digital media are fundamentally different,372 as on social media, it is incumbent upon the individual
user to be both author and audience. As will be addressed in the following section, platforms such as Instagram
provide a complete digital storytelling experience for their audience.
2.1.3 Digital Storytelling: Practical Applications for Advertising
“Online, stories never die.”

- Henry Jenkins 373
As digital storytelling develops as a field, so too do the stories that we tell to ourselves and to each other. In the
ten years following the widespread introduction of social media, we have witnessed a revolution in way in
which entertainment is consumed, information is shared, and social bonds are formed, spurring academics and
those working in the field of advertising and marketing to reexamine how stories are told and their impact on the
world. The Internet, which has transformed seemingly every aspect of modern life, has revealed unforeseen
opportunities for interaction and participation in storytelling, unsurprisingly. Individuals now have the freedom
to choose not only the narrative he or she prefers, but to find the narrative to which the listener best relates.374
Inasmuch, the Internet provides us with the ability to interact with media with a dynamism and interactivity,
which is both stimulating and innovative, heightening the connection between the storyteller and the audience
and blurring the divide between the two.375
For marketers, the obvious purpose of digital storytelling is connecting with customers; thus, by drawing
upon storytelling’s well-documented ability to bring people together, forge connections, and inspire empathy
between the protagonist and the audience, marketers are able to introduce products, and brands more generally,
to new consumers effectively.376 Due to the fact that stories allow for, and help to foster, emotional connection,
this aspect of storytelling has been used extensively in recent marketing campaigns, especially on social media
networks, where the expectation that experiences and stories are to be told by its users, has made it a natural
371
Lambert, J. (2013), Digital storytelling: Capturing lives, creating community, New York,Routledge.
372
Ibidem.
373
Jenkins, H., Ford, S. and Green J. (2013). Spreadable Media: Creating Value and Meaning in A Networked
374
Boumans, J. (2004). “Cross-media, e-content report 8, ACTeN — Anticipating content technology needs”,Accessible at http://www.acten.net/cgi-
bin/WebGUI/www/index.pl/cross_media.
375
Zambrano R.E. (2018), Digital advertising storytelling: consumer educommunication, n.1 Vol. 1, International Review of Communication and
Marketing Mix,University of Cadiz,Spain.
376
Jiménez-Marín, G; Pérez Curiel, C; Elías Zambrano, R. (2014): “Del valor educativo de los medios de comunicación: una aproximación al caso
audiovisual”. Ámbitos Review. International review of communication, n.25.
55
fit.377 Indeed, emotion-based storytelling campaigns have proliferated on social media in recent years to the
point of near ubiquity. Examining these campaigns, three fundamental components of digital storytelling as
applied to marketing emerge, as elaborated by Bourdaa:378
1. The story must contain some non-liner, non-traditional form of writing and/ or speech -
hypertext;
2. The story must make use of different types of media, be they audio, video, animations et cetera -
multimedia;
3. The user must be able to choose the story and to participate in its telling and the course it
assumes - interaction.379
Inasmuch, the author, or architect, of the story is obligated to take on different roles than that of a traditional
writing, ranging from: “writing, information manipulation, multimedia application management, graphic and
collaborative design with design professionals or programming.”380
Moreover, as is argued by Garrido,381 Bourdaa,382 and Lehu383 that for this type of storytelling to be
successful, a number of principles must be applied first. First and foremost among these principles in the
necessity to convey brand values to the consumer, without which no emotional connection can be made.
Secondly, the story must have an emotional component which serves to connect the consumer with the brand.
Additionally, the emotion need not be positive nor negative, it simply has to represent the identity which the
brand wishes to convey. As a third consideration, marketers must highlight the positive aspects of the brand’s
image and value, while also drawing attention to the goods and services said brand offers. Finally, in addition to
being affective, the story must also be compelling. In other word, it must captivate its audience and attract the
attention of new customers by offering something that the audience can engage with. With these components of
effective, engaging storytelling in mind, we turn to the advantages of digital storytelling for marketers.
377
Ibidem.
378
Bourdaa, M. (2012) “This is not Marketing. This is HBO: Branding HBO with Transmedia Storytelling”. Networking Knowledge 7(1).
379
Ibidem.
380
381
Garrido, A. (2013), “¿Cómo aplicar el Storytelling a una campaña de marketing? Una nueva forma de entender la evolución del marketing de
contenidos” Puro Marketing, Accessible at: http://www.puromarketing.com/10/18647/como-aplicar-storytelling- campana-marketing.html.
382
Bourdaa, M. (2012) “This is not Marketing. This is HBO: Branding HBO with Transmedia Storytelling”, Networking Knowledge 7(1).
383
Lehu, J. M. (2007). Branded entertainment: Product placement & brand strategy in the entertainment business. London: Kogan Page.
56
2.1.4 The Advantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers
“Storytelling is ultimately a creative act of pattern recognition. Through characters, plot and setting, a writer creates places
where previously invisible truths become visible. Or the storyteller posits a series of dots that the reader can connect.”
- Douglas Coupland384
The benefits of digital storytelling for marketers lie in the structure of social networks and how they facilitate
communication amongst their users, in addition to the ways in which the myriad types of users, including
influencers, Instagrammers, Youtubers, and bloggers, communicate on social media have brought storytelling to
the forefront on these platforms.385 However, what is radically different about storytelling through these
channels is not the fact that individuals are choosing to share their own stories at ever increasing numbers, but
that the audience a single individual can generate, posting their own content and without professional backing
and expertise, is potentially enormous. Influencers and the like have an ability to create a connection with their
audiences that is significantly higher than traditional, targeted advertising; and, in a world that feels more over-
saturated with marketing campaigns than ever, forging connections and building bonds in a manner which feels
authentic is increasingly important.386 Digital storytelling, as is argued by Berelowitz et al, confers upon
marketers and advertisers five specific advantages:387
Connection: digital storytelling grabs consumers’ attention in a way that traditional advertisements do
not by pulling them in with a compelling, relatable story and causes the audience to feel a
connection to the protagonist of the story, whether it be an influencer or a brand.388
Identity: stories engender a feeling of identity by connecting a narrative to the teller’s own life and
experiences, making the communication feel wholly personal and unique to the audience.
Accordingly, this type of communication helps consumers differentiate between users, or brands
for that matter, and build a strong, easily distinguishable identity.389
Brand Identification: through storytelling, brands are able to shape a memorable message, which, in
turn, helps consumers distinguish one brand from another and form a clear image of what the
brand represents, its image and values.390
384
Douglas Coupland Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/douglas_coupland_583169
385
Ramos Serrano, M., Jiménez-Marín, G. (2014), “Blogs y Moda: cuando los usuarios crean las tendencias” en Fernández-Quijada, D. y Ramos
Serrano, M.: Tecnologías de la persuasión. Uso de las TIC en publicidad y relaciones públicas, Barcelona.
386
387
Berelowitz, M. (2012), 10 Ways Marketers are Using the Second Screen. JWT Intelligence, New York.
388
Ibidem.
389
Ibidem.
390
Galician, M. (Ed.). (2004). Handbook of product placement in the mass media, New York, Haworth.
57
Brand Image: in the digital era, storytelling is the best way to communicate with consumers. Updating a
brand’s image through stories told on platforms, such as Instagram or Facebook, exploits both
the language and structure native to the platform, but also does so in a fashion that is intuitively
comprehensible for the audience. Especially when trying to engage with a younger market,
storytelling on social networks equates to speaking to the natives in their own tongue, thereby
refreshing and renewing the image of the brand in question. 391
Application: perhaps the greatest advantage of storytelling is its application to a wide variety of digital
marketing media due to its nature as a transversal form of communication. In addition,
storytelling is novel, simple to use and understand, and generally well-received by audiences as
long as the story is well-told.392
In addition to these factors, Edelman and Heller, writing for McKinsey & Company identify five essential steps
necessary to bring marketing operations into the digital era.393 As digital marketing operations constitute “the
application, capabilities, processes, structures, and technologies to cost-effectively exploit and scale the
interactivity, targeting, personalization, and optimization of digital channels...marketing operations has a critical
role in driving bottom-line growth.”394 Therefore, modern marketing operations need to engage with digital
platforms in a fashion which does not merely involve headcounts or throwing money at digital marketing on
social media; instead, digital marketing campaigns must be a well-considered and deliberate implementation of
new processes, coordination, and governance encompassing five factors.395
The first of these aforementioned factors can be defined as truly understanding customers, which entails
a commitment to tracking, analysing, and interpreting customer behavior and attitudes on an ongoing basis.396
In addition, firms must commit to creating comprehensive customer-insights programs, through which to
monitor, interact, and react to social-media conversations.397 The second fundamental aspect of successful
brand employment of social media is centred round delivering a superior experience to consumers. This entails
ensuring that consumers do not encounter negative experiences with brand, and when they do rectifying the
situation as soon as possible so as to repair the brand-consumer relationship.398 In as much, the consumers’
brand journey must be smooth, with marketing, sales, support, service, and operations playing an essential role
391
Berelowitz, M. (2012), 10 Ways Marketers are Using the Second Screen. JWT Intelligence, New York.
392
Ibidem.
393
Edelman, D., Heller, J. (2015) How digital marketing operations can transform business, McKinsey & Company. Accessed 30 April,
https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/marketing-and-sales/our-insights/how-digital-marketing-operations-can-transform-business
394
Ibidem.
395
Ibidem.
396
Ibidem.
397
Ibidem.
398
58
in managing expectations.399 Digital tools may be exploited to good effect here to moderate this two-way flow
of information, and ensure the optimisation of the customer experience.400 As a third essential factor is
selecting the right marketing technology, which involves choosing the best marketing technology to automate
processes, personalise interactions, and coordinate actions, in the aim of better connecting customer experience
and marketing operations.401 Implementing processes and governance is the fourth factor listed and revolves
around the need for establishing processes and governance to ensure that technology behaves as it should. And
fifth and final factor identified can be termed, using the best metrics to drive success.402 This final factor
entails the use of technology to monitor, track, and manage the effectiveness of marketing investments.403 The
focus here should be on customised metrics designed “to identify future opportunities rather than focus on
reporting what has already happened.”404 When properly used, these factors work in tandem to form the basis
of a well-developed, thoughtful, deliberate marketing campaign and are essential for marketing success on any
of the current social media platforms on which such communication takes place today, to the enormous
advantage of brands and marketers alike.
399
Ibidem.
400
Ibidem.
401
Ibidem.
402
Ibidem.
403
Ibidem.
404
Ibidem.
59
Figure 17. The Big Five - Endelman and Heller (2015)
405
These advantages make digital storytelling an obvious choice for marketers and advertisers alike;
however, the benefits of the medium are not boundless and there also distinct disadvantages to using narrative
as a communication tool, as is further explained below.
405
60
2.1.5 The Disadvantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers
“Storytelling isn't an Escher staircase.”
- Dave Morris406
As addressed previously in this thesis, storytelling is one of the most efficacious forms of communication, both
between individuals and between groups, the later as is seen the communication which occurs between
consumers and brand; however, the medium is not without its disadvantages and should not been seen as a
panacea. Rather, for storytelling to be effectively deployed as a means of communication, relationship building,
and sense making, meticulous planning is first necessary.407 Without doing so from the outset, there are a
number of common pitfalls which would-be storytellers encounter, as are enumerated by Lundy and Martin:408
Contradictory or confusing messages: when contradictory or confusing messages are transmitted by the
storyteller, the audience loses interest in the narrative. For instance, if the message is essentially a
upbeat one, but told in a manner which conveys sadness to the listener, the message loses its
power and ceases to be effective. For this reason, the message must be clear, straightforward, and
without contradictory elements which detract from the core message.409
Lies: while it seems obvious, lying in storytelling is perhaps one of the most common mistakes made by
digital storytellers. By lying, this does not mean that everything states must be strictly factual,
there is certainly room for imagination and invention in narrative; however, it does mean that the
message contained in the story must remain true to the preconceived elements, principles, and
ideas of a brand.410
Tone: the power of storytelling lies in its ability to compel its audience. To do so, considerations need to
be made as to the content, language, medium, and audience to which the story is told. In addition,
the tone must be appropriate, for example, humour and satire may be well-suited for conveying a
message about certain types of products, and entirely inappropriate for others. Careful
deliberation must be made about what sort of tone best matches the brand’s image and values
prior to taking action.411
Reaction: ideally, stories are meant to provoke a reaction in their listeners that eventually leads to
dialogue and relationship building; however, reactions cannot be forced nor can they be
406
Dave Morris Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/dave_morris_730093
407
408
Lundby K. (2008), Digital storytelling, mediatized stories. Self-representations in new media,Peter Lang Publishing, New York.
409
Martin, C., (2011), The Third Screen: Marketing to your Customers in a World Gone Mobile, Nicholas Brealey Pub.
410
Ibidem.
411
Scolari, C. A. (2009), Transmedia Storytelling: Implicit Consumers, Narrative Worlds, and Branding in Contemporary Media Production,
International Journal of Communication, 3, p.586-606.
61
perceived to be artificial or disingenuous. Instead, reactions that reinforce and strengthen the
consumer-brand connection are built on authentic interactions.412
These disadvantages of digital storytelling can be overcome through careful planning and attention to detail,
without which stories fall flat and fail to engage the attention of the audience in the manner desired by the
storyteller. As will be further elaborated in the proceeding sections, digital storytelling is a natural choice for
communication with users of social networks and, despite its challenges as a medium, should be considered as
one of the primary tools for marketers in the twenty-first century.
2.2 Visual Storytelling

“Visual storytelling is at once immediate and subversive.”
- Karin Slaughter413
Visual communication, much like written and oral narration, has been extensively studied from the perspective
of art, science, psychology, and media sciences amongst others, as a phenomena which spans disciplines and
mediums of communication.414 Just as more conventional forms of storytelling seek to affect the listener both
cognitively and affectively, so too do visual narratives strive to stimulate these same reactions in viewers.415
Moreover, just as stories told by story architects are a means by which to convey information orally or textually,
stories told visually are designed to communicate something essential through a given medium, which is then
interpreted and understood through the filter of subjectivity by the viewer.416 Accordingly, for the purposes of
this thesis, conventional storytelling, as understood to be stories told or stories written, and visual storytelling
are seen to be two complementary elements of the same narrative process. Furthermore, as much of the
storytelling currently taking place on social media is predominantly visual in nature, it is of essence to
understand how best to make use of both narrative tools to heighten their effectiveness as a whole and to weave
stories which are best able to captivate audience’s hearts and minds.
412
Ibidem.
413
Karin Slaughter Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/karin_slaughter_833998
414
Smith, K., Moriarty, S., Kenney, K. , Barbatsis, G. (2005), Handbook of Visual Communication: Theory, Methods, and Media, Routledge, New
York.
415
Sojka, J. & Giese, J. (2006), Communicating through pictures and words: Understanding the role of affect and cognition in processing visual and
verbal information. Psychology and Marketing. Vol. 23, no. 12, p.995-1014.
416
Jamieson, H. (2007). Visual Communication: More than meets the eye,Intellect Books, Bristol.
62
Figure 18. Simplified Overview of the Essential Components of Visual Communication - Jamieson and
Smith (2005)
2.2.1 Theories of Visual Storytelling

“Visual storytelling combines the narrative text of a story with creative elements to augment and enhance the traditional
storytelling process. By design, it is a co-creative process resulting in an intimate, interpretive, expressive technique.”
- Debbie Millman417
As noted above, visual and verbal storytelling, are two complementary elements of narrative, with significant
similarities between the two in terms of purpose and effect. This mirrors brain function and information
processing systems, with the left hemisphere, which is responsible for analytical and verbal tasks, and the right
hemisphere, for visual and emotional functions, representing two halves of the whole.418 Moreover, though both
halves are used by all people, their usage is asymmetrical, with one half becoming more dominant based on the
information presented.419 So too should we consider alternating and combining visual and verbal stories to
create a more cohesive, efficacious narrative that appeals to both logic and emotion.
Brain function between the hemispheres is not equally balanced, nor should it necessarily be, as not only
are different types of information processed differently, but so too are individuals inclined to process and
remember information either visually or more verbally.420 However, it should be noted, that there are also
417
Debbie Millman Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/debbie_millman_915812
418
Jamieson, H. (2007), Visual Communication: More than meets the eye,Intellect Books, Bristol.
419
Smith, K., Moriarty, S., Kenney, K. & Barbatsis, G. (2005). Handbook of Visual Communication: Theory, Methods, and Media. New York:
Routledge.
420
Hellberg, M. (2015), Visual Brand Communication on Instagram: A study on consumer engagement,Hanken School of Economics.
63
individuals who appear to best respond to information that incorporates both types of elements.421 Thus,
narratives that are visual in nature impact consumer behaviour and attitude in a fashion which is largely
dependent upon the individual consumer’s personal inclinations and capacity to understand and interpret visual
information.422 Just as individual inclinations towards processing information are inconsistent between the
hemispheres, so too are their effectiveness and speed in processing said information. Indeed, the right side of the
brain, which processes information received visually and affectively, is nearly a tenth of a second faster that the
left side.423 For marketers this means that visual communication has an immediacy and comprehensibility which
is heightened in comparison to textual approaches that allows for improved brand communication.424
Considerations of how and how effectively individuals process visual information, therefore, are crucial when
crafting brand messages.
Moreover, images have a profound influence on the perceptions and attitudes of consumers toward a
given brand, especially when they are able to interpret the image easily and reach the conclusion intended by the
story’s architect, thereby transforming visual information into belief.425 The perceptions and attitudes of the
consumer are in and of themselves part of the creative process by which the audience relates to the content, and
the ideas and concepts entailed within the brand.426 Naturally, no two individuals will interpret the same image
in the same fashion, as all interpretation is coloured by personal experience and mentality, with the individual
viewer coming to his or her own conclusions about the message.427 For marketers, and the brands they wish to
promote, this implies that the visual messages encoded within images are not necessarily interpreted and
understood identically by all viewers and, therefore, it is fundamental to carefully examine and analyse
consumers’ reactions and engagement with visual content to best understand how to target a specific
audience.428 Failure to do so will inevitably lead to ineffective, muddled communication between the brand and
consumers.
However, having said that, it should also be noted that there has yet to be devised commonly agreed
upon guidelines for how to create visual narratives, or how they ought to be interpreted for that matter; instead,
the process of interpreting visual information is largely instinctive, with further precision in interpretation
attributable to the cultural or social backgrounds of the narrative’s viewers.429 In addition, “denotation and
421
Fahmy, S., Bock, M.,Wanta, W. (2014), Visual Communication Theory and Research,Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
422
Ibidem.
423
Jamieson, H. (2007). Visual Communication: More than meets the eye. Intellect Books, Bristol.
424
Ibidem.
425
Mitchell, A. & Olson, J. (1981), Are Product Attribute Beliefs the Only Mediator of Advertising Effects on Brand Attitude?, Journal of Marketing
Research, Vol. 18, p. 318-332.
426
427
Smith, K., Moriarty, S., Kenney, K. & Barbatsis, G. (2005). Handbook of Visual Communication: Theory, Methods, and Media,Routledge, New
York.
428
429
Walter, E. & Gioglio, J. (2014). The Power of Visual Storytelling: How to use Visuals, Videos, and Social Media to Market Your Brand. USA:
64
connotation play their parts in the interpretation and consequent understanding of images, where the former
refers to images that have a more or less explicitly interpretable message, and the latter refers to the implicit
connections made in the mind of the viewer.” 430 With these considerations in mind, it is perhaps useful then to
turn to how visual information can be effectively communicated so that the intended message is clear to the
viewer.
2.2.2 Hallmarks of Effective Visual Communication
“As long as we are engaged in storytelling that moves the culture forward,
it doesn't matter what format it is.”
- LeVar Burton431
It is natural to assume that the creator of an image hopes to have their work understood as he or she had
intended. To ensure that the messages encoded within visual narratives are dicephered as envisaged, the creator
must necessarily imbue the image with easily comprehensible ideas,432 in addition to making strategic choices
about composition, material, colour, and layout of the image.433 The image then needs to be framed with a
particular context by including certain aspects and excluding others, which helps to guide the viewer’s own
interpretation and understanding of the information.434 These frames are often social or cultural and compose
the foreground on which images are viewed: without context, images become unmoored and, thus, significantly
more complex to decipher. The ease by which images, and the messages contained within them, are understood
is further impacted by the composition of the image. For instance, an image which is uncluttered and orderly
concentrates the viewer’s attention with singular focus on the main subject of the image; whereas, images filled
with seemingly irrelevant subject matter appear more authentic and relatable to the viewer.435 The level of visual
complexity, therefore, has varying effects on the ability to grab the attention of the viewer and the image’s long-
term memorability.436
Visual interpretation and comprehension, therefore, should be a principal consideration in any social
media communication strategy. That well-thought out images, which pay close attention to composition,
framing, and content, and, which are designed to convey a clear message, are considerably more effective than
McGraw Hill Professional.

430
Hellberg, M. (2015), Visual Brand Communication on Instagram: A study on consumer engagement, Hanken School of Economics.
431
LeVar Burton Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/levar_burton_439182
432
York.
433
434
Fahmy, S., Bock, M. & Wanta, W. (2014). Visual Communication Theory and Research. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
435
436
York.
65
images that do not should come as no surprise.437 However, what is revealing about the impact of visual
narratives on social media, especially on Instagram as will be further discussed in Chapter 2.3, is that simplicity
has proven itself to be one of the most effective tools of visual storytellers. While complexity is not always an
impediment to effective communication, as recent research has unveiled, too much complexity often results in
increased feelings of anxiety and angst, along with indecisiveness and after-purchase regrets, in consumers.438
Consequently, a number of brands have set about streamlining their sites, product ranges, and channels for
online shopping, in addition to simplifying their communication with consumers.439 This movement towards
greater simplicity has also been mirrored by communications agencies and marketers alike, who have set about
actively promoting the concept in their work.440 Indeed, the growth in popularity of visual storytelling generally,
and visual brand communication more specifically, on platforms such as Instagram, should be seen as being a
key element in the movement towards greater simplicity in the industry.441
Instagram’s success has been attributed to the simplicity of its communication and streamlined approach
to organising and displaying vast amounts of information visually.442 A quick glance at the platform reveals a
number of key features which help to differentiate Instagram from its competitors, the most notable feature of
which is the predominantly visual nature of the medium and the lack of textual information. This seems to be a
conscious strategy on the part of Instagram as its suggests refraining from posting unnecessarily discursive or
wordy captions, in essence, anything that would "detract from the simplicity of the post."443 However
paradoxical it may seem, achieving simplicity is by no means simple. Rather, simplicity necessitates creativity
and focus above all else, and can only be accomplished when thorough planning and knowledge are applied to
both visual communication and social media communication strategies.444 Conversely, while novel, attention-
grabbing techniques may capture the short-term attention of viewers, their lifespan is short and the audience
quickly loses interest after the initial viewing.445 Therefore, simplicity of message and composition play a
significant role in generating desired user reactions.
437
Freeman, K. & Spenner, P. (2012), To keep your customers, keep it simple, Harvard Business Review.
438
Ibidem.
439
Forbes (2014b). Marketers Have It Wrong: Forget Engagement, Consumers Want Simplicity. Available at:
http://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickspenner/2012/07/02/marketers-have-it- wrong-forget-engagement-consumers-want-simplicity/. Accessed 19
March 2019.
440
Siegel, Gale (2014),The Global Brand Simplicity Index. Available at: http://www.siegelgale.com/the-global-brand-simplicity-index-gbsi/.
Accessed 19th March 2019
441
Gallo C. (2013), Communications Coach – LeWeb,The Next 10 Years - Plenary 1 Day2, Paris [Video File]. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMCfgoGg5Ns&feature=player_detailpage, Accessed 15th March 2019.
442
Alba D.(2014b), Instagram Is Now Worth $35 Billion, Eclipsing Twitter. Available: http://www.wired.com/2014/12/instagram-now-worth-35-
billion-eclipsing-twitter/#disqus_thread. Accessed 17 March 2019.
443
Forrester (2014), Instagram Is The King Of Social Engagement. Available at: http://blogs.forrester.com/nate_elliott/14-04-29-
instagram_is_the_king_of_social_engagement. Accessed 25 March 2019.
444
Heinonen, K. (2011). Consumer activity in social media: Managerial approaches to consumers' social media behavior. Journal of Consumer
Behaviour. Vol. 10, p. 356-364.
445
Rossiter, J. R. (1982), Visual imagery: applications to advertising. Advances in consumer research. Vol. 9, no.1, p. 101-106.
66
In addition, visual storytelling’s effectiveness is also shaped by the platform on which it is displayed,
with each platform having its own distinct advantages and disadvantages for storytellers.446 It is then incumbent
upon the creator of the image to select the best platform by which to communicate with his or her audience, in
consideration of how the medium affects the message.447 Instagram, for example, requires all images posted to
be cropped to a uniform size, thereby eliminating viewer biases that stem from image size and perceived
prominence.448 In addition, text is presented after images on Instagram, leading to greater attention being paid to
the image initially and better recall by users in the long-run.449 In comparison to other mediums, such as print
media, which is dominated by textual, verbal information, image-based platforms such as Instgram provide an
ideal environment for visual storytellers.450
2.3 Personal Storytelling

“We're so complex; we're mysteries to ourselves; we're difficult to each other.
And then storytelling reminds us we're all the same.”
- Brad Pitt451
Personal storytelling is special and emblematic hypothesis of how narration affects the representation and the
self-image of an individual, and, therefore, the perception which each person has of the external world and his
or her place within it. The stories we tell ourselves and others about ourselves has always had great power, even
more so in the current reality in which we live, where new communication technologies, namely social media,
have brought about sweeping changes to the ways in which stories are told and the audience to whom the story
is communicated.
As has been shown previously, the impact of the Internet has led to fundamental changes to the
autobiographical narratives and how they are broadcast to the world. Indeed, the ways in which one tells one’s
story today are endless. This has allowed brands to expand their range of action and reach a wider audience than
ever before. As will be addressed in Chapter Three, social media has offered a platform from which everyday
people, starting from a situation of initial anonymity, are able to make the most of the possibilities offered and
have obtained exceptional results.
Personal storytelling has been associated, in particular, with experiential narratives, as is addressed in the
work of Walter Benjamin,452 Nikolaj Leskov, Einaudi, and Turin.453 Through the insights garnered by their
446
Fahmy, S., Bock, M. & Wanta, W. (2014). Visual Communication Theory and Research. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
447
Jamieson, H. (2007). Visual Communication: More than meets the eye. Bristol: Intellect Books.
448
Rossiter, J. R. (1982). Visual imagery: applications to advertising. Advances in consumer research. Vol. 9, no.1, p. 101-106.
449
Schneider, A., Von Krogh, G., Jäger, P. (2013), “What’s coming next?” Epistemic curiosity and lurking behavior in online
communities,Computers in Human Behavior. Vol. 29, no. 1, p. 293-303.
450
451
Brad Pitt Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/brad_pitt_757345
67
narratological research, we can confidently assert that interest in stories increases when they are considered
authentic and relatable, which arouses a feeling of identification in the listener. Narratives that are effective do
so by relating engaging experiences as their focus, that feel as if they could be ordinary experience by ordinary
people, often highlighting challenges or difficult situations.
Emphasis is placed in particular on experience, as it is from this that stories are generated. More
precisely, personal storytelling can be defined as the set of rules concerning the autobiographical narrative
applied to the most professional sphere.454 Furthermore, a fundamental aspect of the narration of oneself is the
continuity with which the story is told.455 There is strong evidence of the importance of a daily narrative, as will
be discussed in greater depth in Chapter Three, which will be the object of analysis.
2.4 Digital Storytelling on Social Media and Instagram

“Platforms - they come and go, but storytelling is forever.”
- Michelle Phan456
Any discussion of digital storytelling would be remiss not to include the stories that are told online using social
media as a platform. On myriad social networks, including Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat amongst
others, over 2.5 billion individuals are actively engaged457 in forming and maintaining social ties,
communicating their experiences and ideas, and reaching out to others in their communities, locally and
globally. Although there is no one single definition of social media, it can be stated that social media is, broadly
speaking, the act of creating, posting, and sharing content online for others to view.458 Inasmuch, social
networks act as platforms by which to facilitate conversation between users.459 It is this element of social media,
namely the creation of channels of conversation, which is of greatest interest to those concerned with the act of
storytelling. As has been further discussed in Chapter One, storytelling is an inherently human action, which
should be considered as a powerful tool in the process of relationship building, sense making, and
communication, more generally. As it were, storytelling appears to be one of the most natural and intuitive
communication strategies commonly applied to such platforms. One might say that, due to the innate structures
upon which social media networks are built, storytelling is the de facto means of communication online at
present; a fact which has not eluded marketers by any means. Just as social media has eased communication
between individuals, so too have these types of networks opened up new channels of dialogue between
452
Benjamin W. (2011), Il narratore. Considerazioni sull’opera di Nikolaj Leskov, Einaudi, Torino,p.9.
453
Ibidem.
454
Bettini A., Gavatorta F. (2016), Personal storytelling: Building narratives of effective Self, FrancoAngeli, Milan.
455
Ibidem.
456
Michelle Phan Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/michelle_phan_743713
457
Number of social media users worldwide from 2010 to 2021 (in billions) Available on:https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-
worldwide-social-network-users/ Accessed 26th April 2019.
458
Agresta S., Bough B., Bonin B.(2010),Perspectives on social media marketing. E-book. Accessed 26th April 2019.
459
Evans, K.R. (2006),Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Relationship Marketing: A Meta-Analysis,Journal of Marketing, Vol.70, 136-153.
68
consumers and brands.460 With an ever growing number of individuals spending considerable amounts of time
online,461 it is incumbent upon brands, and those responsible for their brand communication strategies, to better
understand how such platforms operate and how they can be best exploited.462 In the digital era, brands must
learn to adapt to social media in other to engage with consumers and extend their reach. Nevertheless,
understanding how platforms function, and, more importantly, what kind of content users want to see, is no
simple undertaking, as will be discussed in the proceeding sections.463 Despite these hurdles, social media offers
unique opportunities for individual users and brand alike to share their stories in a relatable, compelling fashion,
thereby strengthening pre-existing relationships and forming new ties.464 To best understand how social media
has become such a powerful tool in the span of little more than a decade, it is worthwhile to first address the
origins of the medium.
2.4.1 The History of Social Media

“Social media is not about the exploitation of technology but service to community.”
- Simon Mainwaring465
Before delving deeper into how social media can be harnessed as a strategic communication tool, it is perhaps
useful to define what social media is exactly. Working from the definition devised by Haenlein & Kaplan,
“Social Media is a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological
foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content."466 In essence,
what separates social media from other types of content online is the expectation that its users are both the
creators and the consumers of content, and, in the context of storytelling, the are both the storytellers and the
audience.467 As social media grows increasingly ubiquitous due to the rise of mobile devices, so too do the
proliferation of stories told online. One needs look no further than any public setting to realise the impact that
these platforms have had on communication: it is entirely commonplace to see people checking their Facebook,
scrolling through Instagram, or responding to a tweet in nearly every conceivable setting. This perception of the
460
Agresta S., Bough B., Bonin B.(2010),Perspectives on social media marketing. E-book. Accessed 26th April 2019.
461
The statistical Portal, Daily time spent on social networking by internet users worldwide from 2012 to 2017 (in minutes), available on:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-social-media-usage-worldwide/, Accessed 28th April 2019.
462
Kaplan, A.M., Haenlin, M. (2010), Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons 53, p.59-68.
463
Leuthesser, L., Kohli, C., & Suri, R. (2003). 2+ 2= 5? A framework for using co-branding to leverage a brand. Journal of Brand Management, 11,
p35–47.
464
Walter, E.,Gioglio, J. (2014),The Power of Visual Storytelling: How to use Visuals, Videos, and Social Media to Market Your Brand, McGraw
Hill Professional, USA.
465
Social media is not about the exploitation of technology but service to community. Simon Mainwaring
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/simon_mainwaring_494031
466
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010),Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53, p 59–
68.
467
Kucharska W.(2017), Consumer social network brand identification and personal branding. How do social network users choose among brand
sites? , Cogent Business & Management, Management and Economy Faculty of the Marketing Department, Gdansk University of Technology,
Poland.
69
omnipresence of social media is not just merely anecdotal, however, it is also supported by a bevy of statistics
on usage and engagement which confirm how deeply enmeshed social networks are in everyday life.
With the average adult in the West currently spending a full 24 hours online each week,468 the Internet,
and more specifically, mobile devices play an enormous role in how we communicate, gather information,
entertain ourselves, and engage in myriad other activities. According to a recent study by Statistica, the average
adult spends 135 minutes each day on social media, a figure which has continually risen in the years since the
first introduction of social media networks online.469 In addition, the average adult user of social media has a
total of 7.6 accounts,470 with over 500 million active daily users on Instagram alone,471 and Facebook has a
further 372 million active daily users.472 With roughly half of the world’s population, nearly 3.5 billion users in
total,473 using social media - and a further 90% of brands, for that matter 474
- the growing importance of social
media should not be ignored.
What is revealing about this figures, however, is not just the sheer number of users and time spent
engaged on social media, but growing importance of the role of social media in everyday life. To better
understand the impact of social media on society as a whole, and consumers more specifically, it is necessary to
first make sense of the essential elements of which social media is composed. As defined by Peters, Chen,
Kaplan, Ognibeni and Pauwels, social media consists of four fundamental elements, as defined below:
Motive: the reasoning, be it intellectual, social, or cultural, behind why individuals choose to engage
with social media platforms and the enjoyment they derive from the use of social media in and of
itself. This enjoyment may result from interacting with other users, sharing content, or from
feeling oneself to be in line with the cultural norms and values established by the platform’s
community.475
Content: the content, in essence the narratives, posted on any given social media platform as analysed to
determine quality, valence, and volume. Within such this analytical framework, questions of
468
A decade of smartphones: We now spend an entire day every week online, The Telegraph,Available on:
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/08/01/decade-smartphones-now-spend-entire-day-every-week-online/ Accessed 29th April 2019.
469
The Statistical Portal, Daily time spent on social networking by internet users worldwide from 2012 to 2017 (in minutes), accessed 29th April
2019,https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-social-media-usage-worldwide/
470
The Statistical Portal, Average number of social media accounts per internet user from 2013 to 2017, accessed 29th April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/788084/number-of-social-media-accounts/
471
The Statistical Portal, Instagram - Statistics & Facts, accessed 29th April 2019 https://www.statista.com/topics/1882/instagram/
472
The Statistical Portal, Number of daily active Facebook users worldwide as of 1st quarter 2019 (in millions), accessed 29th April 2019
https://www.statista.com/statistics/346167/facebook-global-dau/
473
Hootsuite (2019),Waking Lives on Social Media (and Other Stats), accessed 29th April 2019,
https://blog.hootsuite.com/simon-kemp-social-media/
474
Hootsuite (2018), Hootsuite Social Barometer 2018 Social Media usage by organizations around the world, accessed 29th April 2019,
https://hootsuite.com/barometer.
475
Peters, K., Chen, Y., Kaplan, A., Ognibeni, B. & Pauwels, K. (2013), Social Media Metrics - A Framework and Guidelines for Managing Social
Media. Journal of Interactive Marketing. Vol 27, p. 281-298.
70
purpose, narrative type, emotions conveyed, and the amount of content produced are
examined.476
Network Structure: the size, connections, distribution, and segmentation of social networks in reference
to the number of active users.477
Social Roles and Interactions: the communication and interaction of users with each other and amongst
groups of users which are manifested in the three components of social media described above.478
These elements work in tandem to create the microcosms of interaction and communication which form the
basis of storytelling on social media.
However, not all the communication which occurs on social media is identical; rather, it is shaped by the
platform, each with its own inherent preferences and social mores, and the users of said network. This is an
essential consideration for the development of effective brand communication strategies by marketers, as brand
behaviour and engagement with consumers must be adapted to the environment of each platform.479 For
example, textual information, which is designed to be factual or informative, is best communicated through
blogs, which offer brands the ability to speak directly to their audiences while maintaining control of the
platform.480 Whereas, content creation communities are primarily designed to act as a conduit by which to share
a variety of different types of content - photographs, videos, gifs - with a reduced focus on connectivity and
interactivity.481 Instagram is a prime example of a content-based community, as it is predicated upon the
concept of image sharing and storytelling, the purpose of which being the simple pleasure reaped from the
scopophilic viewing of visual content.482 On such a platform, brands can best communicate with easily
understood, compelling images. Conversely, social networking sites, designed with the explicit aim of the
creation of social media profiles, prove themselves useful in the creation of brand pages and profiles with which
consumers can engage and interact.483 Consumers interactions on these platforms can range from a simple ‘like’
to commenting on brand pages and the creation of dialogue between consumer and brand.484 Inasmuch, the
effectiveness of brand communication is greatly shaped not just by the content of the message, but the platform
476
Ibidem.
477
Ibidem.
478
Kaplan, A. & Haenlein, M. (2010).Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons. Vol. 53, p. 59-
68.
479
480
68.
481
Ibidem.
482
483
68.
484
Dholakia, U., Bagozzi, R. & Pearo, L. (2004). A social influence model of consumer participation in network- and small-group-based virtual
communities. International Journal of Research in Marketing. Vol. 21, p. 241-263.
71
by which that message is conveyed to consumers. Careful consideration of the medium by which to tell a
brand’s story, and the marketing campaign which it bolsters, is essential to strategic brand communication.485
2.4.2 Instagram: A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words

“It helps to see the world through a different lens, and that's what we wanted to do with Instagram. We wanted to give
everyone the same feeling of
Discovering the world around you through a different lens.”
- Kevin Systrom, founder of Instagram486
Turning to Instagram as the preeminent platform on which digital, visual, and personal storytelling occurs
today, offers a number of key insights for marketers about how best to engage their audiences by telling simple,
compelling, affective stories with the power to reach vast swathes of the population. With a staggering one
billion active users in 2018-2019, and 500 million daily users,487 Instagram holds an enormous sway over the
communication and brand engagement habits of a significant proportion of consumers. Indeed, 70% of users
investigate brands on Instagram,488 an additional 80% of Instagram’s users follow at least one brand’s
account,489 and a further 75% of which take action at some point, such as visiting the brand’s website and brick
and mortar location, after viewing posts made by the brand.490 These statistics alone are sufficient to convey the
power of Instagram as a marketing tool in today’s world,491 as has been argued by DeMers, “Instagram has
changed the world of marketing.”492
485
486
Kevin Systrom Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/kevin_systrom_752174
487
The Statistical Portal, Number of monthly active Instagram users from January 2013 to June 2018 (in millions), accessed on 29 april 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/253577/number-of-monthly-active-instagram-users/
488
Iconosquare (20017),Instagram 2015 Study – Unleash the Power of Instagram accessed on 29 april 2019, https://blog.iconosquare.com/instagram-
2015-study-unleash-power-instagram/
489
Instagram Official WebSite, accessed 25 March 2019, https://business.instagram.com/
490
Leonard, L. 2017. How Instagram is changing the design industry. Accessed 28th April 2019. https://www.bdcnetwork.com/blog/how-instagram-
changing-design-industry
491
Moreau, E. 2018. What is Instagram, anyway? Accessed 15th of March 2019. https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-instagram-3486316
492
DeMers, J. 2017. Why Instagram Is the Top Social Media Platform for Engagement. Forbes. Accessed 26th April 2018.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jaysondemers/2017/03/28/why-instagram-is-the-top-social-platform-for-engagement-and-how-to-use-it/
72
Figure 19. Number of Monthly Active Instagram Users from January 2013 to June 2018 (in millions) -
Statistica, The Statistic Portal (2018)
How did Instagram arrive at such a position of prominence in the online world? Founded and launched by
Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger in October 2010, it met with little success at the outset, facing strong
competition from other better established platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter.493 The impetus behind the
development of the platform arose out of a desire to drive innovation in the field of digital photography, and
Instagram’s founders began with the concept of creating a community in which users could easily share images
with one another. In the word’s of its creators, “We made it super-simple to share photos, not only with your
followers in the Instagram community, but with Facebook, Twitter, and Tumblr.”494 It was this simplicity in the
uploading, sharing, and viewing of image which lead to the rapid adoption of the platform by social media users
and is responsible for its continued popularity as an application.495 Indeed, the principles behind Instagram are
quite easily understood: users on the free, mobile application take and post photos, which are cropped to a
493
Laurent, Olivier. "The New Economics of Photojournalism: The Rise of Instagram." British Journal of Photography. September 3, 2012. Accessed
24 March 2019. http://www.bjp-online.com/2012/09/the-new-economics-of-photojournalism-the-rise-of- instagram/.
494
Hollebeek, L., Glynn, M. & Brodie, R. (2014). Consumer Brand Engagement in Social Media: Conceptualization, Scale Development and
Validation. Journal of Interactive Marketing. Vol. 28, p. 149-165.
495
Brodie, R., Hollebeek, L., Juric, B. & Ilic, A. (2011). Customer Engagement: Conceptual Domain, Fundamental Propositions, and Implications for
Research. Journal of Service Research. Vol, 14, no. 3, p. 252-271.
73
standard size, and displayed in reverse chronological order; and, sharing and categorisation is facilitated through
the use of user tags, mentions, and hashtags, marked with @ and # signs respectively.496
Moreover, the simplicity of the platform as a tool of visual communication has facilitated storytelling,
both verbally, in the form of Instagram Stories, and visually, through posted images, highly effectively. The
increasing rates of usage, which has grown from 90 million to one billion in the span of five years, and
engagement by users indicate the efficacy of the simplicity of this model, as illustrated in the figure below:
Figure 20. User Interaction with Brands as a Percentage of Brands’ Fans or Followers - Elliott (2015)
497
This remarkable growth in both active usage and consumer engagement speaks to the heightened importance of
the platform in a brand’s social media portfolio. Instagram, which functions on the basis of visual narratives,
offers a unique opportunity for brand’s to engage with consumers, harnessing the power of storytelling, as has
been discussed in greater detail Chapter 1 and Chapter 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 respectively.
496
497
Elliott N. (2015)How Does Your Brand Stack Up On Facebook, Twitter, And Instagram? accessed 3rd may 2019
https://go.forrester.com/blogs/15-09-15-how_does_your_brand_stack_up_on_facebook_twitter_and_instagram/
74
Figure 21. Social Networks Ranked by the Number of Monthly Users Added Over the Past Year - Business
Insider (2018)
2.4.3 Instagram and User Engagement

“In the past, people have looked at photos as a record of memory. The focus has been on the past tense. With Instagram, the
focus is on the present tense.”
- Kevin Systrom498
Part of what makes Instagram so successful is not just the simplicity of its concept, interface, and usage, but the
ways in which the application makes use of information processing systems in the brain. As discussed in the
previous section, images are exceptional powerful tools of communication, understanding, learning, and
representation. That fact that approximately 83% of all human learning499 is acquired through visual, as opposed
to verbal or textual, means alludes to the potential behind visual platforms, such as Instagram. Images, as has
been proven time and again, are more memorable and more affective than other means of communication,
thereby offering marketers greater opportunities to build emotional connections with consumers through visual
narratives. In tandem with the mobile nature of the application, which allows brands to communicate with users
at anytime and anywhere,500 visual storytelling on Instagram offers marked benefits, providing the brand’s
498
499
Scissons, M., Vo, J., & Sim, H. (2015), Instagram Marketing Strategy. E-Book. Accessed 20th March 2019.
500
75
presence is well-suited to the overall aesthetics and atmosphere of the platform.501 When done effectively,
follower engagement is invaluable for brands, and Instagram images garner 23% more engagement than their
Facebook counterparts502it should be noted. By way of comparison, user engagement rates on both Instagram
and Facebook respectively are illustrated in the figure below:
Figure 22. Engagement on Instagram - Socialbakers (2018)
503
Figure 23. Engagement on Facebook - Socialbakers (2018)
504
501
502
Business of Apps (2018)Instagram Revenue and Usage Statistics,http://www.businessofapps.com/data/instagram-statistics/
503
Buryan, M. (2018) Engagement on Instagram: Everything You Need to Know. Available at https://www.socialbakers.com/blog/instagram-
engagement. Accessed 19 March 2019.
504
Ibidem.
76
In the increasingly fragmented world of social media, creating memorable and distinct messages by which to
achieve this purpose, is progressively more challenging and, thus, it is of increasing importance to choose the
best platform for your message.505
As previously discussed, Instagram imparts a platform by which brands are able to communicate their
values and identity to an audience,506 by allowing a broader, more cohesive image of the brand’s story to
emerge, which in turn leads to the humanisation, or personalisation, of the brand in the eye’s of the consumer.507
Facilitating communication and strengthening the relationship between consumer and brand are key steps in the
process of consumer engagement, which is understood to be the liking, commenting, sharing, or following of a
brand, and its posts, on Instagram. As has been noted, customers who engage with brands online by following
them are more likely to be aware of developments in the brand and its activities more generally.508 Therefore,
the content which forms the basis of brand communication on Instagram plays an essential role in attracting and
maintaining the interest of consumers.509 In a society such as our own, where individuals are inundated with a
seemingly infinite steam of content,510 differentiating oneself from the pack and attracting audience attention is
no simple undertaking, for individuals and brands alike, making effective brand communication with
engagement as its aim crucial.511
However, despite the importance of engagement, very few brands take the time to understand why it is
that certain posts seem to capture the interest and imagination of users and others miss the mark.512 As has been
suggested by communications consultant Stephen Lee, of communications company Miltton, “companies are
present in many social medias, but are not always utilizing the data gathered from these platforms to their
advantage.”513 To fully reap the benefits of these platforms, brands need to first understand what content users
engage with; how to build relationships with them based on said content; and how to harness the potential of
word of mouth advertising, brand advocacy, and attitudes towards brands514 in order to form strong ties with the
consumer.515 In essence, when brands realise what it is that their audience wants, they are able to better produce
505
Solis, B. (2011). Engage! The Complete Guide for Brands and Businesses to Build, Cultivate, and Measure Success in the New Web. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
506
Hexagon C.(2014), Instagram Analysis and the Success of Visual Brands. Available at: http://www.crimsonhexagon.com/blog/brand-
management/instagram-analysis-success-visual-brands. Accessed 19 March 2019.
507
508
de Vries, L., Gensler, S. & Leeflang, P.S.H. (2012). Popularity of brand posts on brand fan pages: an investigation of the effects of social media
marketing. Journal of Interactive Marketing. Vol. 26, p. 83-91.
509
Solis, B. (2011). Engage! The Complete Guide for Brands and Businesses to Build, Cultivate, and Measure Success in the New Web. New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
510
Ibidem.
511
512
Ibidem.
513
Lee, B. K. (2004). Audience-oriented approach to crisis communication: A study of Hong Kong consumers’ evaluation of an organizational crisis.
Communication Research, 31, p. 600–618.
514
Ibidem.
515
Ibidem.
77
the content which is the basis of engagement.516 To optimise said content, and ensure that it is successful, brands
must look to the data and analytics of user engagement produced from previous posts.517
A careful examination of said data and analytics reveals the effect of so-called influencers518 or
ambassadors519 on Instagram and the narratives they weave, as will be discussed further in Chapters Three and
Four. However, before delving deeper into the world of Instagram influencers, the five fundamental
propositions for customer engagement, as elaborated by Brodie et.al., are defined as:
Customer engagement (CE) is a psychological state that occurs by virtue of interactive, cocreative
customer experiences with a focal agent/object (e.g., a brand) in focal service relationships. It occurs
under a specific set of context-dependent conditions generating differing CE levels; and exists as a
dynamic, iterative process within service relationships that co-create value. CE plays a central role in a
nomological network governing service relationships in which other relational concepts (e.g.,
involvement, loyalty) are antecedents and/or consequences in iterative CE processes. It is a
multidimensional concept subject to a context- and/or stakeholder- specific expression of relevant
cognitive, emotional and/or behavioral dimensions.520
In addition, consumer engagement must be assessed in terms of the context in which it is grounded; the layers of
social, cultural, and political meaning encoded within the images posted; and, the individual viewer’s own
preferences, mood, and need for cognition, which can be defined as extent to which the act of thinking is
engaged in and enjoyed.521 These elements of engagement are essential to the act of interpreting and
understanding images and have a significant effect on the levels of engagement experienced by Instagram
users.522
Moreover, the concept of Consumer Brand Engagement, which is currently emerging, is not yet
univocal, making it significantly more difficult to assess and interpret; however, two crucial elements of brand
engagement communication can be identified at present: integration and involvement. Integration refers to the
complexity of the environment in which the brand operates, whereas incorporation refers to idea behind a given
product and how it is presented to the consumer within a channel.523 These aspects of consumer engagement are
exceptionally efficient and effective, while, at the same time, intangible enough to be difficult to measure,
516
517
Ibidem.
518
519
Lee, B. K. (2004). Audience-oriented approach to crisis communication: A study of Hong Kong consumers’ evaluation of an organizational crisis.
Communication Research, 31, p. 600–618.
520
521
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of personality and social psychology. Vol. 42, no. 1, p. 116.
522
523
Ibidem.
78
especially within the framework of traditional marketing channels and levers, as seen in more conventional
forms of media.
As mentioned above, however, measuring user engagement, and, therefore, the success or failure of
brand communication, is no mean feat. While the number of followers, likes, comments, and shares can easily
be tabulated, these factors are not equally weighted524 nor do they paint a complete picture of how consumers
engage with brands. Indeed, there are whole masses of users whose engagement can be measured by none of
these metrics: the lurkers who quietly populate social networks in vast numbers.525 Lurking, which involves
observing or viewing content without engaging with it in a calculable or visible fashion,526 is notoriously
difficult to measure. These users, who are unwilling to contribute to the dialogue for a multiple of reasons,
consume content, but produce none of their own.527 For this reason, lurkers, as a group, are often overlooked by
marketers;528 nonetheless, as Chen and Chang argue, these users actively engage with content, in meaningful
ways, as a means of information-gathering, which may eventually “evolve” into active participation on the
platform.529 For this reason, we can say that lurkers are, rather, listeners, or the audience, to which brands tell
their stories through content creation.530 How brands engage these listeners is by attracting their sense of
curiosity, which can be seen as a manifestation of the need to gather information, seek pleasure and
entertainment, or reduce anxiety on the part of the consumer.531 However, whatever the root of user curiosity,
these listeners should be seen as actively engaging with content they consume.
524
525
Huang, Y. C., Wu, F., & Cheng, Y. (2016). Crisis communication in context: Cultural and political influences underpinning Chinese public
relations practice. Public Relations Review, 42, 201–213.
526
Schneider, A., Von Krogh, G., & Jäger, P. (2013). “What’s coming next?” Epistemic curiosity and lurking behavior in online communities.
Computers in Human Behavior. Vol. 29, no. 1, p. 293-303.
527
Ibidem.
528
Crawford, K. (2009). Following you: Disciplines of listening in social media. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies. Vol. 23, no. 4, p.
525-535.
529
Chen & Chang 2013).
530
Crawford, K. (2009). Following you: Disciplines of listening in social media. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies. Vol. 23, no. 4, p.
525-535.
531
Schneider, A., Von Krogh, G., & Jäger, P. (2013). “What’s coming next?” Epistemic curiosity and lurking behavior in online communities.
Computers in Human Behavior. Vol. 29, no. 1, p. 293-303.
79
2.4.4 Instagram as a Marketing Tool
“Instagram has changed the world of marketing.”
- Jason DeMers532
While Twitter and Facebook are well-established mediums by which marketers facilitate brand
communication,533 Instagram has proven to be a challenging platform by which to reach audiences in the past.534
This, it should be noted, has not been the result of user resistance or complexity of the application. Conversely,
respondents to surveys on brand communication have indicated that their perception of brand stories is largely
positive and seen as a means by which to learn more about the personal side of the brand, making it more
approachable and relatable.535 Lack of resistance amongst users has not meant that Instagram has always been
popular with marketers, however. As Miles notes, in the early days of the platform, it was seen more as a simple
photo editing application, rather than the full-blown social network it has become.536 After 2012, and its
purchase by Facebook, the platform has gained much greater relevance, along with a significantly larger
audience, and, thus, has positioned itself as a much more attractive environment for advertisers and marketers
alike.537 At present, Instagram is considered one of the premiere platforms on which to build relationships
between brands and consumers today.
To fully reap the benefits of Instagram as a relationship building device, marketers must first devise a
thoroughly considered marketing and communication strategy, as with any other given marketing channel. By
devising a marketing strategy which bolsters the brand’s image and helps differentiate it from its competitors,
and a communication strategy that communicates said image to both external and internal audience,538 brands
are able to harness the power of the platform and engage with its one billion active monthly users.539 These two
strategic planning elements, working in tandem, form the basis of any social media strategy, where every like,
every comment, and every post should be a purposeful reflection of the brand’s image and overarching
narrative.540
532
DeMers, J. 2017. Why Instagram Is the Top Social Media Platform for Engagement. Forbes. Accessed 26th April 2018.
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jaysondemers/2017/03/28/why-instagram-is-the-top-social-platform-for-engagement-and-how-to-use-it/
533
534
Ibidem.
535
McGraw Hill Professional
536
Miles, J., G. 2014. Instagram Power: Build your brand and reach more customers with the power of pictures. United States of America.
537
Ibidem.
538
Walsh, M. 2016. The Difference Between Communication and Marketing: Part 1. Accessed 16th of November. 2018 http://beyondim.com/the-
difference-between-communication-and-marketing-part-1/
539
The Statistical Portal, Number of monthly active Instagram users from January 2013 to June 2018 (in millions)
540
LePage, E., Newberry, C. (2018),How to Create a Social Media Marketing Strategy in 8 Easy Steps. Accessed 19th of April 2019.
https://blog.hootsuite.com/how-to-create-a-social-media- marketing-plan/
80
To better understand how to devise an effective social media communication strategy, we turn to the five
steps which compose the process, as outlined by a research of Chicago State University:541
Defining the mission: the first step of any strategic plan is defining and understanding the mission that is
to be undertaken;
Identifying targets and outcomes: after defining the mission, a set of goals should be determined as the
desired outcome of the campaign;
Defining the strategy: arriving at a clear understanding of why the strategy exists and how the strategy
will achieve the stated goals and outcomes of the mission;
Defining criteria: the setting of criteria by which to measure the effectiveness of the mission;
Interpreting the results: an analysis of the final outcome of a campaign, with an assessment of what was
successful and what failed, what was accomplished, what needs to be changed, and how the
process can be improved in the future.
Figure 24. The Planning Cycle - Chicago State University (2012)
541
Chicago State University.com, 2012. The Planning Cycle. Accessed 12th April 2019,
http://www.csu.edu/strategicplanningresources/planningcycle.htm
81
These key steps in the planning of any Instagram marketing strategy should reinforce the principles of effective
visual storytelling as outlined in Chapter 2.2, support the overall image of the brand, and should underlie the
simplicity of the platform, delivering a simple but sophisticated message from the brand to the consumer.542
On Instagram, the primary means by which brands communicate their messages is through the posting of
content, making content strategy the heart of any Instagram strategy. Carefully chosen content, which is
designed to appeal to a target audience, is crucial to the success of brands on the platform, and while what is
posted must always be engaging and relevant, there are different tacks by which companies approach social
media marketing. As defined by Pacis, there are four main strategies which dominate social media marketing at
present: product-centric, culture-centric, mixed strategy, and user-generated.543 Product-centric strategies,
which are the most commonly seen type of Instagram marketing strategy, have the brand’s products as its sole
focus.544 This straightforward approach is informative, while also being effective, and has been exceptionally
successful for companies such as Marimekko.545 A culture-centric strategy, on the other hand, is the logical
choice for brands with a clearly defined and recognisable culture. This type of strategy, which rests on the
principle of promoting the brand’s unique identity and culture, is useful for differentiating brands from their
competitors and has been put to good use for companies such as Nike.546 In addition, these two strategies can be
mixed and combined, and, when done correctly, result in a consistent Instagram feed with a clear brand
message.547 Finally, for brands with a well-established, loyal fan base, a user-generated content strategy may be
the most effective means of engaging with their audience. This particular strategy works best for brands who
already have enough loyal fans and customers, and rely upon said users themselves to create content which is
then posted on the platform. Successful examples of companies who depend on this strategy include the
watchmaker, Daniel Wellington.548 After defining which type of Instagram strategy to utilise, one must consider
the essential components of an Instagram strategy, which are defined below and are elaborated further in
Cooper:
Content scheduling: due to the fact that Instagram’s feed is not chronological in nature, and instead based on
engagement and interaction, brands need to be strategic in when they post and how often.549Consistent, on-
going posting schedules heightens visibility and increases opportunities for engagement. Therefore, it is better
542
Scissons, M., Vo, J., & Sim, H. (2015), Instagram Marketing Strategy. E-Book. Accessed 20th April 2018.
543
Pacis, C. 2017. How to create a winning Instagram strategy. Accessed 15th April 2019. https://blog.wishpond.com/post/115675437360/instagram-
marketing-strategy
544
Ibidem.
545
Ibidem.
546
marketing-strategy
547
Ibidem.
548
Ibidem.
549
Cooper, P. 2018. How to Schedule Instagram Posts. Accessed 22nd of November 2018. https://blog.hootsuite.com/how-to-schedule-instagram-
posts/
82
to post every week for three days, than to post one week every day and the next week nothing.550 An
understanding of what the audience expects is essential to devising a successful posting schedule.
High-quality images: in order to maintain the integrity of the account and retain the attention of followers,
images must be of a high-quality, ideally shot by a professional photographers, with due attention paid to the
composition, lighting, and styling of the image.551 It should come as no surprise that Instagram accounts which
are visually cohesive, either in their use of imagery, colour palettes, or theme, have gained widespread
popularity, as they focus almost entirely on the developing of a holistic story world.552 Post-production photo
editing tools are essential here.
Content creation: with the addition of the stories feature in 2018, users have even more opportunities to create
attractive, compelling content with which to engage with their followers.553 This new feature has proven itself to
be incredibly fruitful in increasing engagement because the stories feature is located at the top of the user’s feed,
booting its visibility, and placing the story in a position of prominence. For brands, Instagram Live is a superb
tool for demonstrating a new product, speaking directly to consumers, establishing brand identity, and
connecting directly with an audience.554
Hashtags: an extremely effective tool on Instagram, hashtags, allow users to find the content you post, in
addition to aiding brands to situate themselves within a particular niche in the market. Hashtags also function to
raise levels of exposure and the engagement.
Optimisation for monetisation: while there are a handful of ways to monetise Instagram, one of the most
efficient means by which to do so is the use of Call to Action Strategies (CTAs), which direct the consumer to
where they can purchase the product featured in the post.555 Additionally, the AIDA marketing formula -
attention, interest, desire, and action - can be used to capture the attention of a potential buyer and compel he or
she to take action and purchase the product.556 This can be successfully achieved by encouraging consumers to
make purchase decisions, such as by offering discount codes or short-duration sales.
550
marketing-strategy
551
Sharma, G. 2018. 4 Quick and Easy Tips for Posting High Quality Images on Instagram. Social media today. Accessed 22nd of March 2019.
https://www.socialmediatoday.com/news/4- quick-and-easy-tips-for-posting-high-quality-images-on-instagram/526603/
552
Ibidem.
553
Khan, M. 2018. How to Create a Mind-Blowing Instagram Video Strategy. Accessed 22nd of March 2018. https://www.jeffbullas.com/create-
mind-blowing-instagram-video-strategy/
554
Ibidem.
555
Laurence, C. (2017),Call to Action on Instagram: 13 Creative CTAS to Test on Your Account. Accessed 23rd of April 2019.
https://www.plannthat.com/call-to-action-instagram/
556
Miles, J., G. (2014),Instagram Power: Build your brand and reach more customers with the power of pictures. United State of America, p.32.
83
Contests: competition has proven itself to be a highly constructive tool on many channels, and Instagram is no
exception. Indeed, Instagram accounts that offer contests for their followers to participate in have an average
growth rate that is 70% faster than those who do not.557 Contests which help to generate sales and gather contact
information from participants garner the most benefits for brands.
Advertisements: ads are, simply put, the best way to reach your target audience.558 Strategic consideration of
which images are most effectual in displaying and sharing product information can lead to a powerful call to
action, by combining targeted copy and compelling imagery.559 Ads on Instagram take on four different forms:
photo ads, video ads, carousel ads, and story ads. Whichever type of ad is chosen, it must be done in careful
consideration of the target audience, which is achieved by identifying niches in the market and creating targeted
ads for those particular consumers.
Storytelling: as addressed more thoroughly in the preceding sections, stories are one of the most powerful tools
of human communication and Instagram is an ideal platform from which to tell stories. Using the framework of
visual storytelling, brands can create compelling, authentic content that engages with their audience. It is
crucial, however, that brands do not just tell stories, but craft interweaving narratives that shape a cohesive
vision of the brand’s identity and image.560
Right audience: as Rohrs has noted, it is consumers prerogative to choose which ads, by which brands, they
want to devote their attention to; it is the individual user who decides who to follow, which posts to like, stories
to view, and posts to comment on.561 Therefore, we can say that consumer attention must be earned on
Instagram. Therefore, brands have to be conscious of their desired audience and pay careful attention to
producing and posting content that appeals to said audience. In addition, the social behaviour of brands, in
essence how and who they interact with on the platform, need also be considered and targeted, with possible
prospects in mind, as opposed to random interactions.562 A strategy of intentional interactions leads to better
brand engagement, which is crucial to the success of any marketing campaign on the application. products
actually work.
557
Patel, N. 2017. 7 Instagram marketing mistakes to avoid at all costs. Accessed 10th April 2019. https://neilpatel.com/blog/7-instagram-marketing-
mistakes-to-avoid-at-all-costs/
558
Pacis, C. (2017), How to create a winning Instagram strategy. Accessed 28th April 2019.
https://blog.wishpond.com/post/115675437360/instagram-marketing-strategy
559
Miles, J., G. 2014. Instagram Power: Build your brand and reach more customers with the power of pictures. United States of America, p.44.
560
Pearce, K. (2017),15 Brilliant examples of visual storytelling on Instagram. Accessed 5th April 2019, https://www.diygenius.com/brilliant-
examples-of-visual-storytelling-on-instagram/
561
Rohrs, J., 2013. Audience: Marketing in the Age of Subscribers, Fans, Followers. Wiley Publishing, 1st edition.
562
Miles, J., G. 2014. Instagram Power: Build your brand and reach more customers with the power of pictures. United States of America.
84
Collaborations and influencer marketing: the importance of collaboration, especially with related brands and
influencers, cannot be overstated. By means of definition, influencers can be said to be “individuals within a
consumer’s social graph, whose commentary, based on the personal nature of their relationship and
communications, has a direct impact on the behavior of that consumer.”563 These individuals hold sway over
niche markets, which are invaluable resources for any brand attempting to reach a target audience. For this
reason, it is essential for brands to identify those influencers who can best reach a predetermined target
audience.564 As Barker has identified, there are six distinct categories of influencer collaboration: sponsored
social media content, gifting, sponsored blog posts, guest blogging, take-overs, and brand ambassador
programs.565 Each variety of collaboration has its own advantages and disadvantages, and thus, must be weighed
to determine the best strategy to achieve follower brand engagement. However, it can be broadly stated that
influencer content is more effective than the brand’s original content in many contexts.566
As we have seen, Instagram is a powerful marketing tool, which, when used correctly, has the power to
increase brand visibility, increase brand engagement, and shape relationships between consumers and brands;
however, like any other medium, the platform has its pitfalls for marketers and should not be considered a land
of milk and honey. Some common errors that are committed by marketers on Instagram result for the simple
lack of planning from the outset.567 As Patel notes, without a clearly-defined, results oriented strategy, the
majority of marketing campaigns on Instagram can and do fail.568 These failures in strategic planning can be as
small as neglecting to include a link to the product being advertised in the post,569 or as significant as failing to
adequately engage with followers in the brand’s communication on the platform.570 These two mistakes, along
with a lack of consistency in theme, relevance, image, tone, scheduling, and interaction with followers, form the
basis of the better part of errors made by markers in their attempts to exploit the platform.
563
Brown, D., Fiorella, S. 2013. Influence Marketing. E-book. Accessed 28th April 2019.
564
Quan, S. (2017), Working with influencer: Dos and Don’ts. Ninja Outreach. Accessed 10th of April 2019. https://ninjaoutreach.com/influencer-
collaboration-examples/
565
Barker, S. (2018), 6 of the Most Effective Types of Influencer Collaborations. Accessed 12th of April 2019,https://shanebarker.com/blog/effective-
types-influencer-collaborations/
566
Ibidem.
567
Patel, N. (2017), 7 Instagram marketing mistakes to avoid at all costs. Accessed 10th April 2019. https://neilpatel.com/blog/7-instagram-marketing-
mistakes-to-avoid-at-all-costs/
568
Ibidem.
569
Hart, K. (2017), 11 Instagram mistakes to avoid at all costs. Accessed 17th April 2018, https://curatti.com/11-instagram-mistakes-avoid/
570
Ibidem.
85
Conclusion
“Instagram doesn't exist in a vacuum. We're not a bunch of siloed individuals. It's a bunch of people coming together on
topics, fashion, you know, youthful teens, creatives, photographers, foodies, everyone coming together and building a
community around the things they love, communicating visually.” - Kevin Systrom571
With the growth social media, and the rise of storytelling on as a means of brand communication, the
phenomenon of visual information exchanges has become of significant interest to scholars and marketers
alike.572 However, previous narratological studies, especially those on narrative transportation theory, have
tended to consider only textual or otherwise verbal narratives, as opposed to examining visual communication.
However, as noted in the preceding section on Visual Storytelling, the mental stimulation which occurs when
presented images is very different from the stimulation caused by verbal communication, as it engaged with the
viewer’s psychological mechanisms. Nevertheless, the insights into immersion,573 narrative transportation,
verbal and non-verbal forms communication in brand advertising,574 which have been widely studied in the
literature of marketing communication prove valuable to this emerging field of study. Applying these insights,
and guided by the principle that visual mediums, such as Instagram, offer ingress into an individual’s hidden
thoughts and unconscious emotions,575 it is understood that visual communication, in the form of
advertisements, induces a state of mental simulation from which a deeper understanding of consumers’ feelings
and experiences can be reached.576
571
572
Clasen, A. (2015). Why Instagram is so important to Millennials. Available at: http://blog.iconosquare.com/instagram-important-millennials/
573
Megere C.M., Woodside A.G. (2010), Creating visual narrative art for decoding stories that consumers and brands tell, Psychology and
Marketing,27, p.603-22.
574
Bruselle R., Bilandzic H. (2008), Fictionality and perceived realism in experiencing stories:A model of narrative comprehension and engagement,
Communication Theory, 18, p.255-280.
575
Escalas, E. (2004). Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, p.168-180.
576
Heejin L.,Childs M. (2016), Brand Storytelling on Instagram: How Do Pictures Travel to Millennial Consumers' Minds?, University of Tennessee.
86
Chapter Three
Human Branding
“There is an universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves… We find human faces in the moon,
armies in the clouds.”
- David Hume
3.1 Human Branding: An Introduction

Once declared a dead field of marketing, branding, and more specifically, human branding, has not only
survived, but thrived in the dynamic world of Web 2.0, where visual storytelling is essential and audiences
hunger for compelling, authentic storytelling. However, despite the continued growth of branding as a practice,
there exists a considerable gap between application and theory in the field. Roundly dismissed as being
“regimented diet of canned optimism and connect-the-dot formulas” sold to “naive customers” by “experts
[that] range somewhere between corny and culty,”577 the literature on personal branding reflects the disdain
which has traditionally colour academic analyses of the field. From criticism on the basis of moral grounds, to
the objection that personal branding is the apex of unfettered commercialism,578 there exists a clear tendency to
treat human branding as a process by which “complex human beings” are reduced to “something like
Kleenex.”579 Moreover, attempts to gain self-exposure580 through human branding have been dismissed a
preferencing of image over substance.581 Indeed, the final product of this form of branding, the branded self or
the human-brand as it were, has been described as “one of the more cynical products” of the tertiary, post-
Fordism economy.582
How then to reconcile this fundamentally critical, moralistic attitude to personal branding which exists in
the literature, with the seemingly positive gains achieved in the field in recent memory? A facile approach
would be to summarily dismiss human branding as a nothing but a harried attempt by marketers to create
employment opportunities for themselves at a point in time when a stagnant world economy, undergoing
restructuring, has rendered the industry subject to volatile change.583 However, the success which has been seen
by countless influencers and celebrities alike, individuals who have transformed themselves into brands in and
of their own right, is much more difficult to dismiss. Rather, the concept of personal branding, dismissing any
577
Conley, L. (2008),OBD: Obsessive Branding Disorder. Philadelphia, PA, Public Affairs.
578
Klein, N. (2008). Threats and Temps. Critical Social Issues in American Education: Democracy and Meaning in a Globalizing World. H. S.
Shapiro and D. E. Purpel. Mahwah, NJ, Taylor & Francis e-Library: 365-390.
579
Conley, L. (2008),OBD: Obsessive Branding Disorder. Philadelphia, PA, Public Affairs.
580
Rosen, J. (2004). The Naked Crowd: Reclaiming Security and Freedom in an Anxious Age New York, Amazon Kindle Edition.
581
Lair, D. J., K. Sullivan, et al. (2005),Marketization and the Recasting of the Professional Self: The Rhetoric and Ethics of Personal Branding,
Management Communication Quarterly 18(3),pp. 307-343.
582
Hearn, A. (2008),`Meat, Mask, Burden`: Probing the contours of the branded `self`, Journal of Consumer Culture 8(2),pp. 197-217
583
Zarkada A. (2018), Concepts and constructs for personal branding: An exploratory literature review approach, Athens University of Economics and
Business & Hellenic Open University
87
negative connotations the term may entail, can be be described as the creation of a human brand by any well-
known person, whose name, image, or likeness is used in marketing efforts, as defined by Thomson.584 Within
this conceptualisation of human branding, individuals which have become brands - celebrities for the most part,
though increasingly the ranks of celebrity also include so-called influencers - have typically been of interest to
marketers as endorsers.585 However, as has been noted, brand status is only achieved through the mass
mediatisation and consumption of their identities and personalities as commodities.586 This process, whether it
involved athletes, film and television personalities, musicians, entrepreneurs, or even politicians, recognises the
commercial value of celebrity, and can be seen as the culmination of orchestrated brand experiences.587
As will be further discussed in Chapter Three, the concept of human branding, as facilitated by visual
and verbal storytelling, has had an immeasurable impact on marketing as it occurs online, especially on social
media networks. Traditional marketing has been turned on its head and the fundamental elements which
compose the creation of a brand, including its image and identity in the eyes of consumers, have been
inexorably altered by the introduction of personal branding, as seen in the storytelling engaged in by influencers
and celebrities respectively, to the world of marketing.
3.1.1 Human Branding Defined
“The essence of a thing is what it is said to be in respect of itself.”

- Aristotle588
A definition, which describes an object's attributes which compose its essential nature as elucidated by
Aristotle,589 is perhaps the clearest and most intuitive way in which to grasp the conceptual foundation and
theoretical grounding of a term as nebulous and ill-defined as human branding. The definition of human
branding predominantly found in the popular literature relies upon a haphazard mix of psychotherapy-based
personal development tactics as applied to management, as is seen in the following quote taken from the human
branding “guru” Aruda,
584
Thomson, M. (2006), Human Brands: Investigating Antecedents to Consumers’ Strong Attachments to Celebrities, Journal of Marketing, 70 (3),
pp. 104–119.
585
Keel, A., & Nataraajan, R. (2012), Celebrity endorsements and beyond: New avenues for celebrity branding, Psychology & Marketing, 29, pp.
690–703.
586
Pringle, H. (2004), Celebrity sells,Wiley, London.
587
Yohn, D. L. (2014, July 16). Lady Gaga is still schooling marketers. Forbes.com. Retrieved 12 May 2019, from
http://www.forbes.com/sites/deniselyohn/2014/07/16/lady- gaga-is-still-schooling-marketers/.
588
Cohen, S. Marc, "Aristotle's Metaphysics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/.
589
Aristotle (2007), Posterior Analytics. Adelaide, South Australia, The University of Adelaide Library.
88
[human branding is] understanding what is truly unique about you (...) and using that to differentiate
yourself and guide your career decisions. Through unearthing the true you and consistently and
constantly living your personal brand, you attract what you need to achieve your goals without having to
‘wrestle with the universe’ to acquire it.590
Within such a conceptual framework, the purpose of human branding is to unearth a quasi-mythical sort of
uniqueness,591 which is then communicated with the world, enabling individuals as human brands to “conquer”
the arena of his or her choice - in this case, Instagram. This concept is in many ways not dissimilar from
υστεροφηµία, or posthumous fame,592 which was first elucidated in Ancient Greece. In manifold ways, the
creation of a personal brand, such as those formulated by Chiara Ferragni and Kim Kardashian West amongst
others, “is how you live in the hearts and minds of those in your market.”593
For a more conceptually and structurally rigorous definition of personal branding we look to Hearn’s
definition of human branding, and the individual who has become a brand for that matter, as being a “product,
producer, and consumer (...) captive to and conditioned by the controlling interests of global flexible capital.”594
In addition, the notion that personal branding is centered on the transference of value from brand to consumer
by means of emotional connection is essential to any well-developed definition of the concept.595 Departing
from the impression that personal branding is an “arcane activity”596 that is a mere “programmatic approach”597
and arriving at the conviction that it is a proactive response,598 which is, at its most effective, a “powerful tool,”
human branding is a process which should not be underestimated or ignored by marketers.
However, it would be mistaken to assume that the contention surrounding the concept of human
branding is a modern one. Rather, the debate over corporate anthropomorphism, in essence, the transformation
of a brand into a humanistic entity, has its roots in the early seventeenth century.599 While there are meaningful
differences between corporate-human equivalence and the application of corporate branding theory in tandem
with personal branding mechanisms, there are also significant commonalities between the two.600 Inasmuch, in
590
Aruda, W. (2010), Personal Branding Guru William Aruda.
591
Schawbel, D. (2009), Me 2.0., Kaplan, New York.
592
Zarkada A. (2018), Concepts and constructs for personal branding: An exploratory literature review approach, Athens University of Economics
and Business & Hellenic Open University.
593
Hodgkinson, S. (2005), The Leader's Edge: Using Personal Branding to Drive Performance and Profit. Lincoln, NE, iUniverse.
594
Hearn, A. (2008), Meat, Mask, Burden`: Probing the contours of the branded `self`,Journal of Consumer Culture 8(2),pp.197-217.
595
Thomas, S. (2007), Career Smart: Five Steps to a Powerful Personal Brand. Chandler, AZ, Career Coaching 360.
596
Shepherd, I. D. H. (2005), From Cattle and Coke to Charlie: Meeting the Challenge of Self Marketing and Personal Branding, Journal of
Marketing Management 21(5/6), pp.589-606.
597
Montoya, P. and T. Vandehey (2002), The Personal Branding Phenomenon: realize greater influence, explosive income growth and rapid career
advancement by applying the branding techniques of Oprah, Martha and Michael. Beaverton, OR, Personal Branding Press Publishing.
598
Hughes, A. (2007). Personal Brands: An Exploratory Analysis of Personal Brands in Australian Political Marketing. Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy (ANZMAC) Conference 2007, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, Department of Marketing, School of Business,
University of Otago.
599
Kusku, F. and A. Zarkada-Fraser (2004),An empirical investigation of corporate citizenship practices in Australia and Turkey, British Journal of
Management 15(1), pp.57-72.
600
and Business & Hellenic Open University
89
our shared socioeconomic system just as an individual can produce goods and services to be sold in exchange,
so too can a corporation.601 Moreover, beyond the goods and services produced by an individual, he or she may
also possess values and intrinsic qualities, beyond those typically valued in the context of production, that
become visible and relevant beyond the confines of the goods and services on offer.602 As a final point of
commonality, both individuals and corporations are in possession of distinct histories, identities, and reputations
which form the basis on both personal and corporate branding.603
Thus, human branding, like its corporate branding counterpart, can be defined as a the conscious,
strategic decision to communicate defined aspects of a brand or individual’s identity, by means of a
predetermined branding proposition, with the aim of differentiating the brand and/or individual from
competitors, thereby strengthening positive perceptions held by stakeholders and networks alike.604 In the
faltering world economy, which is facing increasing competition from foreign markets, human branding
provides an opportunity for marketers to expand the target market for their skills and talents, in one of the most
dynamic and rapidly developing fields in the industry. The epistemological boundaries of marketing defined by
Kotler and Levy605 should be discarded as relics of the heyday of the Mad Men, and, instead, a cross-
fertilisation of marketing with other disciplines is necessary to formulate a set of techniques and processes by
which identities are shaped and communication is facilitated, resulting in the creation of human brands.606
3.1.2 Personal Branding and the Creation of Human Brands
“Millennials want brands with a story, something they can relate to. They want a personal brand they can put a face to.”
- Bobby Berk607
In a network economy, innovation, the formation of strong relationships, collaboration, and knowledge are
essential to gaining a competitive advantage,608 and in contemporary processes of market coordination, network
members “are the essence of a consciously configured network of value.”609 Social media networks, moreover,
must be understood to be a crucial component of the modern networked environment and the contributions
601
Ibidem.
602
603
Ibidem.
604
Ibidem.
605
Kotler, P. and S. J. Levy (1969),Broadening the concept of marketing, Journal of Marketing(January), pp. 10-15.
606
607
Bobby Berk Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/bobby_berk_934922
608
Mazurek, G. (2014), Network value creation through marketing. Management and Business Administration. Central Europe, 22, pp. 70–77.
609
Kucharska, W., Confente, I. (2017),Selfie and personal branding phenomena in the context of the network economy, A literature review, Handel
Wewnętrzny, 6(371), pp. 161-169.
90
which they confer to overall network value recognised.610 As has been addressed more thoroughly in Chapter
Two, social media, or social networking sites, serve as platforms through which users to create, interpret, and
share content,611 and may range from blogs, social networking sites, collaborative projects, content
communities, virtual social worlds, virtual game worlds, to Internet forums, with varying levels of engagement
on each platform.612 While there are many intriguing consequences to this creation of virtual networks on social
media, for the purposes of this thesis, it is the development of personal brands which is of greatest interest.
A rapidly growing trend, online personal branding can be seen to be a natural culmination of an era of
consumer-to-consumer driven information,613 which has allowed some users of social media to consciously
fashion their own personal brands.614 Self-presentation has been to noted to be a primary motivation for the use
of social media615 as social media networks function as ideal platforms from which to express individual values,
personal beliefs, and interests, in addition to socially defining one’s image and identity.616 It is these very factors
- the self-discovery of individual values, beliefs, interests, image, and identity - which are the foundations of
building a successful personal brand strategy617 and maintaining a positive brand reputation.618 As has been
noted, “the process of personal branding is peculiar, introspective and requires a high level of self-awareness.
Formulating a good strategy will not take only time but also a lot of personal effort.”619 However, human, or
otherwise personified brands, who make this effort are likely to reap significant benefits from humanising
themselves in the eyes of consumers, as the literature suggests.
That social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram provide their users with an ideal stage upon
which to present one’s self should come as no surprise.620 Indeed, the platforms seems explicitly designed for
self-presentation as they confer upon users the ability to display themselves in ever more curated and desirable
fashion through the use of image enhancing filters and software.621 More to this point, it has been argued that
610
Mazurek, G. (2014), Network value creation through marketing. Management and Business Administration. Central Europe, 22, pp. 70–77.
611
Kaplan, A., Haenlein, M. (2009),Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53(1), pp. 59-68
612
Wewnętrzny, 6(371), pp. 161-169.
613
Karaduman, İ. (2013), The e ect of social media on personal branding e orts of top level executives, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 99,
pp. 465–473
614
Wewnętrzny, 6(371), pp. 161-169.
615
Seidman, G. (2013). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality influences social media use and motivations. Personality and
Individual Di erences, 54, 402–407
616
Orehek, E., & Human, L. J. (2017), Self-expression on social media: Do tweets present accurate and positive portraits of impulsivity, self-esteem,
and attachment style? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43,pp. 60–70.
617
Poeppelman, T., Blacksmith, N. (2014), Personal branding via social media: Increasing SIOP visibility one member at a time, “The Industrial-
Organizational Psychologist”, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp.112-119.
618
Philbrick J.L., Cleveland A.D. (2015), Personal branding: building your pathway to professional success, “Medical reference services quarterly”,
Vol. 34, No. 2., p.181- 189.
619
Kucharska, W., Confente, I. (2017), Selfie and personal branding phenomena in the context of the network economy, A literature review, Handel
Wewnętrzny, 6(371), pp. 161-169.
620
Zhao S., Grasmuck S., Martin J. (2008), Identity construction on Facebook: digital empowerment in anchored relationships. “Computer and
Human Behavior”, Vol. 24, No. 5.
621
Ibidem.
91
posting and editing photos by users on platforms such as Instagram often leads to engagement in self-promoting
and superficial behaviours that would not otherwise be present.622 These behaviours can be interpreted as
resulting from the combined effect of social media consumption and the desire to produce content which will be
deemed valuable by fellow users.623 This transformation from passive consumption to active participation and
the creation of content is an essential step in the process of the creation of a digital self, or persona, which is
requisite for the production of human brands.624 Inasmuch, the fabrication of content, including selfies, for a
625
digital market can be understood as being an action of self-extension and personal branding. Moreover,
users who engage in personal branding on social media find themselves in good company as digital self-
branding has transformed into rapidly growing business in its own right within recent users.626
Figure 25. Selfie and Personal Brand Framework - Eagar et al. (2016)
622
McCain J. L., Borg Z. G., Rothenberg A. H., Churillo K. M., Weiler P., & Campbell W. K. (2016), Personality and selfies: Narcissism and the
Dark Triad.“Computers in Human Behavior”, No. 64.
623
Pounders K., C. M., Kowalczyk C. M., & Stowers K. (2016), Insight into the motivation of selfie postings: impression management and self-
esteem.“European Journal of Marketing”, Vol. 50, No. 9/10.
624
Kucharska, W., Confente, I. (2017), Selfie and personal branding phenomena in the context of the network economy, A literature review, Handel
Wewnętrzny, 6(371), pp. 161-169.
625
Ozansoy Çadırcı T., & Sağkaya Güngör A. (2016), Love my selfie: selfies in managing impressions on social networks.“Journal of Marketing
Communications”, pp.1-20
626
Chen C.P. (2013), Exploring personal branding on YouTube, Journal of Internet Commerce, Vol.12, No. 4.
92
3.1.3 Congruence and the Appeal of Human Branding
“A personal brand is relevant to people who sell or create something
relevant to who they are as a person.”
- Tucker Max627
If humans can become brands, and brands can become human for that matter, what then is the relationship
between humans and brands? Fournier’s seminal 1998 study on consumer brand relationships is posited on the
concept that some form of interaction exists between the personalities of the two entities, cementing the notion
that there is indeed a relationship formed between individuals and brands.628 This connection, which Aaker has
suggested, is grounded in the concept that “personality traits associated with a brand can influence consumer
attitudes through their relationship to the malleable self-concept”629 Moreover, in further research on the topic, it
has been noted that self-brand connection, in which consumers incorporate brands into their own self-concepts,
has been proven to affect adult,630 adolescent, and child consumers631 alike. Indeed, it appears as if by means of
a relationship with a brand, individuals may both foster an emotional attachment to a given brand, and, in
addition, incorporate said brand’s identity into her or her own sense of self identity.632
Brand personality, as defined as a set of human characteristics and personality traits associated with a
given brand,633 is a cornerstone in the development of emotional attachment between consumers and brand and,
as has been proposed by Freling, Crosno, and Henard, is measurable in terms of three distinct dimensions which
lead to favorable attitudes and purchase intentions.634 These dimensions are as follows:
Favourability: the positive perception of a brand’s traits and personality, in regards to the benefits
conferred to the consumer.635 The concept of favourability is also applicable to human brands, as the
extent to which consumers hold favourable impressions of a celebrity’s personality or character traits has
a direct impact or their ability to experience beneficial connections, which are the foundation of the
creation of a positive relationship between brands and consumers.636
627
Tucker Max Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/tucker_max_568286
628
Fournier, S., (1998), Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research, Journal of Consumer Research Inc., Vol.
24.
629
Aaker, J. L., Dimensions of brand personality, Jmr, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. XXXIV, ABI/INFORM Global, 1997, pp. 347-356.
630
Escalas, J. E. (2004), Narrative processing: Building consumer connections to brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 168–180.
631
Chaplin, L.N., and D. Roedder John, (2005),The Development of Self Brand Connections in Children and Adolescents. Journal of Consumer
Research 32, no. 1, pp. 119–129.
632
Park, C.W., D.J. MacInnis, J. Priester, A.B. Eisingerich, and D. Iacobucci(2010), Brand Attachment and Brand Attitude Strength: Conceptual and
Empirical Differentiation of Two Critical Brand Equity Drivers, Journal of Marketing 74, no. 6, pp. 1–17.
633
Aaker, J. L.,(1997), Dimensions of brand personality, Jmr, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. XXXIV, ABI/INFORM Global, pp. 347-356.
634
Freling, T. H., Crosno, J. L. & Henard, D. H. (2011), Brand personality appeal: conceptualization and empirical validation, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 39 (3), pp. 392–406.
635
Keller E., Berry, J., (2003), The Influentials, Free Press.
636
Loroz P.S., Braig B.M. (2015),Consumer Attachments to Human Brands:The “Oprah Effect”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 32(7), pp. 751–763
93
Originality: the perception that a given brand’s personality is somehow novel, or otherwise distinctive,
differentiating a brand from its competitors in the field.637 Original brands, with easily distinguishable
attributes, naturally have a competitive advantage and are significantly less likely to suffer from
interference effects.638 In the case of human brands, originality, unsurprisingly, similarly confers value to
the brand, as consumers are instinctively drawn to distinctiveness.639
Clarity: the third and final dimension of favourable brand personality, refers to the “apparent and
recognisable” aspects of brand personality in the eyes of consumers.640 In essence, brand personalities
ought to be clearly defined and memorable, with an obvious impact on consumer evaluations of the
brand.641 Human brand personalities, along the same tack, are most effective when they are clearly
elaborated and lead to the development of brand attitudes, from which consumers may then “form (or
forego) solid attachments.”642
These three dimensions of brand personality work in tandem to create easily recognisable brand identities,
which then form the basis of consumer perception of brand image. Furthermore, when a brand’s image appears
to similar to that of a consumers, congruence occurs, in which individual consumers see something of him or
herself in the brand’s own personality. This sense of connection is essential to the creation of ties which bind the
consumers to brands as a process of image building.
The effects of congruence, linking brand communication to self-image, is so powerful that consumers’
attitudes towards advertisements and brands, more generally, are shaped by feelings of shared identity and
recognition.643 If indeed perceptions of brand identity are congruent to individual users’ personalities, they may
act as effective agents of influence.644 This concept has been further supported by the work of Jagre, Watson,
and Watson, who have argued that congruence, the perception that a brand’s image, personality, and
communication aligns with consumers’ self-image, is the a compelling force in the shaping of consumers’
attitudes and brand perception.645 This connection, between self-identity and brand image, is based on a belief in
congruence between the two parties, and has been shown to result in a higher level of emotional brand
637
638
Keller E., Berry, J., (2003), The Influentials, Free Press.
639
640
641
Ibidem.
642
643
Lee, J., J. Kim, and J. Yu. (2015) Effects of Congruence of Product, Visual Image, and Consumer Self-Image on Art Infusion Advertising. Social
Behavior & Personality: An International Journal 43, no. 10: 1728.
644
Moon, Y. 2002. Personalization and Personality: Some Effects of Customizing Message Style Based on Consumer Personality. Journal of
Consumer Psychology 12, no. 4: 313–326.
645
Jagre, E., J.J. Watson, and J.G. Watson. 2001. Sponsorship and Congruity Theory: A Theoretical Framework for Explaining Consumer Attitude
and Recall or Event Sponsorship. Advances in Consumer Research 28, no. 1: pp. 439-445.
94
attachment than would otherwise be present.646 Brand attachment and congruence, it should be noted, is shaped
by manifold factors including the projection of individual traits by consumers onto preferred brands,647 adding
an additional layer of difficulty for those attempting to engage in brand communications on social media.
Further complicating matters is the fact that unlike other channels of communication, social media, and
the brand communication which takes place there, is often undertaken by a single individual, or small team, who
are tasked with interacting with followers, not as salespeople or representatives of the brand, but as the brand
itself.648 This aspect of brand communication on social media further blurs the division between brands-as-
objects and brands-as-entities. Therefore, as Malär et al. have noted, on social media a distinctive brand voice
often develops, embodying a recognisable personality, which is present in interactions with consumers, or
followers, online.649 Inasmuch, brand advertising managers, in their creation and management of social media
content, are engaged in the creation and exhibition of brand identity, and subsequent personality, as a means of
connecting with current and prospective followers of the brand.650
Social media networks, such as Instagram with its staggering one billion active users in 2018-2019, and
500 million daily users,651 hold enormous sway over the communication and brand engagement habits of a
significant proportion of consumers, reinforcing the need for the development of solid consumer brand
relationships. With 70% of users investigating brands on Instagram,652 an additional 80% of Instagram’s users
following at least one brand’s account,653 and a further 75% of which taking action at some point, such as
visiting the brand’s website or brick and mortar location after viewing posts made by the brand,654 the
importance of the creation of attachment to human brands cannot be understated.
646
Joseph T. Yun, Utku Pamuksuz, Brittany R.L. Duff (2019), Are we who we follow? Computationally analyzing human personality and brand
following on Twitter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA
Malär, L., H. Krohmer, W.D. Hoyer, and B. Nyffenegger. 2011. Emotional Brand Attachment and Brand Personality: The Relative Importance of the
Actual and the Ideal Self. Journal of Marketing 75, no. July, pp. 35–52.
647
Ibidem.
648
Joseph T. Yun, Utku Pamuksuz, Brittany R.L. Duff (2019), Are we who we follow? Computationally analyzing human personality and brand
following on Twitter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA
649
Malär, L., H. Krohmer, W.D. Hoyer, and B. Nyffenegger. 2011. Emotional Brand Attachment and Brand Personality: The Relative Importance of
the Actual and the Ideal Self. Journal of Marketing 75, no. July, pp. 35–52.
650
Solis B. & Webber A.,(2012), “The rise of Digital Influence”, Altimeter Group,
651
The Statistical Portal, Number of monthly active Instagram users from January 2013 to June 2018 (in millions), accessed on 29 april 2019,
652
Iconosquare (2017), Instagram 2015 Study – Unleash the Power of Instagram, accessed on 29 april 2019, https://blog.iconosquare.com/instagram-
653
654
Leonard, L. (2017), How Instagram is changing the design industry, Accessed 28th April 2019. https://www.bdcnetwork.com/blog/how-
instagram-changing-design-industry
95
3.1.4 Brand Attachment: When Brands Become Loved Ones
“The problem often is that aspiring brands wish to be universally loved. Unfortunately, universal love is neither achievable nor
desirable. Instead, great brands are loved by some and hated by others because they actually stand for something.”
-Nirmalya Kumar655
Attachment, which was first theorised by John Bowlby as being a “lasting psychological connectedness between
human beings”656 has been subsequently extended to include human brands as relationships in which the bonds
of attachment are formed through relationships springing from “the intensity of a person’s target-specific
emotional bond with a human brand.”657 As regards this thesis, three proposed antecedents of consumers’
attachments to human brands, as seen in influencers and celebrities, can be identified: autonomy, relatedness,
and competence, henceforth known as ARC.658 These three antecedents are representative of essential human
needs, which when met in relationships, are the foundation of the creation of intense attachments.659 ARC
needs, as are defined below, entail:
Autonomy: refers to a sense of agency and openness of choice in regards to one’s behavior and
expression. Human brands must foster a sense of freedom in the consumer to development strong
attachment.660
Relatedness: refers to the sense of closeness or interconnectedness which comes from a sense of
belonging to a group.661 When human brands nurture a sense of “connected with and cared for by
another”662 with consumers strong attachment bonds are formed.
Competence: refers to the consumer’s need for a sense of competence in regards to the universal value of
achievement,663 resulting in a heightened sense of capability, influence, and success.664
It should be noted, however, that while consumers’ relationship to a human brand may fulfill their ARC needs,
the strength of the attachment is mitigated by a variety of factors, including the brand’s image, personality, and
likability.665 Indeed, there must be a requisite level of initial attraction between human brand and consumer for a
655
Nirmalya Kumar Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/nirmalya_kumar_633964
656
Bowlby, J., 1979. The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds, Tavistock, London, p. 194
657
Thomson, Patricia. “Chapter 4 – Field.” Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts, edited by Michael Grenfell, Acumen Publishing Limited, 2008, pp. 67-81
658
659
La Guardia, J., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., Deci, E. L., (2000), Within-Person Variation in Security of Attachment: A self-determination
theory perspective on attachment, need fulfilment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (3), 367-384.
660
661
theory perspective on attachment, need fulfilment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (3), 367-384.
662
Ibidem.
663
Ibidem.
664
Ibidem.
665
96
strong attachment is be formed in all likelihood.666 However, when formed, strong attachments of this nature
have the power to development into a sort of love affair between consumers and brands.
Brand love, which can be defined as an overwhelmingly positive attitude towards a brand which shapes
consumers’ perceptions, behaviour, and feelings, has been found to have a profound impact on a variety of
brand-related concepts ranging from brand loyalty to word-of-mouth communication.667 The yearning for, and
attachment to, a brand has been duly acknowledged to be the foundation of the sort of relationship between
consumer and brand which leads to the development of enduring ties and brand loyalty.668 However, as Fournier
notes, the ways in which consumers form, and later maintain, enduring relationships with brands is subject to
manifold variations.
The first and most desirable of these variations can be termed, brand love, which is the most enduring
and powerful type of relationship that is formed between consumers and brands. In this variation, identification
with a brand is incorporated into a consumer’s identity669 to such an extent that he or she feels invested in the
brand. Brands that foster strong, loving relationships with consumers are more likely to encourage feelings of
brand loyalty, thus rendering themselves more competitive,670 while increasing repatronage intentions.671 In the
case of human branding, consumers develop feelings of love for individuals as representatives of brands.
In addition, for brand love to develop, brand personality, or the endowing of human personality traits
and characteristics to a brand,672 is necessary to ensuring the formation consumer-brand relationships.673 Within
this scheme, brands can be interpreted as displaying traits such as sincerity, excitement, competence,
sophistication, and ruggedness,674 perceptions which are shaped by direct and indirect experience with a brand,
human or otherwise.675 Brand personality is typically conveyed through marketing communication strategies676
and are essential to forming feelings of strong attachment, ideally resulting in purchase and consumption.677
666
Ibidem.
667
2nd Global Conference on Business and Social Science-2015, GCBSS-2015, 17-18 September 2015, Bali, Indonesia
Effects of Brand Love, Personality and Image on Word of Mouth; the Case of Local Fashion Brands among Young Consumers.
Adilla Anggraenia*, Rachmanitab, a, bBinus Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jalan Hang Lekir 1 No. 6, 10270, Jakarta, Indonesia
668
Albert, Noel and D. Merunka, (2013), The role of brand love in consumer-brand relationships Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 30 Iss 3, pp.
258 – 266
669
Carroll, Barbara A., and A.C. Ahuvia (2006), Some antecedents and outcomes of brand love Marketing Letter, 17, pp. 79-89.
670
Yang J., (2012),Why the rise of Asia in fashion isn’t as beautiful as it seems, Wall Street Journal.
671
Vlachos, Pavlos A. and A.P. Vrechopoulos (2012) Consumer-retailer love and attachment: Antecedents and personality moderators Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services 19, pp. 218-228
672
Aaker, J. (1997). Dimensions of brand personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356.
673
Hankinson, G. (2004), The brand images of tourism destinations: a study of the saliency of organic images. Journal of Product and Brand
Management , 13 (1), pp. 6-14.
674
675
Seimiene, Eleonora and E. Kamarauskaite (2014) Effect of brand elements on brand personality perception Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences 156 ( 2014 ) 429 – 434
676
Park, Ji-Kyung and D.R. John (2012), Capitalizing on brand personalities in advertising: The influence of implicit self-theories on ad appeal
effectiveness Journal of Consumer Psychology 22, pp. 424-432
677
Orth, Ulrich, Y. Limon and G. Rose (2010) Store-evoked affect, personalities, and consumer emotional attachments to brands Journal of Business
97
When the brand is a human brand, the necessity to feel a connection between the personality of the brand/brand
representative and consumer is heightened.
Moreover, brand image, how a brand’s public image is conceptualised is crucial to differentiating a
brand from its competitors678 and is composed of brand associations stemming from “product attributes, the
company, the marketing mix, the individual perceptions of the brand, personal values, experience, type of brand
users and context variables.”679 Indeed, for consumers to develop a sense that a brand has its own unique image,
they must first formulate a mental image of the brand, consisting of descriptive and evaluative knowledge about
the band.680 When a brand’s image becomes clear in the eyes of consumers, its messaging also takes on a
heightened clarity and, thus, a stronger influence on consumer behaviour.681 Human brands must be strategic in
their development of a clear brand image to facilitate communication between groups.
Finally, word-of-mouth, or the sharing information and opinions between consumers about brands and
their goods and services is essential to developing strong attachments between consumers and brands. This form
of communication is not inherently commercial in nature, however, it is seen as a kind of voluntary service
undertaken by consumers for good or for ill. This form of communication about brands has been identified as a
key influencer in consumer decision-making,682 and may have a greater impact than traditional forms of
advertising alone.683 Inasmuch, it is essential to foster positive experiences between human brands and
consumers to fully develop feeling of love between parties.684
By fostering strong feelings of attachment, or even love, between consumers and brands, and human
brands more specifically, marketers are better able to influence purchase intentions initially and maintain brand
loyalty subsequently. Human brands, in particular, have a unique opportunity to speak directly to their
audiences by communicating their own stories, shedding light on brand image, personality, and values along the
way. Unlike other types of brands, which must consciously attempt to imbue their image with humanistic traits,
Research 63 (2010) 1202–1208

678
Aaker, J. (1997), Dimensions of brand personality, Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356.
679
Dobni, Dawn and G. Zinkhan (1990) "In Search of Brand Image: a Foundation Analysis", in NA Advances in Consumer Research Volume 17,
eds. Marvin E. Goldberg, Gerald Gorn, and Richard W. Pollay, Provo, UT, Association for Consumer Research, Pp. 110-119
680
Iversen, N. M., & Hem, L. E. (2008). Provenance associations as core values of place umbrella brands. European Journal of Marketing, 42, 5/6,
pp. 603-626.
681
Chen, J., G. Hsieh, J.U. Mahmud, and J. Nichols (2014), Understanding Individuals’ Personal Values from Social Media Word Use. In
Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing - CSCW ’14, New York, New York, USA:
ACM Press,pp. 405–414.
682
Nguyen, Cathy and J. Romaniuk (2014) Pass it on: A framework for classifying the content of word of mouth Australian Marketing Journal Vol.
22, Issue 2,pp. 117-124
683
Ibidem.
684
2nd Global Conference on Business and Social Science-2015, GCBSS-2015, 17-18 September 2015, Bali, Indonesia
Effects of Brand Love, Personality and Image on Word of Mouth; the Case of Local Fashion Brands among Young Consumers.
Adilla Anggraenia*, Rachmanitab,
a, b
Binus Business School, Bina Nusantara University, Jalan Hang Lekir 1 No. 6, 10270, Jakarta, Indonesia
98
human brands inherently possess these characteristics, making the formation of relationships a seemingly
natural consequence of narrative based brand interaction.
3.1.5 Human Branding and Marketing

“There's more pressure to be famous for being yourself than if you're being a character.”
- Kim Kardashian685
The hunger for human brands in contemporary consumer culture shows no signs of slackening at any point in
the coming future, rather there appears to be an increasingly insatiable desire for celebrity stories. Today, any
influencer armed with his or her wits and a decent camera can become “famous for being famous” on platforms
such as Instagram, as will be discussed in Chapter 3.4. Unlike corporate brands, which seek to mask themselves
under “brand veneers,”686 there is a perception that human brands are the authentic stories of actual, everyday
people, with their own particular realities, who have been thrust into the limelight.687 Likewise, human brands
are not merely a smaller-scale variation of corporate brands; rather the fundamental human qualities of an
individual are part and parcel of what makes human brands so compelling and so complex. How then do brands
become human and how then may human brands be used to best effect? These questions, amongst others, are
essential to understanding the burgeoning, multifaceted field of branding, because “after all, isn’t the rise and
fall of human brands material from which consumer culture’s greatest fairytales are made?”688
3.2 The Anthropomorphisation of Brands: When Brands Seem Human

“The soul never thinks without a picture.”
- Aristotle689
Throughout human history, anthropomorphism has held sway over human perceptions, shaping and guiding our
notions in a vast range of disciplines, from art to science, religion to philosophy, and myriad other arenas.
Defined as “the process of attributing mind, intentions, effortful thinking, emotional states, consciousness, and
685
Kim Kardashian Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/kim_kardashian_462873
686
Allport, W. G., (1961), Pattern and Growth in Personality, Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
687
Giana M. Eckhardt and Marius K. Luedicke (2018), Consumer Culture Theory Conference 2018 , Special Session Proposal “Human Brand
Dynamics”, Odense, Denmark
688
Ibidem.
689
Aristotle Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/aristotle_148503
99
behaviors to nonhuman entities,”690 anthropomorphisation entails the activation of human schemas as applied to
non-human, or otherwise inanimate, objects.691 This naturally occurring process is triggered by
anthropomorphic representations onto which human schemas are projected, as is seen when consumers come to
view brands as being human-like entities.692 In the world of marketing, for instance, it has been duly noted that
consumers frequently view brands as embodiments of human characteristics,693 with their own distinctive
personalities. Moreover, as Fournier has argued, not only do human imbue brands with human-like qualities,
such as personality and identity, but they also often choose to form close relationships with brands, as was
addressed in section 3.1.694 This phenomenon, otherwise known as anthropomorphisation, evinces the notion
that nonhuman stimuli, in this case brands, have the ability to influence the perceptions, behaviour, and
emotions of consumers in a fashion similar to human stimuli.695 One has only to look to the related phenomenon
of pareidolia, which is, in essence, the seeing of faces in inanimate objects, to comprehend the value of visual
stimulus for humans; “faces are easy to detect, preferentially attended, and hard to ignore”696 so much so that we
tend to see human-like faces, and traits, even where there are none.
Given the ease with which individuals are able to view inanimate objects as being animate, and brands
as being human for that matter, it should come as no surprise that marketers have begun to turn to
anthropomorphism as a marketing strategy. As a counterpart to personal branding, anthropomorphic branding as
a marketing communication technique is on the rise in recent years as more and more firms seek to engage ever-
savvier consumers on social media platforms such as Instagram.697 As a marketing communication technique,
anthropomorphisation has been proven to trigger positive consumer reactions by means of influencing
consumers’ perceptions of pleasure and arousal stimulated by a brand, leading to positive attitudes of a brand’s
persona.698 In addition, anthropomorphisation can also lead to an increased sense of emotional connection
between consumer and brand, which, may result in more favorable brand judgments.699 Moreover, greater
congruity between activated human-schema and consumers has an overwhelmingly positive impact on
690
Puzakova M.(2012),Brands as Humans: Positives and Negatives of Brand Anthropomorphism A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Drexel
University.
691
Landwehr, J. R., McGill, A. L., & Herrmann, A. (2011), It's got the look: The effects of friendly and aggressive "Facial" Expressions on product
liking and sales, Journal of Marketing.
692
Fournier, S.(1988), Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research, by Journal of Consumer Research Inc., Vol.
24.
693
Levy, S.J. (1985), Dreams, Fairy Tales, Animals, and Cars. Psychology and Marketing,pp.67–81.
694
Fournier, S.,(1988),Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research, by Journal of Consumer Research Inc., Vol.
24.
695
University.
696
Takahashi, K., Watanabe K. (2015), Seeing Objects as Faces Enhances Object Detection.
697
Vranica, S. (2012), Knights, pirates, trees flock to facebook: Mascots and other embodiments of corporations make a comeback in order to tweet
and interact.
698
Landwehr, J. R., McGill, A. L., & Herrmann, A. (2011), It's got the look: The effects of friendly and aggressive "Facial" Expressions on product
liking and sales,Journal of Marketing.
699
Delbaere, M., McQuarrie, E. F., & Phillips, B. J. (2011),Personification in advertising: Using a visual metaphor to trigger anthropomorphism,
Journal of Advertising 40 (Spring), pp.121–130.
100
consumers’ attitudes to a brand, product, or service.700 However, despite the obvious benefits for marketers,
there has been relatively little research undertaken in the field of marketing and consumer behavior literature by
scholars.701
3.2.1 Consumer-Brand Relationships

“You can totally work with brands. People love seeing that, but you have to build stories. You have to build credibility, and
those brands have to really be the perfect fit for yourself.”
- Chiara Ferragni702
The concept that consumers may visualise brands as being somehow human, enabling consumers and brands to
develop relationships, is often defined as being an extension of consumer–brand relationships,703 which has
been expounded upon in the literature in the past decade principly.704 However, in recent memory, a burgeoning
fascination has emerged in the field, focussing on the love that is felt for brands by consumers when strong
attachments are formed. As addressed in Chapter 3.1, brand love is such a potent force that it is stronger than
even brand satisfaction and brand liking in determining a range of post-consumption behaviours such as
repurchase intentions, word-of-mouth communication, and, ultimately, brand loyalty.705 Moreover, strong
feelings of love towards a brand heightens consumers’ willingness to pony up for premium prices,706 an
undoubtedly attractive proposition for any marketer.
How have we arrived at the point in which “I love you” could just as easily be uttered to an object as to a
person? Put simply, as understood by consumers, brands exist in a category somewhere beyond those objects we
traditionally think of as being inanimate and non-human; rather, due to the tendency towards
anthropomorphisation, brands are just as often as not placed alongside humans, in much the same way as faces
are seen in clouds.707 As has been argued, anthropomorphism is a potent potential antecedent of brand love,708
700
Aggarwal, P. (2004), The effects of brand relationship norms on consumer attitudes and behavior, Journal of Consumer Research 31 (June), pp.
87-101.
701
University.
702
Chiara Ferragni Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/chiara_ferragni_779518
703
Schouten, J. W., McAlexander, J. H., & Koenig, H. F. (2007),Transcendent customer experience and brand community, Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science 35 (3), pp.357-368.
704
Sung, J.-Y., Guo, L., Grinter, R. E., & Christensen, H. I. (2007). "My roomba is rambo": Intimate home appliances. (Vol. 4717) Berlin:
Springer/Heidelberg.
705
Batra, R., Ahuvia, A. & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012), Brand love, american marketing association, Journal of marketing, Vol. 76.
706
Thomson, M. (2006). Human Brands: Investigating Antecedents to Consumers’ Strong Attachments to Celebrities. Journal of Marketing, 70 (3),
pp.104–119.
707
Waytz, A., Morewedge, C. K., Epley, N., Monteleone, G., Gao, J. H., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010), Making sense by making sentient: effectance
motivation increases anthropomorphism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(3), pp.410-435.
708
Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), pp.1-16.
101
which has a significant influence on passion-driven behaviours and positive emotional connection709 such as is
seen when consumers begin to identify with a brand to a degree in which the beloved object is transmuted and
thereby transferred to the lover's identity.710 This force has even greater potency when the object of consumers’
affections is, in fact, an actual person, as opposed to an embodied brand. In such a scenario, as will be further
address is Chapter 3.4 and 3.5, feelings of relatedness and identification are heightened equating to the building
of impersonal interpersonal, strongly felt relationships. Indeed, there is strong evidence that self-brand
integration is crucial to the formation of strong attachments resulting in brand love.711
This tendency to “imbue physical characteristics, behaviours, motivations, mental states, and emotions
that are typical of human beings to objects, non-human agents,”712 is rooted in the ability to make inferences,
whether they be observable or not, as is seen in the personification of a brand's personality, intention, and
motivations.713 This phenomenon has been understood through the lens of two principal theoretical
mechanisms: the tendency for individuals to evaluate brands as being within a human category, meaning brands
are considered to be more similar to human beings than to inanimate objects;714 and cognitive consistency,
which postulates that the human mind prefers situations in which there is a coherence of beliefs and attitudes.715
These two mechanisms work in tandem to create a sensation that brands and consumers operate within
interpersonal relationships.716 To summarise, when brands are perceived as possessing humanity,717 or when
brands are human as is the case in human brands, consumers naturally gravitate towards brands as plausible
relationship partners,718 which may ultimately result in feelings of brand love.
In accordance with theories of self-expansion, as defined by Aron and Aron, the motivation for entering
into these sorts of relationships with brands stems from the need to incorporate the resources, perspectives, and
identities of relationship partners into one’s own self. In consumer-brand relationships, in particular, brands may
be translated as symbols through which consumers reflect and define their own identities.719 By integrating
709
Delgado-Ballester, E., Fernández-Sabiote, E. (2016),Once upon a brand: Storytelling practices by Spanish brands, Spanish Journal of Marketing -
ESIC, 20. 2, pp. 115-131.
710
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. M. (2002). Intentional social action in virtual communities. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 16(2), 2–21.
711
ESIC, 20. 2, pp. 115-131.
712
Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007), On seeing human: a three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4),
pp.864-886.
713
Fournier, S., Alvarez C.,(2013),Research dialogue. Relating badly to brands, Boston university school of management, 595 Commonwealth Ave.
Society for consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc., Boston.
714
Aggarwal, P., & McGill, A. L. (2007),Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products, Journal
of Consumer Research, 34 (December), pp.468–479.
715
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychological review, 94(3), p.319.
716
ESIC, 20. 2, pp. 115-131.
717
Aggarwal, P., & McGill, A. L. (2007),Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products. Journal
of Consumer Research, 34 (December),pp. 468–479.
718
Batra, Rajeev, A. Ahuvia, and R. P. Bagozzi (2012),Brand Love. Journal of Marketing: March 2012, Vol. 76, No. 2, pp. 1-16.
719
Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139–168.
102
brands into consumers’ conception of self, an aspirational or otherwise desired version of one’s self emerges,
further strengthening the bond between consumer and brand.720 This process, it should be noted, is often
dependent upon brand anthropomorphism as a means by which to foster integration, which is achieved through
the dual mechanisms of cognitive incorporation and investiture of social meanings.721 By way of definition,
cognitive incorporation can be said to be a process of leaning, fantasising, or thinking about an object, such as a
brand, so as to solidify its place of importance within one's self image.722 Additionally, investiture of social
meanings, that is the process by which meaning is socially defined and given authority, is essential to the
development of one’s self image and identity.723 These mechanisms work in coordination to help shape self
identity in a consumer context, integrating brand identity with self-identity.
However, while consumers do often integrate aspects of brand image and identity into their own self
image, the extent to which this process occurs is moderated by elements of brand favourability; therefore, it is
incumbent upon brands to nurture favourable consumers’ attitude in order to achieve effective integration.724 In
addition, brands that are relatable and feel human, ideally human brands, are more easily integrated into self
image.725 Furthermore, for brand love to be achieved, said integration must be highly desired by consumers.726
3.2.1 Brand Loyalty and Brand Betrayal: The Many Faces of Personified Brands
“Personal brand equity erodes much faster than corporate brand equity.”
- John Quelch727
The consumer-brand connection, as previously stated, is reinforced and strengthened by brand favourability, and
is an essential consideration in any attempt to maintain consumer loyalty and, subsequently, brand loyalty.728 As
has been noted in the preceding section, consumers who willingly enter into strong relationships with brands
feel that they are themselves connected to the brand, and, as is such, may so too develop the complex sorts of
emotions that one would feel in any sort of relationship.729 These feelings, which may range from passionate
720
Escalas, Jennifer E. and J.R. Bettman (2005), Self-Construal, reference groups, and brand meaning. Journal of Consumer Research Vol. 32,
December 2005, 378-389
721
Carroll, Barbara A., and A.C. Ahuvia (2006),Some antecedents and outcomes of brand love Marketing Letter, 17, pp.79-89.
722
ESIC, 20. 2, pp. 115-131.
723
Belk, R. W. (1988), Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139–168.
724
Fournier, S.,(1988),Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research, by Journal of Consumer Research Inc., Vol.
24.
725
Aggarwal, P., & McGill, A. L. (2007) Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products. Journal
of Consumer Research, pp. 468–479
726
Carroll, Barbara A., and A.C. Ahuvia (2006),Some antecedents and outcomes of brand love Marketing Letter, 17, pp.79-89.
727
John Quelch Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/john_quelch_757969
728
Keller E., Berry J. (2015),The Influentials. One American in Ten Tells the Other Nine How to Vote, Where to Eat, and What to Buy”, Free Press.
729
Park, C.W., D.J. MacInnis, J. Priester, A.B. Eisingerich, and D. Iacobucci (2010),Brand Attachment and Brand Attitude Strength: Conceptual and
103
love to keenly felt frustration, are a defining factor in the development of both positive and negative
associations held by consumers about a given brand.730 In such an emotionally fraught sort of relationship,
therefore, perceptions of brand loyalty on one hand, and brand betrayal on the other have serious repercussions
for firms, which are increasingly subject to the whims of consumers in a society which offers an ever growing
range of choices in consumption contexts.
The concept of brand transgressions, in which consumers feel that a brand has somehow betrayed its
values, can have dire consequences for firms.731 A startling example of this phenomenon can be seen in the case
of Apple, the American tech giant, whose value plummeted from $146 billion USD to $107 billion USD in
early 2017, following consumer outcry against Apple732 when it was shown that they had intentionally slowed
down older iPhones. By engaging in practices perceived to be “deceptive, immoral and unethical”733 by
consumers, Apple was generally seen to have betrayed their relationship with users of their products.734 The
emotional component of consumer’s sense of betrayal is a fundamental consequence of brand
anthropomorphism and, along with its counterpart consumer forgiveness for a brand transgression, provide key
insights into the ways in which consumers manage brand relationships. As defined by Thomson, one of the
vanguards in the field of human brands,735 the antecedents of a strong brand relationship, autonomy and
relatedness, along with a lack of “intense negative feelings or thoughts”736 is requisite for the formation of a
strong consumer-brand relationship.737
Empirical Differentiation of Two Critical Brand Equity Drivers, Journal of Marketing 74, no. 6, pp.1–17.
730
Shin, H., Casidy, R., Yoon, A., & Yoon, S. H. (2016),Brand trust and avoidance following brand crisis: A quasi-experiment on the effect of
franchisor statements. Journal of Brand Management, 23(5),pp. 1-23.
731
Ming Tan, T.(2018), Humanizing brands: The investigation of brand favorability, brand betrayal, temporal focus, and temporal
distance,University of Oulu.
732
Farber, M. (2017),Google tops Apple as the world’s most valuable brand. Fortune, last seen 15 May 2019, http://fortune.com/2017/02/02/google-
tops-apple-brand- value/
733
Hinton, R. (2017),Apple sued in Chicago for slowing down older iPhones. Chicago Sun Times.
734
735
pp.104–119.
736
Ibidem.
737
104
3.2.2 Building Brand Value Through Consumer Relationships
“Obviously, as a marketer, I love to work with brands that aren't static,

that have life and personality.”
- Bozoma Saint John738
One of the primary motivations behind the building of consumer-brand relationships on the part of marketers
and firms is the desire to generate brand value, an increasingly difficult proposition in the hyper-competitive
environment which has arisen as an aftereffect of Web 2.0.739 This paradigm-shifting aspect of the Internet as
the predominant means of global communication, a phenomenon intensified by the widespread adoption of
social media networks in the last ten years, has irrevocably altered the market environment by rendering it a
network economy.740 In an environment which is increasingly saturated with information - a staggering 2.5
quintillion bytes of data created each day at present count741 - in today’s Internet of Things (IoT), the creation of
unique content has taken on a heightened importance in the creation of value for brands.742 Consequently, brand
building by means of consumer engagement triggered by brand communication, as is seen in the posting of
content on social media platforms such as Instagram, is a trend not to be ignored by researchers and marketing
practitioners alike.743
This trend has been argued to be a by-product of the era of consumer-to-consumer driven information
following the mass adoption of social media, which has resulted in a veritable golden age of personal
branding.744 Indeed, as Labrecque has implied, a significant portion of social media users actively engage in the
creation of their own personal brands online.745 This process draws upon mechanisms of self-expression and
self-image to shape the personal identity and values which form the basis of any human brand.746 Awareness of
these two factors, along with the formulation of an extended self,747 is essential to successful personal branding
as “a narrative of the incorporated self.”748 Indeed, it may even be argued that identity narratives are essentially
738
Bozoma Saint John Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/bozoma_saint_john_907433
739
Bogner, W. C., & Barr, P. S. (2000), Making sense in hypercompetitive environments: A cognitive explanation for the persistence of high velocity
competition. Organization Science, 11, pp.212–226.
740
Castells, M. (2009),Communication Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
741
Marr, B. (2018),How Much Data Do We Create Every Day? The Mind-Blowing Stats Everyone, Forbes.
742
Mazurek, G. (2014), Network value creation through marketing. Management and Business Administration. Central Europe, 22, 70–77.
743
Köhler, C. F., Rohm, A. J., de Ruyter, K., & Wetzels, M. (2011), Return on interactivity: The impact of online agents on newcomer adjustment.
Journal of Marketing, 75, pp. 93–108.
744
Ming Tan, T.(2018), Humanizing brands: The investigation of brand favorability, brand betrayal, temporal focus, and temporal distance,
University of Oulu.
745
Labrecque, L. I., Markos, E., & Milne, G. R. (2011), Online personal branding: Processes, challenges, and implications. Journal of Interactive
Marketing, 25, pp.37–50.
746
Bearden, W. O., & Etzel, M. J. (1982). Reference group influence on product and brand purchase decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 9,
183–194.
747
Belk, R. W. (2013),Extended self in a digital world. Journal of Consumer Research, 40, pp.477–500
748
Vallas, S. P., & Cummins, E. R. (2015), Personal branding and identity norms in the popular business press: Enterprise culture in an age of
precarity. Organization Studies, 36, pp.293–319.
105
the deployment of personal branding mechanisms in a professional context.749 In the modern network economy,
personal brands may be seen as the consequence of strategic self-marketing through which a human brand is
formed.750
Figure 26. Summary of findings on personal branding - (2017)
3.2.3 Personification and Performity

“The collective unconscious consists of the sum of the instincts and their correlates, the archetypes. Just as everybody possesses
instincts, so he also possesses a
stock of archetypal images.”
- Carl Jung751
Any discussion of the anthropomorphisation of brands would be remiss not to include an examination of how
the mechanisms of personification and perfomity are essential to the shaping of brand identity. Originally a term
used to describe an actor’s mask, persona evokes many of the same connotations in its modern usage, which
centre round concepts of identification and stereotypes.752 As previously addressed in Chapter One, it was Carl
Jung who first ascribed the concept of persona to that part of the personality which is responsible for the
moderation of an individual's relationship with society, as defined by his or her conformity to socially
749
Brooks, A. K., & Anumudu, C. (2016). Identity development in personal branding instruction social narratives and online brand management in a
global economy. Adult Learning, 27, 23–29.
750
Kucharska W. (2017), Consumer social network brand identification and personal branding. How do social network users choose among brand
sites?, Cogent Business & Management.
751
Carl Jung Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/carl_jung_717966
752
Cherry, R. D. (1988),Ethos Versus Persona: Self-Representation in Written Discourse. Written Communication, 5(3),pp. 251–276.
106
recognised and condoned roles known as archetypes.753 This notion, that a person may develop and then
perform a persona in order to fulfill his or her archetypal role within society, has been crucial to the
development to the concept of persona-based marketing.
In advertising, for instance, persona has been put forth as a logical explanation for the potency of
anthropomorphic images and anthropomorphised brands.754 As has been noted by Stern, companies cannot
speak for themselves, and instead must make use of a persona, defined as fictive speakers of an often archetypal
form, to speak on their behalf instead.755 Indeed, “there is ample evidence of archetypal thought among
consumers,”756 wherein consumers construct elaborate cultural-category structures757 through which brand
communication is interpreted and consumer-brand relationships are navigated. It is through this process, known
as intertextuality, that images, metaphors, and narratives become associated with other cultural objects and
practices’, and, moreover, through which iconic figures, such as brands and celebrities or influencers in the form
of human brands, become integrated in consumers self-image and understanding of the world.758 Furthermore, it
is through this process of intertextuality, as is seen in brand storytelling that brand personality and brand
persona become interwoven with cultural archetypes, such as that of the hero, the trickster, or the mentor of
Jung and Campbell’s narrative frameworks.759
It has been argued that corporate, or brand, persona meets three distinct needs for firms: to act as a
surrogate or embodiment; to determine or moderate consumers’ expectations of the type and intensity of
relationship one may expect; and to serve as the foundation through which attachment may be formed by
consumers to brands.760 It is through the creation of such a persona, as developed by marketing communications
strategies, that brands are able to speak directly to consumers. This approach to market phenomena in human
branding has also incorporated the notion of performativity to its conceptual roster in recent years.
Performity can be said to entail the perlocutionary effects of practices,761 which are, in effect, a
representation of both a cultural script and the performance of said script, which is to say: managerial actions
both represent a cultural template and the performance of said template.762 In essence, performity necessitates
753
Jung C.G. (1981),The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious,Collected Works of C.G. Jung Vol.9.
754
Stern, B. B. (1988). Literary analysis of the company persona: A speaker schema. Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 11(1), 3–20.
755
Ibidem.
756
Hirschman, E. C. (2000). Consumers’ use of intertextuality and archetypes. Advances in Consumer Research, 27, p. 60)
757
Ibidem.
758
Dion, D., & Arnould, E.(2016), Persona-fied brands: managing branded persons through persona, Journal of Marketing Management, 32(1-2),pp.
121-148.
759
Keller K. L., Apéria T., Georgson M. (2008), Strategic brand management: a European perspective, Pearson Education, Gosport.
760
Herskovitz, S., & Crystal, M. (2010),The essential brand persona: Storytelling and branding. Journal of Business Strategy, 31(3), pp. 21-28.
761
Tice, D. M., Butler, J. L., Muraven, M. B., & Stillwell, A. M. (1995),When modesty prevails: Differential favorability of self-presentation to
friends and strangers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(6), pp.1120-1138.
762
Mason, K., Kjellberg, H., & Hagberg, J. (2015). Exploring the performativity of marketing: Theories,
practices and devices. Journal of Marketing Management, 31(1–2), 1–15.
107
there being both a cultural template and performance, the latter serving as a frame for the former.763 In a
consumption context, “a network of tools and stakeholders is also involved both as being acted upon and
evaluating vis-à-vis the template and the adroitness of performance.”764 In the case of human brand, the
construction of a professional identity, or persona, can be seen as an act of performance given in reference to
pre-existing cultural models, which act as a framing context for consumers.765 Thus, market phenomena, such as
the emergence of human brands in the form of influencers and Instagram celebrities, “exercise performative
agency but are not ‘uttered’ by single subjects. Rather, they rely on networks of social relations, institutionalised
practices and technological instruments for their perlocutionary effect.”766 Therefore, the dual
conceptualisations of persona and performity are crucial to strategic marketing and an essential component of
the effective management of a personified, or huaman, brand.767
3.3 Average Users of Instagram: A Demographic Analysis

“Instagram is my edit of my life.”
- Kendall Jenner768
Today, in the West, the average adult spends roughly 24 hours - an entire day - online each and every week.769
This time spent engaged in communicating, gathering information, and entertaining ourselves on the Internet,
while spread out on disparate sites, platforms, and applications, is largely concentrated on the main social media
networks, on which the average adult spends 135 minutes per day; a figure which is continuously on the
ascent.770 In regards to how activity is spread across social media networks, the average adult user has a total of
763
Dion, D., & Arnould, E. (2016), Persona-fied brands: managing branded persons through persona, Journal of Marketing Management, 32(1-
2),pp.121-148.
764
Ibidem.
765
Diedrich, A., Zetterquist, U. E., Ewertsson, L., Hagberg, J., Hallin, A., Lavén, F., . . . Walter, L. (2013). Exploring the performativity turn in
management studies, GRI-rapport 2013:2. Gothenburg: Gothenburg Research Institute, School of Business, Economics and Law, University of
Gothenburg.
766
Mason, K., Kjellberg, H., & Hagberg, J. (2015). Exploring the performativity of marketing: Theories, practices and devices. Journal of Marketing
Management, 31(1–2), 1–15.
767
Bode, M. (2010). Showing doing. The art-science debate in a performative perspective. Journal of
Consumer Behaviour, 9(2), 139–155.
768
Jenner, K. (n.d.) Instagram is my edit of my life. Kendall Jenner
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/kendall_jenner_743909
769
A decade of smartphones: We now spend an entire day every week online, The Telegraph,Available on:
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/08/01/decade-smartphones-now-spend-entire-day-every-week-online/ Accessed 29th April 2019.
770
The Statistical Portal, Daily time spent on social networking by internet users worldwide from 2012 to 2017 (in minutes), accessed 29th April
2019,https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-social-media-usage-worldwide/
108
7.6 accounts:771 Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, and WhatsApp accounting for the majority of social
media activity, as is seen in the figure below.772
Figure 27. Social Networks Ranked by the Number of Monthly Users Added Over the Past Year - Business
Insider (2018)
For the purposes of this thesis, however, we turn to Instagram, with its over 500 million active daily
users,773 to examine the ways in which average users of the platform post and consume content, engage with
other users and brands alike, employ narrative and other mechanisms of storytelling, and create a virtual home
for themselves on the application. Instagram, in a celebratory blog post after reaching 500 million users three
short years ago,774 stated about its users:
As you’ve captured and shared the moments happening around you, you’ve formed incredibly varied
and diverse communities. Whether you’re an illustrator, a sneakerhead or an astronaut on the
International Space Station, every photo and video you share helps bring people closer to friends and
interests, broadens perspectives and inspires a sense of wonder. You’ve made Instagram a place where
the everyday and the epic are always within reach.775
771
The Statistical Portal, Average number of social media accounts per internet user from 2013 to 2017, accessed 29th April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/788084/number-of-social-media-accounts/
772
Soto Reyes, M. (2018) Social Networks Ranked by the Number of Monthly Users Added Over the Past Year. Business Insider. Accessed 29th
April 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/facebook-grew-monthly-average-users-in-q1-2019-4?international=true&r=US&IR=T
773
The Statistical Portal, Instagram - Statistics & Facts, accessed 29th April 2019 https://www.statista.com/topics/1882/instagram/
774
Woollaston, V. (2016) Instagram Doubles to Half Billion Users. Wired, 21 June 2016. Accessed 29 April, 2019.
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/instagram-doubles-to-half-billion-users
775
Instagram (2016) Instagram Today: 500 Million Windows to the World. Tumblr, June 21, 2016. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://instagram.tumblr.com/post/146255204757/160621-news
109
In such a community, where the everyday meets the epic, a billion users, most of them average individuals,
gather to share and produce content online for a variety of reasons. From the lurkers who quietly populate the
platform vast numbers,776 some estimates ranging as high as 90% of all users,777 to Instagram celebrities who
may amass upwards of 100 million followers778 and garner 10 million likes for a single post,779 Instagrammers
are varied to say the least, both in terms of engagement and roles played.
Globally, usage of Instagram, when analysed by age and gender, reveals the demographics the platforms
inhabitants. Within the community, the majority of users skew young, as roughly three-quarters, or 71% of
Instagram users worldwide, are under the age of 35. As is illustrated in the figure below, the vast majority of
users fall within the millennial designation, a significant proportion being aged 18 to 34, which a sharp drop off
in usage after age 35.
Figure 28. Distribution of Instagram Users Worldwide as of April 2019 - Statistica (2019)
780
776
Huang, Y. C., Wu, F., & Cheng, Y. (2016). Crisis communication in context: Cultural and political influences underpinning Chinese public
relations practice. Public Relations Review, 42, 201–213.
777
Fiorella, S. (2018) "Community Management: The 90-9-1 Rule is Dead," personal blog. Accessed 27 April 2019, https://www.samfiorella.com/
778
Statistica (2019) The Most Followers on Instagram. Accessed 29 April 2019, https://www.statista.com/statistics/421169/most-followers-
instagram/
779
Joyce, E. (2019) The Twenty Most Liked Pictures on Instagram, Brandwatch. Accessed 26 April 2019, https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/most-
liked-pictures-on-instagram/
780
Statistica (2019) Distribution of Instagram Users Worldwide by Age and Gender. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/248769/age-distribution-of-worldwide-instagram-users/
110
As is clearly visible from the bar chart above, Instagram attracts predominantly younger users, and, is especially
popular amongst teenagers. Indeed, as of 2018, the application was ranked one of the popular social media
networks by American teenagers, second only to Snapchat and eclipsing other major players in the field, such as
Twitter and Facebook.781 In regards to engagement, teens, and the millennial market more generally, tend to be
among the most highly engaged of all social media audiences, with nearly half of all users reporting that they
check one or more social media applications at least once per hour.782 By way of comparison, in the general
population 86% of social media users report checking one or more network every day, while a further 72%
claim to use social media multiple times throughout the day.783 This frequency is no doubt affected by the
widespread adoption of mobile technology, as roughly half of social media users opt to access social media
through mobile applications.784 Indeed, approximately a quarter of all smartphone users worldwide are reported
to log into the platform at least once a month.785 However, this figure pales in comparison to statistics on daily
usage of Instagram, which 38% of users report checking more than once a day.786 This amounts to an average of
24 minutes per day for those aged 24 and older and more than 32 minutes a day for those aged younger than
24.787
781
Statistica (2019) . Most popular social networks of teenagers in the United States from fall 2012 to spring 2019. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/250172/social-network-usage-of-us-teens-and-young-adults/
782
Statistica (2018) Frequency of social media use among teenagers in the United States as of April 2018. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/945341/frequency-social-media-use-teenagers-usa/
783
Herhold, K. (2018) How People Use Social Media in 2018, The Manifest. Accessed 30 April 2019, https://themanifest.com/social-media/how-
people-use-social-media-2018
784
785
Clark, D. (2017) Worldwide Instagram Users Continue to Grow, EMarketer. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://newsroom.emarketer.com/newsroom/index.php/worldwide-instagram-users-continue-grow/
786
Anderson, M., Smith, A. (2018) Social Media Use in 2018, Pew Research Institute. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/03/01/social-media-use-in-2018/
787
Instagram Info Center (2017) Celebrating One Year of Instagram Stories, Instagram Info Center. Accessed 30 April 2019, https://instagram-
press.com/blog/2017/08/02/celebrating-one-year-of-instagram-stories/
111
Figure 29. A Majority of Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram Users Visit These Platforms on a Daily Basis -
Pew Research Center (2018)
788
In addition, of these 700 million under-35 users, distribution by gender is seen to be virtually even, with
minimal difference in rates of usage between male and female Instagrammers; however, when considered within
the parameters of users of all ages, women tend to outnumber their male counterparts on the applications
without exception.789 This is in line with average gender distribution statistics across social media networks,
with recent studies citing figures of three-fourths of women (75%) and 64% of men surveyed reporting using
social media at least once per day.790 Furthermore, research has indicated that women are significantly more
likely to make use of mobile applications by which to access social media, with roughly half of all women
stating a preference for mobile access; whereas a third of all men state a preference for computer-based sites.791
Turning to another key metric of user demographics on Instagram, average income, reveals a high
percentage of community members with a significant amount of disposable income. In a comprehensive study
undertaken by We are Flint in 2018 of 2,007 US adults and 2,008 UK adults, comparing rates of usage across 19
788
789
Statistica (2019) Distribution of Instagram Users Worldwide by Age and Gender. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/248769/age-distribution-of-worldwide-instagram-users/
790
791
Ibidem.
112
social media networks, including Facebook, Facebook Messenger, Foursquare, Giphy, Google+, Grindr,
Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Skype, Snapchat, Tinder, Tumblr, Twitter, Vkontakte, WeChat,
WhatsApp, and YouTube, Instagram was found to attract some of the wealthiest users of social media today. Of
those surveyed, it was found that: of those who earn $30,000 per year or under, 44% use Instagram; 45% of
people who earn between $30K–$60K use Instagram; 36% of people who earn between $60K–$70K use
Instagram; 55% of people who earn between $70K–$80K use Instagram; 46% of people who earn between
$80K–$100K use Instagram; and, finally, a staggering 60% of people who earn between $100K are Instagram
community members.792
The high proportion of Instagram community members with disposable income is of especial importance
due to the fact that Instagram holds an enormous sway over the communication and brand engagement habits of
a significant proportion of consumers. Indeed, 70% of users report investigating brands on Instagram,793 an
additional 80% of Instagram’s users follow at least one brand’s account,794 and a further 75% of which take
action at some point, such as visiting the brand’s website and brick and mortar location, after viewing posts
made by the brand.795 These statistics alone are sufficient to convey the power of Instagram as a marketing tool
in today’s world.796 While it may be up for debate whether or not Instagram is really “the happiest place on the
Internet,”797 as some commentators have suggested, it is certainly one of the richest.798 With an average of 95
million photos uploaded daily and an additional 4.2 billion subsequent likes, the current one billion strong
Instagram community shows no signs of lagging in growth or in popularity anytime soon.799
792
We are FLINT (2018) Social Media Demographics Main Findings 2018. Accessed 29 April 2019, https://weareflint.co.uk/main-findings-social-
media-demographics-uk-usa-2018
793
Iconosquare (20017), Instagram 2015 Study – Unleash the Power of Instagram accessed on 29 april 2019, https://blog.iconosquare.com/instagram-
794
795
Leonard, L. 2017. How Instagram is changing the design industry. Accessed 28th April 2019. https://www.bdcnetwork.com/blog/how-instagra m-
changing-design-industry
796
Moreau, E. 2018. What is Instagram, anyway? Accessed 15th of March 2019. https://www.lifewire.com/what-is-instagram-3486316
797
Burke, A. (2016) Instagram is the Happiest Place in the (Internet) World. Psychology Today, 24 January 2016. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/paper-souls/201601/instagram-is-the-happiest-place-in-the-internet-world
798
799
Woollaston, V. (2016) Instagram Doubles to Half Billion Users. Wired, 21 June 2016. Accessed 29 April, 2019.
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/instagram-doubles-to-half-billion-users
113
3.3.1 Drivers of Instagram Usage
“Instagram was created because there was no single place dedicated to giving your mobile photos a place to live and to be
seen.”
- Kevin Systrom800
As social media is inherently collaborative, especially so in the case of content communities such as Instagram,
users are obligated to interact with their fellow community members to take best advantage of the platform.
Inasmuch, differences of personality which influence self-presentation and regulation, in addition to various
psychological and socio-cultural factors, have a profound impact on the usage of social media.801 In turn,
participation in social media networks, in content consumption and content production contexts as defined by
Mäntymäki and Islam, is shaped by the dual impulses of voyeurism and exhibitionism, respectively.802 These
facets of individual psychology will be examined in regards to their impact on the usage of Instagram by the
majority of users.
As has been noted by Seidman, social media networks, such as Instagram, can been seen as platforms
from which users form relationships, facilitate communication, and interact with one another, ideally in a
fashion intended to promote the maintenance of social relationships.803 Thus, the formation of strong
attachments leading to the eventual development of relationships through the exhibition of positive behaviors,
such as self-promotion804 and self-disclosure,805 may be understood to be desirable. Furthermore, those users
who seek not to maintain or develop relationships within their chosen virtual community806 can also be
interpreted as engaging in a form of social surveillance or voyeurism807 by which interpersonal, impersonal
relationships are forged.808 These two sides of the janus-faced usage of social media networks, such as the visual
content community Instagram, fulfill users need to belong to a community in which support, companionship,
and identity are conferred.809
800
801
Griffiths, M. D., Kircaburun. (2018) Instagram addiction and the Big Five of personality: The mediating role of self-liking, Journal of Behavioral
Addictions 7(1), pp. 158–170.
802
Mäntymäki, M., & Islam, A. K. M. N. (2014). Voyeurism and exhibitionism as gratifications from presuming social networking sites. In
Proceeding of the 22nd European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS2014).
803
Individual Differences, 54, 402–407.
804
Belk, R. W. (2013). Extended self in a digital world. Journal of Consumer Research, 40, 477–500.
805
Hollenbaugh, W. E., & Ferris, A. L. (2014). Facebook self-disclosure: Examining the role of traits, social cohesion, and motives. Computers in
Human Behavior, 30, 50–58.
806
Marwick, A. E. (2012). The public domain: Social surveillance in everyday life. Surveillance & Society, 9, 378–393.
807
Mäntymäki, M., & Islam, A. K. M. N. (2014). Voyeurism and exhibitionism as gratifications from presuming social networking sites. In
Proceeding of the 22nd European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS2014).
808
Individual Differences, 54, 402–407.
809
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.
114
In addition to the benefits of community which such networks grant, diverse motivations stemming from
the need for self-documentation, interaction, entertainment, distraction, and convenience, as identified by
Kircaburun and Griffiths,810 are present across all major social media platforms. In particular, it has been found
that the desire to express oneself is especially present on Instagram, wherein users creation original content, or
repost a highly curated selection of found content, in order to convey a desired tone, message, or self-image to
fellow users and/or followers.811 As Instagram is an ideal platform from which to produce and share images as a
means of visual storytelling, it is little wonder that the application is especially well-suited for meeting needs of
self-expression and self-presentation.812 Second only to the desire for self-expression on Instagram is the need
for entertainment and convenience, underscoring the rapid shift which has occurred on social media away from
socialisation and social networking, and towards other, more complex motivations.813 While it should be noted
that network sizes appears to have little effect on user motivation and intensity of usage in the majority of
cases,814 Snapchat and Instagram are outliers to this phenomenon. Indeed, they are the sole platforms in which
network size exhibits an appreciable effect on use intensity, owing in large part to the unique nature of self-
promotion on Instagram, which encourages users to amass as many followers as possible on the platform, and
its subsequent influence on user interactions.815
In addition to users’ motivations and intensity of usage, factors such as personality are a key metric in
understanding the ways in which Instagram is used by the majority of its community. As has been postulated by
social scientists, Instagram usage may be further interpreted through the lens of a number of personality traits,
including neuroticism,816 agreeableness,817 and conscientiousness, as outlined below.818 In regards to
neuroticism, users exhibiting neurotic behaviour are significantly more likely to be concerned with what others
think or say about them and to engage in obsessive behaviour, such as the compulsive reading of comments and
stalking of fellow users’ profiles. Alternatively, individuals with a high degree of agreeableness, as is
manifested in such behaviours as posting group photos, positive interactions with others, including commenting
on or liking others’ selfies, are also present in large numbers on Instagram influencers. By way of interpretation,
it has been suggested that less agreeable users of Instagram are less likely to instigate interactions with other
810
811
812
Ibidem.
813
Alhabash S., Ma M. (2017). A tale of four platforms: Motivations and uses of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat among college
students? Social Media + Society, 3(1), 1–13.
814
Ibidem.
815
816
Choi T. R., Sung Y., Lee J. A., Choi S. M. (2017). Get behind my selfies: The Big Five traits and social networking behaviors through selfies.
Personality and Individual Differences, 109, 98–101.
817
Kim J. W., Chock T. M. (2016). Personality traits and psychological motivations predicting selfie posting behaviors on social networking sites.
Telematics and Informatics, 34(5), 560–571.
818
115
users or engage with content, let alone post their own content; whereas more agreeable members are more likely
to be active participants on the platform.819 Inasmuch, users with elevated traits of neuroticism and a low degree
of agreeableness can be understood to make up the bulk of users on the platform, as upwards of 90% of all
community members are predominantly passive users.820 Based on this premise, there is little expectation that
average users on Instagram will involve themselves in any meaningful way with other users or their content;821
instead, the majority of individuals spend their time viewing influencer or celebrity’s profiles, or focused on
consuming content related to niche interests.822 As a third factor to be examined is conscientiousness, which has
a profound impact on peer relationships, reception of criticism, self-discipline, and self-liking.823 As
conscientiousness, and subsequent self-liking, are associated with elevated levels of comfort in social settings
and better communication,824 it can be extrapolated that conscientious users are more likely to interact with
other members on the platform. Whereas individuals with lower self-liking are more likely to feel
uncomfortable in social settings and to experience attachment issues.825 These factors which shape user
interaction, engagement, and content production and consumption on Instagram are fundamental to
understanding how the platform is made use of by the majority of community members.
3.3.2 Brand Engagement in the Instagram Community

“Facebook and Instagram are both really popular with teens, both in the U.S. and globally across the world. I think what
you're starting to see is that there are all these different ways that people want to share and communicate.”
- Mark Zuckerberg826
Turning to the interactions which occur between individual users and brands on Instagram, as the preeminent
platform on which digital, visual, and personal storytelling occurs today, offers a number of key insights for
marketers about how best to engage their audiences are revealed. As has been noted in Chapters One and Two,
follower engagement, when done to best effect, is invaluable for brands, and with images on Instagram
819
820
Abraham, C. (2015). Lurkers Are the 99.989% of Social Media. Social Media Today, 12 May 2014. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/lurkers-are-99989-social-media
821
822
Ibidem.
823
Tafarodi R. W., Swann W. B. (1995). Self-linking and self-competence as dimensions of global self-esteem: Initial validation of a measure. Journal
of Personality Assessment, 65(2), 322–342.
824
Ibidem.
825
Wilkinson R. B. (2010). Best friend attachment versus peer attachment in the prediction of adolescent psychological adjustment. Journal of
Adolescence, 33(5), 709–717.
826
Mark Zuckerberg Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/mark_zuckerberg_739591
116
garnering 23% more engagement than their Facebook counterparts,827 Instagram is the ideal environment with
which to engage with users in the increasingly fragmented world of social media.
As we have seen, Instagram is a powerful marketing tool, which, when used correctly, has the power to
increase brand visibility, increase brand engagement, and shape relationships between consumers and brands.
Indeed, consumers are using social networking sites in ever greater numbers to access information about brands.
As of 2015, upwards of 70% of all users on Instagram report to have used the platform to gain information
about a brand.828 In addition, at present, 80% of Instagrammers follow at least one brand,829 leading to
heightened opportunities for brand engagement and the formation of consumer-brand relationships. An
additional 60% of Instagrammers report using the platform as an information gathering tool about brands and
their products and services on a regular basis.830 It should come as no surprise then that countless brands have
also made the migration to highly visual world of Instagram as an ideal environment in which to tell their stories
to a target audience.831
On Instagram, two principal antecedents of interaction intentions have been identified, which are defined
as hedonism and satisfaction. Hedonism refers to the emotional value of an experience,832 whereas satisfaction
can be seen as representing “the result of a global evaluation of all the aspects that exist in a relationship.”833
Due to the primarily visual nature of the platform and the preference given for narrative as a means of
communication, these factors can be seen as fundamental to interpreting user experience. In regards to brand
engagement, hedonism, or the playful, self-gratifying aspects of the platform can lead to heightened brand
community commitment and greater enjoyment of brand communication and interaction overall.834
For the vast majority of users on Instagram, these factors, as enumerated above, hold sway over their
actions, perceptions, and consumption of content on the platform. However, there are those exceptional users,
outliers who engage with the platform and their fellow users in inherently different ways. These users, so-called
influencers and celebrities, have fundamentally different motivations for their participation on Instagram, and
thus, engage with the platform and with fellow users in a unique fashion. It is these individuals to which we turn
in the proceeding two sections of Chapter Three.
827
Business of Apps (2018) Instagram Revenue and Usage Statistics, http://www.businessofapps.com/data/instagram-statistics/
828
Clasen, A. (2015) Instagram 2015 Study - Unleash the Power of Instagram, Iconosquare Blog, 21 January 2015. Accessed 20 April 2019,
https://blog.iconosquare.com/instagram-2015-study-unleash-power-instagram/
829
Instagram Business (2019) Instagram Business. Accessed 21 April 2019, https://business.instagram.com/
830
Gollin, M. (2018) 5 Tips to Run Unstoppable Instagram Advertising Campaigns, 29 August 2018. Accessed 22 April 2019,
https://www.falcon.io/insights-hub/topics/social-media-strategy/5-tips-instagram-advertising-campaigns/
831
Casaló, L. V., Flavián, C., Ibáñez-Sánchez, S. (2018)Understanding Consumer Interaction on Instagram: The Role of Satisfaction, Hedonism, and
Content Characteristics. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking Vol. 20, No. 6 .
832
Grappi S, Montanari F. (2011) The role of social identification and hedonism in affecting tourist re-patronizing behaviours: the case of an Italian
festival. Tourism Management 2011; 32:1128–1140.
833
Anderson EW, Sullivan MW. (1993)The antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for firms. Marketing Science 1993; 12:125–143.
834
Casaló, L. V., Flavián, C., Ibáñez-Sánchez, S. (2018) Understanding Consumer Interaction on Instagram: The Role of Satisfaction, Hedonism,
and Content Characteristics. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking Vol. 20, No. 6 .
117
3.4 From Nobodies to Somebodies: Influencers on Instagram
“Influence is the new power - if you have influence, you can create a brand.”
- Michelle Phan835
One needs look at little more than the enormous amount of interest which the concept of influencers has
generated in recent memory to understand the magnitude of the cultural force which these individuals represent.
Once a relatively obscure term, the notion of influencers, referring to “a person with the ability to influence
potential buyers of a product or service by promoting or recommending the items on social media, particularly
when they do so in exchange for money or for samples of the product they are promoting,”836 has seen a
meteoric rise in adoption since the advent of social media. Indeed, the trend towards the use of influencers in
marketing has led to a dramatic increase in the presence of the term in marketing circles and the general public
alike. Much to this point, queries for the term itself have more than doubled in the years since 2012.837
However, while modern iterations of the term in the marketing sense of influencer are undeniably recent, they
belie its true age as the word can be traced to the 1660s.838 In the more than three hundred years since its
introduction into English, the term has developed a wide range of permutations, including indications of scale as
is visible in the interconnected terms of: micro-influencer, uber-influencer, super-influencer, and mega-
influencer.839 It can be safely asserted that the notion of influencers is well-cemented in the minds and parlance
of most individuals in the West at present, as is evidenced by the 325% increase in Google queries for the term
in 2017.840 This trend is only likely to intensify in future, as approximately two-thirds of marketing departments
have stated they intend to devote more time and resources to bolstering their usage of influencer marketing,
equating to an estimated increasing in marketing budgets of between $25,000 USD and $50,000 USD at
present.841 With a projected 4.95 million brand sponsored influencer posts in 2019842 in a market valued at 1.5
billion USD,843 the demand for influencers, and influencer generated content, on Instagram is only sure to grow
in the coming future.
835
Michelle Phan Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 30, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/michelle_phan_743707
836
Oxford English Dictionary (2019) The Increasing Influence of the Word Influencer. Accessed 01 May 2019,
https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2018/05/09/the-increasing-influence-of-the-word-influencer/
837
Oxford English Dictionary (2019) The Increasing Influence of the Word Influencer. Accessed 01 May 2019,
https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2018/05/09/the-increasing-influence-of-the-word-influencer/
838
Ibidem.
839
Ibidem.
840
Fastenau, J. (2018) Under the Influence: The Power of Social Media Influencers, Medium, 6 March 2018. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://medium.com/crobox/under-the-influence-the-power-of-social-media-influencers-5192571083c3.
841
Ibidem.
842
Statistica (2019) Number of brand sponsored influencer posts on Instagram from 2016 to 2020 (in millions). Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/693775/instagram-sponsored-influencer-content/
843
Statistica (2019) Global Instagram influencer market size from 2017 to 2020 (in billion U.S. dollars). Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/748630/global-instagram-influencer-market-value/
118
Figure 30. Number of Brand Sponsored Influencer Posts on Instagram from 2016 to 2020 (in millions) -
Statistica (2019)
844
Who then are these individuals who hold such sway over the market? Existing in the nebulous territory
somewhere between average, everyday Instagram community members and full-blown celebrities, influencers
have carved out a niche for themselves in the market with unforeseen effects. The majority of these so-called
influencers can be seen to be, quite simply, everyday people much like any other person.845 However, quite
clearly, influencers cannot be lumped in with the masses of other users as their contribution has a visibly unique
effect on the platform. It is this question, “what makes an influencer an influencer” to which we turn now.
One of the key factor which differentiates influencers from average users of Instagram is the application
of the mechanisms of marketing to the construction of a personal brand. Inasmuch, influencer marketing can be
broadly associated with celebrity endorsements, such as those seen in TV commercials or other more traditional
forms of advertisements.846 What separates influencers from celebrities, however, is the perception by
844
Statistica (2019) Global Instagram influencer market size from 2017 to 2020 (in billion U.S. dollars). Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/748630/global-instagram-influencer-market-value/
845
846
Glucksman, M. (2017) The Rise of Social Media Influencer Marketing on Lifestyle Branding: A Case Study of Lucie Fink. Elon Journal of
Undergraduate Research in Communications, Vol. 8, No. 2 • Fall 2017
119
consumers the influencers are much like themselves, as opposed to celebrities who seem to exist in their own
realm. Today, on any social media network, one can easily stumble across any number of individuals
representing companies through the display of branded content on personal social media profiles.847 In a
marketplace where an increasing number of consumers are actively engaged in seeking out fellow consumers to
inform their decisions about brands and products, social media has revealed a new channel for brands to
communicate with the public in a more direct, authentic, organic fashion.848
This is evidenced in the rise of so-called lifestyle influencers on platforms such as Instagram, where
seemingly everyday individuals demonstrate a plethora of products which they attest to use in everyday life as a
means by which to achieve an aspirational lifestyle.849 Content posted by influencers in this field serve to
reinforce narratives of relevance and relatableness to followers and have caused a sea change in the way in
which brands interact with consumers.850 Indeed, it may even be said that influencers on Instagram represent a
wholly new breed of independent, third-party endorsers who shape audience’s attitudes in their posting of
content, in the form of visual or verbal narratives.851 With the goal of amassing followers and developing a
distinct and, therefore, recognisable brand,852 social media influencers achieve success by connecting with
consumers directly, organically, and authentically on a human scale.853 Inasmuch, influencers can be understood
to be “the ultimate connection between a brand and a consumer. Through their candidness and openness with
consumers, influencers have high social clout and credibility, which is what makes the phenomenon so
successful.” 854
3.4.1 Conceptualisations of the Influencer Phenomenon
“One must pass through the network of influence. One is obligated to be influenced, and one accepts this influence very
naturally. From the start, one doesn't realize this. The first thing to know: one doesn't realize one is influenced. One thinks he
is already liberated,
and one is far from it!”
- Marcel Duchamp855
In scholarly parlance, the term influence has often been employed to refer to individuals with both the ability to
influence brand and product perception in consumers.856 While there is yet to exist a consensus as to the breadth
847
Ibidem.
848
Ibidem.
849
Ibidem.
850
Ibidem.
851
Freberg, K., et al. (2010) Who are the social media influencers? A study of public perceptions of personality. Public Relations Review, 2010.
852
Ibidem.
853
Adweek (2015). 10 Reasons Why Influencer Marketing is the Next Big Thing. Adweek. N.p., 14 July 2015.
854
Buyer, Lisa. (2016) PR Under the Influence: Why Influencer Marketing is all the Buzz.#SocialPR Chat. N.p., 18 January 2016.
855
Marcel Duchamp Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/marcel_duchamp_701779
120
and scope of the term, for the purposes of this thesis, the term influencer is understood to be constructed upon
the the notion of opinion leaders. First identified in a 1955 study by Katz and Lazarsfeld,857 opinion leaders are
defined as individuals “who exert a disproportionately great influence on the vote intentions of their fellows.”858
The extent to which influencers exert sway over fellow users of Instagram is, in addition, shaped by
mechanisms of social learning, which is rooted in the notion that individuals typically demonstrate similar
behaviour to those in their social circle.859 Within this model of social exhibited behaviour also exists the
concept that there are individuals who differentiate themselves as role models, who inherently attract the
attention and interest of others.860 In much the same way, recent research has demonstrated that not all
individuals online exert the same degree of influence as opinion leaders.861 As is such, opinion leaders serve as
models of reference, who act both as a guide for behaviour on social media and also as a source of information,
for average users of social media networks.862
In addition, influencers tend to be well-respected and well-known within their own communities,863
enabling such individuals to serve as intermediaries in social interaction between fellow users and brands
alike.864 Consequently, they are the ideal actors by which to gather knowledge about consumers, which then
may be used by brands to customise their products and services.865 This is evidenced by the rapid adoption of
influencers as intermediaries, tasked with communicating and interacting with a target audience in the aim of
influencing consumption behaviours.866 This trend should come as no surprise given influencers’ powerful,
intermediary position on social media, and the success which marketers have achieved by harnessing said
influence in the form of brand-influencer collaboration.867
Excepting those social media influencers who work exclusively with preexisting brands in the
spokesperson or endorsement model typified by celebrity marketing, there exists those individuals who have
developed their own human brands using social media networks as a platform. The rise of these self-made
influencers is fundamentally tied to their ability to communicate directly to their followers in a fashion which
856
Booth, N., & Matic, J. (2011). Mapping and leveraging influencers in social media to shape corporate brand perceptions. Corporate
Communications: An International Journal, 16(3), 184-191.
857
Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P.F. (2006). Personal influence : The part played by people in the flow of mass communication (2.nd ed.). New
Brunswick: Transaction.
858
Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P.F. (2006). Personal influence : The part played by people in the flow of mass communication (2.nd ed.). New Brunswick:
Transaction. p. 32)
859
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory (Prentice-Hall series in social learning theory). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
860
Ibidem.
861
Sahelices-Pinto, C., & Rodríguez-Santos, C. (2014). E-WoM and 2.0 Opinion Leaders. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 20(3), 244-261.
862
Nip, J., & Fu, K. (2016). Challenging Official Propaganda? Public Opinion Leaders on Sina Weibo *. The China Quarterly, 225, 122-144.
863
Sahelices-Pinto, C., & Rodríguez-Santos, C. (2014). E-WoM and 2.0 Opinion Leaders. Journal of Food Products Marketing, 20(3), 244-261.
864
Anderson, Philip., & Anderson, Erin. (2002). The new e-commerce intermediaries. MIT Sloan Management Review, 43(4), 53-62.
865
Ibidem.
866
Johnstone, L., & Lindh, C. (2018). The sustainability-age dilemma: A theory of (un)planned behaviour via influencers. Journal of Consumer
Behaviour, 17(1), 127-139.
867
Gustavsson, A., Suleman Nasir, A. & Ishonova, S. (2018) Towards a world of influencers: Exploring the relationship building dimensions of
Influencer Marketing. Thesis, Jönköping International Business School, May 21, 2018.
121
feels authentic or organic to their audience.868 Social media influencers, therefore, can be understood to be
individuals who strategically identify, amass, and maintain an audience, with the intention of forming a personal
brand.869 In order to do so effectively, influencers must be both attractive and inspirational and regularly
interact with followers in comments and posts.870 Said influencers may have either a small or large following
with which they interact, thereby holding sway over spheres of macro-influence or micro-influence. By means
of differentiating macro-influence and micro-influence, it can be said that the former experience a greater
geographical or social distance from their followers, while the latter have a significantly small follower base
and, therefore, experience greater closeness.871
On balance, social media as it exists today on platforms such as Instagram can be understood to provide
a channel through which anyone - nobodies included - may take on the role of an influencer872 by way of
generating a memorable, relatable, online presence.873 As an increasing number of firms have begun to
collaborate with influential individuals in the world of social media, “the ‘nobodies’ of the past [have become]
the ‘somebodies’ of the present, requiring attention from marketers who search for ways to build closer relations
with customers.”874
3.4.2 Metrics of Instagram Influence
“The influencer strategy hasn't been built around celebrities. We're looking for influencers within every marketplace, who are
the people who help influence
decision-makers within that community.”
- Keith Belling875
With influencer marketing set to become $10 billion annual industry worldwide,876 it is incumbent upon
marketers to better understand how influencers target their audiences, especially those niche audiences which
868
Freberg, K., Palenchar, M. J., & Veil, S. R. (2013). Managing and sharing H1N1 crisis information using social media bookmarking services.
Public Relations Review, 39(3), 178-184.
869
Marvick, A.E., & Boyd, D. (2010). I tweet honestly, I tweet passionately: Twitter users, context collapse, and the imagined audience. New Media
& Society 13(1), 114-133.
870
Djafarova, E., & Trofimenko, O. (2018). ‘Instafamous’ – credibility and self-presentation of micro-celebrities on social media. Information,
Communication & Society, 1-15.
871
Lin, H., Bruning, P.F., & Swarna, H. (2018). Using online opinion leaders to promote the hedonic and utilitarian value of products and services.
Business Horizons 61(3), 1-12.
872
Sammis, K., Lincoln, C., Pomponi, S., Ng, J., Gassman Rodriquez, E., & Zhou, J. (2015). Influencer Marketing for Dummies. Hoboken, New
Jersey: Wiley.
873
Castellano, S., & Dutot, V. (2017). Investigating the Influence of E-Word-of-Mouth on E-Reputation. International Studies of Management &
Organization, 47(1), 42-60.
874
875
Keith Belling Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keith_belling_693263
876
Contestabile, G. (2018) Influencer Marketing in 2018: Becoming an Efficient Marketplace. Adweek, 15 January 2018. Accessed 29 April 2019,
122
have traditionally been unreachable by conventional forms of advertising and marketing.877 As the voice of a
brand, either his or her own human brand or in the facility of a brand ambassador, influencers engage in a two-
way conversation between brand and consumers, that is of an ever increasing value to firms.878 However, not all
conversations between influencers, as representatives of both personal and corporate brands, can be said to be
effective. As Gillin notes, there are a wide range of factors which can be attributed to the success or failure of an
influencer marketing campaign, ranging difficult-to-measure criteria, such as “quality of content,” to highly
measurable factors including page views and search engine rank.879 In addition to these two metrics of
successful, other criteria developed for assessing influence include: participation level; frequency of activity;
and social prominence.880 In the rapidly evolving environment of social media networks, these criteria are
subject to change, it should be noted, however.
Inasmuch, influencers only exert influence in contexts in which their behaviour is socially observable, as
is indicated by the criteria listed above. As Bandura, the preeminent social-science theorist from whom much of
our current understanding of social mechanisms originates, argued, “in the social learning system, new patterns
of behavior can be acquired through direct experience or by observing the behaviors of others;”881 thus,
influencers are so influential “on the basis of informative feedback, they (consumers) develop thoughts or
hypotheses about the types of behavior most likely to succeed.”882 Influencers then can be understood to be
leaders, or role models, for their followers, a hypothesis supported by evidence which suggests that individuals
are significantly more likely to adopt the behaviors of influencers than of other users.883 However, for social
media influencers to play a formative role in the shaping of consumers’ opinions, they must first meet a number
of basic criteria rooted in cognitive biases, as further elaborated below:884
Credibility and social proof: for an influencer to be credible in the eyes of his or her followers, he or she
must exhibit trustworthiness, expertise, attractiveness, and similarity.885 These factors, it should be
noted, are dependent upon perceptions of power and, in accordance with French and Raven’s concept of
power bases, are fundamentally shaped by audience interpretation.886 Therefore, influencers who
https://www.adweek.com/digital/giordano-contestabile-activate-by-bloglovin-guest-post-influencer-marketing-in-2018/
877
Ledbetter, Erin. (2016) The Change in Influencer Marketing from PR Strategy to Media Strategy. Carusele. N.p., 03 Nov. 2016.
878
879
Gillin, P (2008). Secrets of Social Media Marketing: How to Use Online Conversations and Customer Communities to Turbo-
Charge Your Business!. Fresno,Verenigde Staten: Quill Driver Books.
880
881
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory (Prentice-Hall series in social learning theory). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, p. 3.
882
Ibidem.
883
Forbes, K. (2016) Examining the Beauty Industry’s Use of Social Influencers. Elon Communications Journal 7 (Fall 2016)
884
Glucksman, M. (2017) The Rise of Social Media Influencer Marketing on Lifestyle Branding: A Case Study of Lucie Fink. Elon Journal of
Undergraduate Research in Communications, Vol. 8, No. 2 • Fall 2017
885
886
French, J., & Raven, B. (1960) The Bases of Social Power. Ann Arbour, University of Michigan Press.
123
demonstrate expertise in a given field are perceived to have greater authority.887 Moreover, influencers
who accrue vast numbers of followers, shares, and likes are perceived as having considerable authority,
leading to greater adherence to their judgments.
Attractiveness: the strategic use of attractive brand representatives is by no means a new development
within the field of marketing; however, that does not mean it should be overlooked as a key determinant
of influencer success.888 Attractiveness bias, in which a wide range of positive qualities are
subconsciously attributed to attractive or otherwise appealing individuals by virtue of his or her good
looks, is a powerful force in influencer marketing.889 Indeed, the favourable impressions which attractive
influencers engender are also often extended to the products they recommend, subconsciously priming
consumers to look to influencers for guidance in product-related decisions.890
Relatability: relatability is fundamental for influencer success and may be seen as the key factor which
differentiates influencers from celebrities on one hand, and other users on the other.891 As paradoxical as
it may seem, influencers are perceived by most users as being quite average and relatable, despite
amassing legions of followers to rival that of established celebrities.892 Along these lines, the most
successful influencers continue to post scenes from everyday life as a means by which to maintain a
connection with their followers.893 Moreover, because influencers tend to be similar in age and origins to
their audiences, they are more likely to trigger feelings of shared membership to a social group, as is
seen in social identity theory.894 Accordingly, as the majority of influencers may be designated as
millennials - a notoriously challenging demographic to to reach for marketers - they are ideally
positioned to become role models for younger audiences.895
Authenticity: arguably the single most important determinant of success in an influencer campaign,
authenticity necessitates a certain degree of self-awareness and transparency.896 Inasmuch, brand
collaboration must feel genuine and entered into not for profit-seeking motivations, but as a kind of
voluntary service which influencers undertake based on a feeling of kinship with a brand and a desire to
887
Ibidem.
888
889
Ibidem.
890
Ibidem.
891
Ibidem.
892
Ibidem.
893
894
Ibidem.
895
O’Neil-Hart, C., Blumenstein, H. (2016) Why YouTube stars are more influential than traditional celebrities. Accessed 29 April 2019,
https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/consumer-insights/youtube-stars-influence/
896
124
communicate heartfelt recommendations to followers.897 In addition, communication of this nature must
be explicitly transparent, with any attempts at promotion or advertising clearly displayed as such.898
Millennial audiences, in particular, are sticklers for brand transparency and are likely to feel deceived by
attempts to obfuscate brand-influencer marketing.899 Moreover, as the result of recent legislation
designed to regulate the posting of sponsored content, there is now a legal requirement for users to
explicitly state whether or not they have received compensation from a firm for their post.900
Therefore, credibility, attractiveness, relatability, and authenticity may be understood to be key indicators of
influencers’ influence.901 They also serve as markers by which to differentiate influencers from average users of
social media networks on one hand, and celebrities on the other.
3.4.3 Influencer Marketing on Social Media
“An artist's sphere of influence is the world.”

- Carl Maria von Weber902
As has been previously noted in social influencer marketing is a rapidly growing trend in the industry,903 and
with countless firms turning to influencers in order to increase brand awareness and visibility by means of social
influence by association.904 Departing from the celebrity endorsement model,905 contemporary consumers have
a distinct preference for user-generated content, as opposed to other, more traditional forms of media and brand
communication.906 Moreover, the Internet, that great leveller of humanity, has drawn celebrities and influencers
ever closer to their audiences by way of a variety of social media channels. The proven effectiveness of
communication on such channels proffers an invaluable opportunity for brands to tell their stories and
897
Nguyen, C., Romaniuk, J. (2014) Pass it on: A framework for classifying the content of word of mouth Australian Marketing Journal Vol. 22,
Issue 2, 117-124.
898
899
Fromm, J. (2017) Why Label Transparency Matters When It Comes To Millennial Brand Loyalty. Forbes, 13 December 2017. Accessed 01 May
2019,
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jefffromm/2017/12/13/why-label-transparency-matters-when-it-comes-to-millennial-brand-loyalty/#6d436913daca
900
Hosie, R. (2018) There’s Now an Official Guide for Social Media Influencers Posting Adverts. The Independent, 28 September 2018. Accessed 01
May 2019, https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/social-media-influencers-adverts-guide-asa-law-instagram-cma-a8559406.html
901
902
Carl Maria von Weber Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved June 2, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/carl_maria_von_weber_212398
903
Singh, J., Quamina, LT, & Xue, T. (2017). Ten Million Followers and Counting: How Digital Brand Alliances Between Online Influencers and
Brands Impact Consumer Value: An Abstract Perceptions.
904
Chung, TS, Wedel, M., & Rust, RT (2016). Adaptive personalization using social networks. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44(1),
66-87.
905
Kaikati, JG (1987). Celebrity Advertising: A Review and Synthesis. International Journal of Advertising, 6(2), 93-105.
906
Barker, S. (2016). Reaching the Masses: The Secret Guide To Instagram Influencer Marketing. Business.com. Carlsbad. U
125
strengthen relationships with consumers.907 In such a conversation, brands, including those of the human
variety, must be willing to listen to consumers and actively participate in the creation of the dialogue between
the two parties.908 For this reason, influencers with their heightened ability to engage with followers in a two-
sided conversation, are ideal candidates for brand storytelling.
How then can influencer marketing be defined? Most definitions of the practice stem from its root word,
influence, which “can be broadly defined as the power to affect a person, thing or course of events”909 and
influencer being “a third-party who significantly shapes the customer’s purchasing decision, but may ever be
accountable for it.”910 Hence, influencers may be defined as “individuals who have the power to affect purchase
decisions of others because of their authority, knowledge, position, or relationship.”911 Following from this
definition, social influence marketing has been defined by Singh et al. as,
a technique that employs social media (content created by everyday people using highly accessible and
scalable technologies such as blogs, message boards, podcasts, microblogs, bookmarks, social networks,
communities, wikis, and vlogs) and social influencers (everyday people who have an outsized influence
on their peers by virtue of how much content they share online) to achieve an organization’s marketing
and business needs.912
Influencer marketing, therefore, may be present on a variety of social media channels and take on the form of a
wide range types of content, both verbal and visual.
In addition, influencer marketing may take two forms: paid and earned. Much as its name suggests, paid
influencer marketing is based upon the directly payment of influencers for the promotion of a brand, and its
products, to their followers.913 Conversely, earned influencer marketing does not involve direct payment of
influencers, but instead is based upon other forms of exchange, such as the gifting of promotional products.914
While both models have their advantages, economic incentives have been shown to better encourage influencers
to disseminate brand’s message to their followers and are, thus, more effective.915 It should be noted, however,
that when sponsored-message are not disclosed, a loss of trust occurs between influencers and the influenced,
greatly reducing the efficacy of the message,916 especially for millennial audiences.917 Indeed, this form of
907
Vaynerchuk, G. (2013) Jab, Jab, Jab, Right Hook: How to Tell Your Story in a Noisy Social World. New York: HarperCollins Publishers
Inc.
908
Labrecque, L.I. (2014). Fostering consumer–brand relationships in social media environments: The role of parasocial interaction. Journal of
Interactive Marketing, 28(2),134-148
909
Brown, D., Hayes, N. (2008) Influencer Marketing, Who really influences your customers? UK: Elsevier Ltd, 235 pages. p.50.
910
Ibidem.
911
Business Dictionary. (2018) Influencer, Business Dictionary. Accessed 02 May 2019,
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/influencers.html
912
Singh, S. (2012). Brand Performances in Social Media. Journal of Interactive Marketing. 12. 189-197. 10.1016/j.intmar.2012.04.001
913
Sudha, M., & Sheena, K. (2017). Impact of Influencers in Consumer Decision Process: the Fashion Industry. SCMS Journal of Indian
Management 14(3),14-30.
914
Ibidem.
915
Sudha, M., & Sheena, K. (2017). Impact of Influencers in Consumer Decision Process: the Fashion Industry. SCMS Journal of Indian Management
14(3),14-30.
916
Magnini, V. (2011). The implications of company-sponsored messages disguised as word-of-mouth. Journal of Services Marketing, 25(4), 243-
251.
917
Hosie, R. (2018) There’s Now an Official Guide for Social Media Influencers Posting Adverts. The Independent, 28 September 2018. Accessed 01
May 2019, https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/social-media-influencers-adverts-guide-asa-law-instagram-cma-a8559406.html
126
word-of-mouth advertising by means of influencer interactions, content, and communication is highly affected
by consumers notions of organicness, authenticity, appeal, and transparency.
Furthermore, this particular strand of word-of-mouth advertising is considered to be amongst the most
effective techniques deployed by influencer marketing practitioners,918 with the capacity to mould the behavior
of individuals.919 Much to this point, communication between influencers and their audiences has been shown to
be so persuasive that it may even be used to change the attitudes and behaviors of consumers,920 to the extent
that it has been argued that WOM is the main communication channel through which to shift perceptions of a
firm and influence its reputation online.921
In addition to shaping consumer opinions of a brand, influencer marketing is a crucial element of
relationship building today. Through the strategic deployment of social media as a conduit by which to interact
with a brand’s target audience,922 firms are more easily able to forge relationships with consumers.923 However,
this does not equate to all communications between brands and consumers being constructive: in essence,
simply posting content does not necessarily enhance the conversation, nor does it necessarily result in the
formation of a relationship with their audience.924 Thus, while influencer collaboration may provide brands with
an opportunity to initiate conversation with consumers, the relationship between target audience, influencer, and
brand must be careful managed in order to facilitate effective communication between all parties.925 As a
foundational principle of such communication, brands must seek to nurture positive, trusting relations with
influencers that are based on mutual respect.926 As increasing numbers of consumers round the world seek out
the recommendations of influencers, who appear to be trusted friends, successful brand marketers must learn to
better connect with consumers by speaking the language of influence.927
This trend is supported by recent statistics on size of the global influencer market on Instagram, which is
projected to grow by $2.38 billion in 2019.928 In addition, according to a recent report, upwards of 80% of the
marketers surveyed claimed to be implementing collaborations with influencers in their marketing strategies in
918
Razi, F., Lajevardi, M., Orouei, M., Saedi, H., & Khatami, R. (2017). Evaluation of the Relationship between Consumers' Cultural Values and
Word of Mouth Marketing based on Hofstede's Studies. International Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11(1), 1467- 1475.
919
Wang, S. J., Hsu, C. P., Huang, H. C., & Chen, C. L. (2015), How readers’ perceived self congruity and functional congruity affect bloggers’
informational influence: Perceived interactivity as a moderator. Online Information Review, 39(4), pp. 537-555.
920
Wang, S. J., Hsu, C. P., Huang, H. C., & Chen, C. L. (2015), How readers’ perceived self congruity and functional congruity affect bloggers’
informational influence: Perceived interactivity as a moderator. Online Information Review, 39(4), pp. 537-555.
921
Castellano, S., & Dutot, V. (2017). Investigating the Influence of E-Word-of-Mouth on E-Reputation. International Studies of Management &
Organization, 47(1), 42-60.
922
Allagui, I., & Breslow, H. (2016). Social media for public relations: Lessons from four effective cases. Public Relations Review, 42(1), 20-30.
923
Bogner, W. C., & Barr, P. S. (2000),Making sense in hypercompetitive environments: A cognitive explanation for the persistence of high velocity
competition. Organization Science, 11,pp. 212–226.
924
Valentini, C. (2015). Is using social media "good" for the public relations profession? A critical reflection. Public Relations Review, 41(2), 170-
177.
925
Pang, A., Yingzhi Tan, E., Song-Qi Lim, R., Yue-Ming Kwan, T., & Bhardwaj Lakhanpal, P. (2016). Building effective relations with social media
influencers in Singapore. Media Asia, 1-13.
926
Gustavsson, A., Suleman Nasir, A. & Ishonova, S. (2018) Towards a world of influencers: Exploring the relationship building dimensions of
Influencer Marketing. Thesis, Jönköping International Business School, May 21, 2018.
927
Ibidem.
928
Relatable (2019). The 2019 State of Influencer Marketing Report. Accessed 05 May 2019, https://www.relatable.me/the-state-of-influencer-
marketing-2019
127
2019.929 This surge in the number of professionals collaborating with influencers largely stems from a need to
access the youth market, with 78% of influencer campaigns in 2019 being targeted towards millennials.930 Of
those campaigns, there has been a particular concentration of activity in the fashion, luxury, and cosmetics
industry, which has aggressively targeted younger consumers on social media platforms in an attempt to expand
their audience to a new generation. Of those in the aforementioned fields polled,
90.6% confirmed that the activities they carried out with influencers effectively generated brand
awareness for their companies or products. 89.5% said that working with influencers was effective as a
support for their digital strategies. 76% highlighted that influencer campaigns are effective for building
customer loyalty. 75.7% find influencer marketing effective for driving sales.931
This is due to the leap in recognition of effectiveness of influencer campaigns throughout the industry. This
movement towards influencer based marketing is most observable in content creation communities, most
notably, Instagram.932 It should be noted, however, that the platform experienced a slight drop in the
percentage of influencers who use this channel (1.6%). By way of comparison, channels that have witnessed the
greatest decline in popularity amongst influencers were Twitter (10.8%), and Facebook (9.6%).933 This comes
amid news of flagging growth in the field as the market becomes increasingly oversaturated. Indeed, despite
reports of stabilisation in the influencer marketing industry, there is evidence of continued growth, especially in
areas of the world, such as South America and Africa, where the practice is just emerging.934 It should be
noted, however, that there are those holdouts within the profession who continue to avoid working with these
key opinion leaders, mostly owing either to budget constraints (62%) or a lack of knowledge and tools to
properly identify and manage influencers (54%).935
929
Ibidem.
930
Ibidem.
931
Ibidem.
932
Ibidem.
933
Ibidem.
934
Relatable (2019). The 2019 State of Influencer Marketing Report. Accessed 05 May 2019, https://www.relatable.me/the-state-of-influencer-
marketing-2019
935
Ibidem.
128
3.4.4 Influencer Marketing on Instagram
“Calling 'Instagram' a photo-sharing app is like calling a newspaper a letter-sharing book, or a Mozart grand era symphony a
series of notes. 'Instagram' is less
about the medium and more about the network.”
- Kevin Systrom936
As Instagram is the platform on which the most influencers are active as of 2018,937 it should come as no
surprise then that marketers have focussed their attention on the network, as opposed to its competitors. With
engagement rates of as high as 3.39% in some sectors,938 as illustrated in the figure below, Instagram
consistently outperforms its competitors in terms of social action and user engagement by as much as 23%,939
and brands, in particular, see 10x higher engagement rates on Instagram as they do on Facebook.940
Figure 31. Instagram Engagement - (2018)
936
937
Boekee, S., Van der Veer, N., Hoekstra, H., & Peters, O. (2018). Nationale Social Media Onderzoek. Geraadpleegd van
https://www.bindinc.nl/wpcontent/
938
Feehan, B. (2018) 2018 Social Media Industry Benchmark Report, Rival HQ 02 April 2018. Accessed 03 May 2018,
https://www.rivaliq.com/blog/2018-social-media-industry-benchmark-report/
939
Dogtiev, A. (2018) Instagram Revenue and Usage Statistics - 2018. Business of Apps, 18 September 2018. Accessedd 03 May 2019,
http://www.businessofapps.com/data/instagram-statistics/
940
Elliott, N. (2015) How Does Your Brand Stack Up on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram? Forrester, 15 September 2015. Accessed 03 May 2019,
https://go.forrester.com/blogs/15-09-15-how_does_your_brand_stack_up_on_facebook_twitter_and_instagram/
129
Instagram may, in addition, be said to resonate especially strongly with younger audiences, who are
considerably more likely to purchase products or services based on Instagram influencers’ recommendations
than their older counterparts.941
As noted in the preceding section, finding the right influencer is essential to any social influencer
marketing campaign, “as the current paradigm of influence marketing puts the influencer at the center of the
marketing universe.”942 This notion is further reinforced by a sheer amount of investment being made in the
field, as evidenced by the figure below:
Figure 32. What’s Your Annual Budget for Influencer Marketing 2019 - Mediakix 2019
943
Much of a firm’s investment in influencer marketing is earmarked for payment to influencers for sponsored
posts. While compensation for influencers range from free products to upwards of half a million dollars per post
941
942
Biaudet, S. (2017) Influencer Marketing as a Marketing Tool The process of creating an Influencer Marketing Campaign on Instagram. Thesis:
Arcada.
943
Bailis, R. (2019) The State of Influencer Marketing: 10 Influencer Marketing Statistics to Inform Where You Invest. Big Commerce. Accessed 05
May 2019, https://www.bigcommerce.com/blog/influencer-marketing-statistics/#10-most-important-influencer-marketing-statistics-for-2019
130
for celebrity influencers,944 macro-influencers, such as Huda Kattan, Cameron Dallas, Jen Selter, Zoella, and
Nash Grier earn roughly $10,000 per post.945 On a much smaller scale, micro-influencers can expect to be paid
roughly $50 per post.946 While payment for content may range greatly between influencers, their influence is
invaluable for marketers. This is especially true in an age when more and more consumers have reduced trust in
the media, as has been seen in the latest reports from the Edelman’s Trust Barometer.947 Influencers, who often
feel like trusted friends for their followers, therefore, offer an inroad to audiences who are increasingly
distrustful and skeptical of brand communication.
3.4.5 Theories of Social Influence
“The leverage and influence social media gives citizens are

rapidly spreading into the business world.”
- Simon Mainwaring948
The social sway which influencers on Instagram exert can be understood through the lens of theories of
influence taken from disciplines ranging from psychology to sociology. In essence, theories of influence refer to
the effect that actions, words, or the presence of others have on our behavior, feelings, attitudes, or thoughts in a
social context.949 Within this conceptual framework, influence is understood to be exerted in a variety of ways,
such as when expectations are explicitly stated or rules drawn up, or more subtly, as when socially appropriate
behaviour is modelled.950 Elaborated below are a number of theories of social influence pertinent to this thesis:
Informational social influence: informational social influence refers to the influence on others which is exerted
in information gathering scenarios.951 In effect, this particular form of influence often presents itself in situations
where individuals are required to adjust their behaviour to better suit social norms. In the context of influencers
marketing, influencers can be understood to be role models who set the tone of social interaction with their
followers adjusting accordingly.
944
Influencer Marketing Hub (2017)15 Mind Blowing Instagram Statistics You Don’t Know. Accessed 05 May 2019,
https://influencermarketinghub.com/15-instagram-influencer-statistics/
945
Ibidem.
946
Ibidem.
947
Dawson., A. (2018) Australians’ trust in media at an all time low finds Edelman’s ‘Trust Barometer’. Mumbrella, 7 February 2018. Accessed 05
May 2019, https://mumbrella.com.au/edelmans-trust-barometer-shows-trust-in-media-at-an-all-time-low-but-trust-in-journalism-rebounds-497401
948
Simon Mainwaring Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/simon_mainwaring_493956
949
Van Reijmersdal, E. A., Fransen, M. L., van Noort, G., Opree, S. J., Vandeberg, L., Reusch, S., ... & Boerman, S. C. (2016). Effects of disclosing
sponsored content in blogs: How the use of resistance strategies mediates effects on persuasion. American Behavioral Scientist, 60(12), pp. 1458-
1474.
950
Leskovec, J.,Adamic, L.A.,& Huberman,B.A. (2007). The dynamics of viral marketing. Journal ACM Transactions on the Web, 1(1),
5.
951
Watts, D.J., & Dodds, P.S. (2007). Influentials, networks, and public opinion formation. Journal of Consumer Research,
34(4), 441-458.
131
Normative social influence: influence exerted on others may also be normative, in the sense that for individuals
to be accepted socially, they must adapt to social norms.952 In scenarios such as these, where the desire to
belong shapes behaviour, the degree to which social influence is applied is variable, with some actors having an
intensified ability to shape behaviour and perceptions.953 In addition, it has been shown that the social
environment exerts unconscious influence, meaning that in the case of influencers on social media, the platform
itself dictates the ways in which influence is exercised, and how role models are identified.954
Top-down school of influence: as defined by Berelson, Gaudet, and Lazarsfeld, the inventors of the two-step
flow theory, in every society there are those individuals who differentiate themselves by exhibiting exceptional
traits, who become our opinion leaders.955 Within this model, later expanded by Rogers, information is adopted
via the top-down, which then trickles down from innovators to early adopters, to the early majority, the late
majority, and, ultimately, to the laggards of society.956 What should be noted here is that there is a stark
difference between the former two groups and all those who follow. Indeed, in the context of social media, it is
influencers who can be seen to be the innovators and early adopters, with average users being those who follow.
In addition, with the conceptual framework of top-down influence devised by Gladwell in his works, Law of the
Few and The Tipping Point, is identified three states of epidemic change, which result in influence.957 Within
such states, humanity can be grouped into three distinct categories: the connectors, the mavens, and the
persuaders.958 Influencers, and celebrities for that matter, can be seen as embodying these three aspects of
change, with average users of Instagram can be seen to be the persuadable.
Bottom-up school of influence: conversely, the bottom-up school argues that it is precisely when individuals are
less connected people that they have the greatest influence on the distribution of information. These less
connected members of social groups, form relationships known as “weak ties” with one another. Watts, a
proponent of the theory, argues that the investment made on social influencers by marketers is largely for
nought as it is weak ties which are the crucial to the distribution of information on social media.959 It is for this
very reason that it is believed that social influencers possess too many contacts to be effectively influential.
952
Khan, M. (2007). Consumer and Advertising. New Delhi, India: New Age International Publishers.
953
Belch, M.A., & Belch, G.E.(2014). Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective (10 ed.). Columbus,
Verenigde Staten: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
954
Keng, C. Tran. V. D, Leeti. T.M (2013). Relationships among Brand Experience, Brand Personality, And Customer Experiential Value. Journal of
Contemporary Management Research. 9 (3), 247-262.
955
Berelson, B.,Lazarsfeld, P.F.,& Gaudet,H. (1948). The People's Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a
Presidential Campaign (2e ed.). New York,Columbia University Press.
956
Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory. London: Constable.
957
Gladwell M., (2001),The Tipping Point How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference, New York, Little, Brown and Company.
958
Ibidem.
959
Watts, D. J., & Dodds, P. S. (2007),Influentials, networks, and public opinion formation. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), pp.441–458.
132
In summation, influencers may be best understood to be online advertisers within their self-defined and
regulated social networks established on social media networks that are shaped by sociological, cultural,
economic, and psychological forces.960
3.5 Celebrities: The Apex of Human Brands
“Isn't it amazing how celebrity status preempts even the most ingrained hatreds?”
- Camryn Manheim961
Within the last decade, the number of public figures who may be considered to be celebrities has grown
substantially across a wide range of fields, including entertainment, sport, science and technology, and even
politics.962 Owing in large part to the rise of social media and the growth of new channels of communication
between opinion leaders and the general public, celebrities, and celebrity culture more generally, have become a
crucial point of reference for consumers. The power of influence held by those individuals, who have been
designated to be celebrities, is evidenced by the fact that the majority of young adults (75%) have been proven
to exhibit a strong attraction to a celebrity at some point.963 While it may be argued that social media
influencers, especially those active on Instagram and YouTube, have begun to eclipse traditional celebrities in
terms of reach and influence,964 celebrities still hold enormous sway over the hearts and minds of vast swathes
of the population, in particular those aged 45 and older.965 Indeed, rather than considering influencers to be a
breed of their own, influencers are best understood as a modern iteration of celebrity, designed for the digital
environment.966 Just as influencers thrive on today’s social media networks by appealing to a target audience, so
too have celebrities traditionally enjoyed fame and significant media coverage based on their appeal to a given
audience. Thus, deciphering what it is that renders a celebrity appealing in the eyes of his or her audience is
necessary to understanding how celebrities’ images may be used to best effect, whether endorsing a product or
launching their own branded products as an extension of a human brand.967
The term itself, celebrity, has a history much older than one might expect. Celebrity, which was,
960
de Mauregnault, F. (2018),Marketing meets social influencers A study into the influence of social influencers on Instagram on the
consumer behavior of Instagram users, University of Rotterdam
961
Camryn Manheim Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/camryn_manheim_289342
962
McCutcheon, L. E., Lange, R., & Houran, J. (2002),Evidence for non-pathological and pathological dimensions of celebrity worship. British
Journal of Psychology, 93 (1), pp.67– 87.
963
Boon, S. D., & Lomore, C. D. (2001),Admirer-celebrity relationships among young adults: explaining perceptions of celebrity influence on
identity. Human Communication Research, 27 (3), pp.432–465.
964
965
Karp, K. (2016) New Research: The Value of Influencers on Twitter. Twitter Blog, 10 May 2016. Accessed 03 May 2019,
https://blog.twitter.com/marketing/en_us/a/2016/new-research-the-value-of-influencers-on-twitter.html
966
Ibidem.
967
Lunardo R., Gergaud O., Livat F., (2015), Celebrities as human brands: An investigation of the effects of personality and time on celebrities'
appeal, Journal of Marketing Management.
133
arguably, introduced to the Anglosphere by Chaucer in the fourteenth-century,968 has traditionally been
associated with a kind of extraordinariness which places those on whom fame has been bestowed a
transcendence or omnipresence.969 Taxonomically, they exist “on some plane between ours and that of the
gods.”970 Inasmuch, even when stars appear to be “just like us,”971 a concept bolstered by the seemingly
everyday nature of content posted by celebrities on social media channels, they also have an incandescence of
their own which seems to infuse their every action with an ineffable stardom,972 due in large part to the West’s
long-standing tendency to tie the human to the heavenly.973
From Chaucer to Ovid, the notion of metamorphosis,974 in which mere mortals may be transformed into
stars, is a foundational trope in Western culture. Within Hollywood’s own firmament, with its gleaming
constellation of stars, celebrities exist as heavenly creatures, somehow more than human, that are “both distant
and accessible, gleaming and sparkling and yet reassuringly omnipresent. Stars have long suggested a kind of
order—and orientation—within chaotic human lives. They have long hinted that there is something bigger,
something beyond, something more.”975
3.5.1 Celebrity Defined
“...an ever-fixed mark / That looks on tempests and is never shaken; / It is the star to every wand’ring bark, / Whose worth’s
unknown, although his height be taken.”
- Shakespeare, King Lear976
This notion of otherness, and the creation of a social elite,977 is widely addressed in the literature;978 however,
most research in the field concerns itself with celebrities in their role as public relations agents979 or as celebrity
968
Chaucer in the House of Fame, Oxford Dictionary, https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2013/01/02/chaucer-in-the-house-of-fame/
969
Basinger J. (2009), The Star Machine.
970
Ibidem.
971
Graham R., (2016), One of Us, Stars they’re just like us and the future of always- on celebrity coverage, The Slate, last seen 29 may 2019
https://slate.com/human-interest/2016/09/the-invention-of-us-weeklys-stars-theyre-just-like-us-feature.html
972
Garber M. (2017), Why are they stars? Celebrities are celestial because of Shakespeare. And because of Chaucer. And because of the weird
workings of the movie camera, The Atlantic, last seen 29 may 2019 https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/02/why-are-celebrities-
known-as-stars/517674/
973
Ibidem.
974
Ovidio, Metamorphoses
975
Garber M. (2017), Why Are They 'Stars'? Celebrities are celestial because of Shakespeare. And because of Chaucer. And because of the weird
workings of the movie camera, last seen 29 may 20019 https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/02/why-are-celebrities-known-as-
stars/517674/
976
Shakespeare, quoted in Garber M. (2017), Why Are They 'Stars'? Celebrities are celestial because of Shakespeare. And because of Chaucer. And
because of the weird workings of the movie camera, last seen 29 may 20019 https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2017/02/why-are-
celebrities-known-as-stars/517674/
977
McCracken, G. (1986), Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods,
Journal of Consumer Research, 71–84.
978
Tanner, R. & Maeng, A. (2012), A tiger and a president:Imperceptible celebrity facial cues influence trust and preference, Journal of Consumer
Research, 39 (December), 769–783.
979
McCracken, G. (1986),Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of the cultural meaning of consumer goods,
Journal of Consumer Research, 71–84.
134
endorsers.980 In such roles, celebrities are tasked with attesting to the value of a given product, whether it be
their own film or an item which they have been paid to endorse. These mechanisms, as will be duly addressed,
function on the basis of celebrity appeal, attachment, and influence. As such, celebrities are understood to be
inspirational figures and comparative referents,981 who consumers are able to turn to in order to take decisions.
Indeed, the power of celebrity is so great that for many individuals they represent a model from whom
admirable traits are borrowed in the process of identity construction.982 Beyond shaping identity, celebrities
have been transposed into a modern pantheon in a largely secular society where stars are our heroes983 and even
our gods.984
In essence, celebrity can be considered to be a function of “well- knownness,”985 in which an individual

gains fame beyond a restricted field of industry.986 This process of gaining visibility in the public consciousness
is largely built upon narrative,987 as celebrity is constructed by means of the stories told by and told about
famous individuals in the media to an audience of fans and end-consumers.988 "Stardom is an image of the way
stars live (...) that combines the spectacular with the everyday, the special with the ordinary"989 in a narrative
which intermingles notions of ordinariness with extraordinariness. Implied within the narratives at the heart of
the celebrity construction is the notion that stardom is not just produced internally by media industries, but in
tandem with external mechanisms of audience participation in storytelling.990 In addition, the central role of
storytelling in processes of celebrity construction is also consistent with the argument that celebrities must
somehow differentiate themselves from others in their field to achieve visibility by audiences.991 In essence, as
with influencers on social media, celebrities must establish points of differentiation992 by which to separate
themselves from the pack, and media coverage by which to broadcast a wide range of aspects about their lives,
980
Erdogan, B.Z. (1999),Celebrity endorsement: A literature review. Journal of Marketing Management, 15, 291–314.
981
Escalas Jennifer E., Bettman James R., (2005), “Self-Construal, reference groups, and brand meaning”,Journal of Consumer Research Vol.32, p.
378-389.
982
Boon, S. D., & Lomore, C. D. (2001), Admirer-celebrity relationships among young adults: explaining perceptions of celebrity influence on
identity. Human Communication Research, 27 (3), 432–465.
983
Bromnick, R. D., & Swallow, B. L. (1999). I like being who I am: a study of young people’s ideals. Educational Studies, 25, 117–128.
984
O’Guinn, T. (1991), Touching greatness: The Central Midwest Barry Manilow Fan Club, In Highways and buyways: Naturalistic research from
the consumer behavior odyssey, edited by Russell W. Belk. Provo, UT, Association for Consumer Research.
985
Boorstin, D. J. (1961), The image, Atheneum, New York.
986
Turner, G. (2014). Understanding Celebrity. 2nd Edition, Sage, London.
987
Escalas Jennifer E., Bettman James R.,(2005), “Self-Construal, reference groups, and brand meaning”, Journal of Consumer Research Vol.32, p.
378-389.
988
Fournier, S., Lee, L., (2009), Getting brand communities right, Embrace conflict, resist the urge to control, forget opinion leaders and build your
brand, Harvard Business Review.
989
Dyer, R. (1998), Stars. London: British Film Institute, p. 35
990
Dyer, R. (2004), Heavenly bodies: Film stars and society. Psychology Press.
991
Parmentier, M.-A., Fischer, E. & Reuber A. R. 2013. Positioning person brands in established organizational fields. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 41 (3), 373–387.
992
appeal, Journal of Marketing Management
135
from romance to fitness tips, has been proven to be an effective way of distinguishing themselves.993 With the
rise of mass media, and the increased access to celebrities brought about by the advent of social media, celebrity
has become more attainable than ever before, even for everyday people, as was further addressed in Chapter
3.3.994 For this reason, celebrity and the importance of narratives, must be disentangled from traditional notions
of fame stemming from beauty, talent, accomplishments,995 merit, or ability,996 and one must ask: “in a world
where the nobodies are somebodies, what makes a star a star?”
3.5.2 The Appeal of Celebrities
“In the future everybody will be famous for fifteen minutes.”
- Andy Warhol997
While there exists a dearth of research in the literature about what differentiates celebrities from the merely
famous, there is much to be gleaned about consumer perceptions of celebrity from the literature on celebrities
as brands.998 Much of what we know to be essential to the construction of celebrity is rooted in the notion of
appeal, which is often ill-defined as “presence” or “charisma,” a special it from which a kind of star-making
magic, beyond logic and fully intuitive, radiates from a select few individuals.999 Looking to the literature on
brand personality1000 in which it has been posited that celebrity appeal lies in personality, reveals the ways in
which the personality of celebrities, and the dimensions which his or her personality take on, shapes celebrity
appeal.1001 In addition, celebrity appeal must also be considered by virtue of the temporal constraints of the so-
called “celebrity-lifecycle” in which public appeal waxes and wanes based on the whims of the public.1002
Celebrity appeal, as is such, must be understood to be personality based in essence and dynamic, as opposed to
static, in audience perception.
As celebrities may be found in very different fields, ranging across the spectrum of medias in
993
Ibidem.
994
McQuarrie, Edward; Miller, Jessica; Phillips, Barbara. “The Megaphone Effect: Taste and Audience in Fashion Blogging.” Journal of Consumer
Research, vol. 40, no. 1, 2013, pp. 136-58.
995
Gabler, N. (1998). Life, the movie: How entertainment conquered reality. New York: Vintage Books.
996
Gamson, J. (1994). Claims to fame: Celebrity in contemporary America. University of California Press, Berkeley.
997
Andy Warhol (n.d) Quoted on Phrases. Accessed 30 April, 2019 https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/fifteen-minutes-of-fame.html
998
Thomson P. (2008), “Chapter 4 – Field.” Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts, edited by Michael Grenfell, Acumen Publishing Limited, pp. 67-81.
999
Turner, G. (2014), Understanding Celebrity. 2nd Edition, Sage, London
1000
Aaker, J.L. (1997),Dimensions of Brand Personality, Journal of Marketing Research 34, no. 3, pp.347–356.
1001
1002
Ibidem.
136
contemporary society,1003 celebrity appeal, as determined by personality, may be assessed differently in
accordance to field. Thus, categorisation, referring to the complex set of preconceived information about a
group of individuals,1004 is necessary to properly identify determinants of celebrity appeal across cultural
fields.1005 Much to this point, research has shown that in social interaction episodes, categorisation is made on
the basis of salient characteristics as a first step.1006 Once this primary categorisation is made, recognisable
features associated with the category are activated in the mind of the perceiver, who is then likely to employ
these category-based expectations in judgements of the target.1007 Consequently, when celebrities are assessed
by the general public, first their salient attributes are appraised, such sophistication, sincerity, or rudeness, after
which these attributes are ranked by category by virtue of the field to which the given individual belongs.1008
Thus, the effects of personality on celebrity appeal must be assessed across fields, as a personal brands must “fit
in” with the generally-held expectations of the field in which the celebrity is found.1009 As generally-held
expectations are an embodiment of shared values, celebrities, and the personality traits which they express, must
be in accordance the values the field has come to expect.1010 Ideally, they must be sincere,1011 competent,1012
exciting,1013 sophisticated,1014 and charmingly attractive,1015 as when celebrities are perceived to possess these
traits they tap into culturally-held values of exceptionalism that are highly influential.
However, even those celebrities who appear to have mastered the alchemy of appeal are subject to the
ups and downs of stardom. As one star gains ascendency, so too does another fade from sight. Given that
celebrities are frequently understood to be heroes in the eyes of their adoring fans,1016 their appeal may well
continue to increase over time; nonetheless, just as often celebrities are interpreted as being nothing more than
'famous persons'1017 whose appeal may ebb and flow with the tides of public opinion. Therefore, it can be states
1003
Holmes, S. (2004), 'Reality goes pop!': Reality TV, popular music, and narratives of stardom in pop idol, Television New Media, 5 (2), pp. 147–
171.
1004
1005
Ibidem.
1006
(Macrae and Bodenhausen, 2001; Macrae, Bodenhausen and Milne, 1995)
1007
Reinhard, A., Messner, M., & Sporer, S. L. (2006),Explicit persuasive intent and its impact on success at persuasion: The determining roles of
attractiveness and likeableness, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16 (3), pp. 249–259.
1008
1009
Parmentier, M.-A., Fischer, E., Reuber A. R. (2013),Positioning person brands in established organizational fields, Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 41 (3), pp.373–387.
1010
1011
Dyer, R. (2004). Heavenly bodies: Film stars and society. Psychology Press.
1012
Parmentier, M.-A., Fischer, E. & Reuber A. R. (2013), Positioning person brands in established organizational fields. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 41 (3), pp.373–387.
1013
1014
1015
Kamins, M. A. (1990), An Investigation into the match-up hypothesis in celebrity advertising: When beauty may be only skin deep, Journal of
Advertising, 19, pp. 4–13.
1016
Escalas Jennifer E., Bettman James R., (2005)Self-Construal, reference groups, and brand meaning,Journal of Consumer Research Vol.32, p.
378-389.
1017
Shuart, J. (2007), Heroes in sport: Assessing celebrity endorser effectiveness, International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 8 (2), p.
137
that appeal, taken as a dynamic metric of celebrity, is dependent upon the field in which the celebrity is present,
in addition to other factors such as performance.1018
3.5.3 Brand Personality and Celebrities' Personalities

“Fame and fortune are as hard to find as a lightning strike.”
- P. N. Elrod1019
By way of further explanation as to the mechanisms of celebrity personality which shape the creation of a
celebrity brand, we turn to the dimensions of brand personality as identified in the literature:
Sophistication: as identified by Aaker,1020 sophisticated brands are associated with perceptions of glamour,
charm, and romance, implying that a sophisticated celebrity also possesses these highly-desirable traits. This
particular dimension of personality is correlated with perceptions of physical attractiveness,1021 which are
understood to be predominantly positive in tone.1022 Furthermore, individuals to whom more socially desirable
personality traits are attributed, such as friendliness or sociability, are typically judged to be more attractive.1023
These mechanisms go on to shape behavior,1024 average earned income,1025 and advertising effectiveness.1026
Therefore, it can be posited that sophistication, with its broad range of associations, has a largely positive effect
on celebrity brand appeal when present.
Sincerity: this second dimension is representative of the honest, everyday, salt-of-the-earth aspects of
personality which are exhibited by some celebrity brands. As sincerity is seen as a sub-dimension of trust,1027
and trust has been shown to exert positive effects on affect,1028 “individuals who perceive celebrities as sincere
may be likely to develop positive affect toward them and perceive them as appealing.”1029 In addition, as
128
1018
1019
P. N. Elrod Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/p_n_elrod_743360
1020
1021
Cunningham, M.R., Barbee, A.P, & Pike, C.L. (1990), What do women want? Facialmetric assessment of multiple motives in the perception of
male facial physical attractiveness, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (1), pp. 61–72.
1022
Hamermesh, D. S., & Biddle, J. E. (1994),Beauty and the labor market. American Economic Review, 84 (December), pp. 1174–94.
1023
Dion, K., Berscheid, E. & Walster, E. (1972),What is beautiful is good,Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24 (3), pp. 285–90.
1024
Andreoni, J., & Pétrie, R. (2008), Beauty, gender, and stereotypes: Evidence from laboratory experiments, Journal of Economic Psychology, 29
(February), pp. 73–93
1025
Gergaud, O., Ginsburgh, V. & Livat, F. (2012), Success of celebrities: talent, intelligence or beauty. Economics Bulletin, 32(4), pp.3120-3127.
1026
Baker, M.J., & Churchill, G.A. (1977), The impact of physically attractive models on advertising evaluations, Journal of Marketing Research, 14,
4, pp.538–555.
1027
Crosby, L. A., Evans, K. R. & Cowles, D. (1990), Relationship quality in services selling: An interpersonal influence perspective. Journal of
Marketing, 54. Pp. 68–81.
1028
Chaudhuri, A. & Holbrook, M. B. (2001), The chain of effects from brand trust and brand affect to brand performance: The role of brand loyalty,
Journal of Marketing, pp.81–93.
1029
138
insincerity has been shown to be detrimental in sales contexts,1030 celebrities judged to be untruthful or
deceptive in their motivations have a negative effect on perceptions of their brand personality.
Warmth: centred round notions of familiarity, friendliness, and kindness, perceptions of warmth include
judgements made on sincerity1031 and liking;1032 inasmuch, the recognition of warmth in a celebrity’s brand
personality exerts a positive influence on audience’s assessment of appeal.
Competence: judgments of competence are defined by the perception of reliability, intelligence, and success,1033
along with the effective capacity to make change and achieve one’s objectives.1034 As has been argued, if the
need for competence is fulfilled, intense attachments may result from the relationship between consumers and
human brands.1035 Hence, brands who are perceived as being competent, thus, fully meeting consumers’ needs,
are significantly more likely to form strong ties with consumers than brands who are perceived to be
incompetent.1036 In regards to celebrities, those who are judged to be competent in their given field have a
heightened ability to forge strong attachments with their audiences.1037
Excitement: this dimension of celebrity-brand personality, which entails a sense of energy and activity, is
typically judged as being valuable by the population at large.1038 From mate selection1039 to research on more
everyday forms of interaction, excitingness is one of the most desirable characteristics for an individual to
possess. As applied to the concept of celebrity, it can be broadly stated that the more excitement attributed to a
celebrity, the more he or she will be perceived to be appealing.1040
Ruggedness, or rudeness: the final dimension of celebrity-brand personality, ruggedness harkens notions of
toughness, masculinity, strength, and a certain rigitude of personality.1041 Although, it should be noted that this
1030
Campbell, M. C., Inman, J. & Pieters, R., Duluth, MN : Association for Consumer Research, pp.37–40.
1031
Judd, C. M., James-Hawkins, L., Yzerhyt, V., & Kashima, Y. (2005). Fundamental dimensions of social judgment: Understanding the relations
between judgments of competence and warmth. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89 (December), 899-913
1032
Barger, P. B., and Grandey, A. A. (2006). Service with a smile and encounter satisfaction: Emotional contagion and appraisal mechanisms. The
Academy of Management Journal, 38, pp. 1229–1238
1033
Mæhle, N., & Shneor, R. (2009),On congruence between brand and human personalities. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 19 (1), 44-
53.
1034
Cuddy, A. J. C, Fiske, S. T. & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 92 (April), 631-48.
1035
Deci, E. L., & R. M. Ryan (2000). The 'what' and 'why' of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological
Inquiry, 11 (4), 227–68.
1036
pp.104–119.
1037
1038
Ibidem.
1039
Buss, D.M. & Barnes, M. (1986). Preferences in human mate selection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50 (3), 559-570.
1040
1041
Mæhle, N., & Shneor, R. (2009),On congruence between brand and human personalities. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 19 (1), 44-
53.
139
dimension, like all dimensions, is affected by culturally shaped perceptions of personality, and may not be
present in some contexts. Rather, ruggedness may be replaced with rudeness, referring to behaviour which is
understood to be insensitive and evidence of a lack of regard or concern for others.1042 Behaviour judged to be
rude may include verbal or nonverbal actions which breach the norms of mutual respect, including sexist, racist,
homophobic, or otherwise intolerant behaviour.1043 One needs look no further than this week’s tabloid to find a
wide range of examples of celebrities’ rude behaviour - and the public outcry, known as “cancelling”1044 which
often occurs on social media platforms today. From Bill Gates to Cristiano Ronaldo, Taylor Swift,1045 and,
frankly unsurprisingly, Kanye West,1046 recent memory has seen the movement towards total disinvestment in
celebrities deemed unacceptable, like Kanye, who suggested slavery was a choice.1047 This movement towards
holding celebrities to higher standards of accountability is illustrated by research in the respective fields of
fairness and justice literature, which suggest that when rudeness or otherwise anti-social behaviour is observed,
individuals may seek to punish the perpetrators.1048 Inasmuch, rudeness may be understood to have a generally
negative effect on the appeal scores of celebrities.1049
3.5.3 Brand Attachment Through Celebrity Endorsement
“The need to believe in today's consumer brands can be compared to the need of
the Ancient Greeks to believe in their own myths.”
- G. Lewis1050
One needs not look very far to find an example of a celebrity acting as an endorser for a product, as celebrity-
brand relationships, in the form of endorsement, have become a remarkably common feature of today’s
marketplace.1051 In some markets, as many as 20% of all advertisements feature a celebrity in some capacity,
which has an enormous influence on all facets of public life within these markets, including consumer attitudes
and perceptions. Moreover, owing to the multi-platform nature of communication channels in contemporary
society, celebrities are increasingly lending their image and clout to multiple brands, in multiple different
1042
Porath, C. L., & Erez, A. (2007), Does rudeness really matter? The effects of rudeness on task performance and helpfulness. Academy of
Management Journal, 50 (5), pp. 1181–1197.
1043
Porath, C. L., Macinnis, D., & Folkes, V. (2010), Witnessing incivility among employees: Effects on consumer anger and negative inferences
about companies. Journal of Consumer Research, pp. 292–303
1044
Bromwich J.E. (2018), Everyone is canceled It only takes one thing — and sometimes, nothing — for fans to dump a celebrity, last seen 20th may
2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/28/style/is-it-canceled.html
1045
Taylor Swift is cancelled, TMZ TV (2018), last seen 29 may 2019 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZ8lgIEMOQk
1046
Real Life Angel Twitter Account, last seen 29 may 2019 https://twitter.com/aangelsimms/status/991514735421132800
1047
Kanye West Featuring Van Lathan (2018), Slavery was a Choice, https://genius.com/Kanye-west-slavery-was-a-choice-pt-1-may-1-2018-
annotated?referent_id=14468715#note-14468715
1048
O’Gorman, R., Wilson, D. S., & Miller, R. R. (2005),Altruistic punishing and helping differ in sensitivity to relatedness, friendship, and future
interactions. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(5), pp.375–387.
1049
1050
Lewis G. (1998), L’ Odyssée des marques, Paris.
1051
Erdogan, B.Z.(1999), Celebrity endorsement: A literature review. Journal of Marketing Management, 15, pp.291–314.
140
product categories,1052 such as in the case of Cristiano Ronaldo1053 and Chiara Ferragni1054 as is further
elaborated in Chapter Four. Indeed, it may even be argued that because celebrities in and of themselves are
more often than not considered to be brands in their own right that may be “professionally managed and
because they have additional associations and features of a brand.”1055 In this sense, celebrities can be said to
embody human brands to which relationships are formed by consumers.1056
As addressed previously in this section, much of the literature on celebrity endorsements centres round
the influence which celebrities’ personalities have on endorsements and brand relationships. Research along
these lines has tended to focus on concepts of familiarity,1057 attractiveness,1058 likeability,1059 credibility, and
expertise,1060 or competence, and their influence on the effectiveness of celebrities as endorsers of products and
brands. In addition, great strides have been made in the past decade in the field of consumer attachment,1061
which has explored the manifold ways in which consumers begin to feel they have formed bonds with brands
and with celebrities, as human brands, alike.1062 Research into the attachment formed between individuals and
celebrities has largely been guided by two foundational psychological theories, Attachment Theory1063 and Self-
Determination Theory,1064 which are more fully addressed in Chapters 3.1 and 3.2 of this thesis. However, for
the purpose of clarification, attachment theory may be defined as the premise that when strong attachments are
formed between individuals and groups, elevated sensations of connection, affection, love, and passion are
experienced.1065 Whereas, self-determination theory is based on the notion that basic human needs are shaped in
part by motivations stemming from the desire for autonomy, relatedness, and competence.1066
In regards to consumers’ relationship with celebrity spokespeople, it is unclear whether the relationship
1052
Ilicic J. , Cynthia M., Webster C. M., (2008), Attachment to Human Brands: Opinions of Celebrities Endorsing Multiple Brands, Macquarie
University
1053
Kim Kardashian’ s Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/kimkardashian/?hl=en
1054
Chiara Ferragni’s Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/chiaraferragni/?hl=en
1055
Thomson, P. (2006), “Chapter 4 – Field.” Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts, edited by Michael Grenfell, Acumen Publishing Limited, 2008, p.105
1056
University
1057
Misra, Shekhar and Sharon E. Beatty, (1990), Celebrity spokesperson and brand congruence: An assessment of recall and affect, Journal of
business research, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 159-173.
1058
McGuire W.J. (1976) the concept of attitudes and their relation with behaviour. In H.W. Sinaiko & L.A. Broedling (Eds) perspectives on attitude
assessment: Surveys and their alternatives, Champaign, IL: Pendleton
1059
Erdogan, B.Z. (1999), Celebrity endorsement: A literature review. Journal of Marketing Management, 15, pp. 291–314
1060
Ohanian, R. (1990), Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness.
Journal of Advertising, 19 (3), pp. 39- 52.
1061
1062
Ibidem.
1063
Bowlby, J., (1980), Loss: Sadness and Depression, New York: Basic Books.
1064
theory perspective on attachment, need fulfilment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (3), pp. 367-384.
1065
1066
theory perspective on attachment, need fulfilment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (3), pp. 367-384.
141
itself has significant influence over the effectiveness of celebrities as endorsers in a marketing context.1067
While the literature in the field lags behind and has not yet adequately addressed the correlations between the
creation of human brands and celebrity endorsement, there seems ample evidence to suggest, at this time, that
“consumers’ opinions of a celebrity endorser are related to a number of celebrity characteristics, which in turn
affect consumers’ attachment to the celebrity.”1068
In addition, a number of factors, including overexposure, lack of credibility, and unclear attribution,
have been demonstrated to have a negative effect on consumer-celebrity attachment. For instance, while many
celebrities currently lend their image to multiple brands in the form of celebrity endorsers, this has been found
to be deleterious to their own personal brand image due to the effects of overexposure.1069 These effects are
compounded when a celebrity is perceived to be dishonest in some way, as is often seen in instances where a
given celebrity endorses more than one brand. To better understand the effects of multi-product endorsements,
Attribution Theory1070 has often been applied, which posits that when celebrities are present as endorsers in
advertisements, consumers attempt “to determine the causal reasons for a celebrity endorsing a product.”1071 In
such a scenario, consumers are understood to believe that celebrities endorse brands not just for financial gain,
but also due to the fact that they actually believe in the brands that they are promoting.1072 This belief works in
tandem with mechanisms which depend on perceptions of expertise and credibility of an endorser. Thus, when
celebrities are perceived to have expert knowledge of a subject, they are more persuasive1073 and their
endorsements are more likely to lead to purchase intentions in consumers.1074 By applying these theories of
consumer-human brand attachment, and how they are mediated by factors such as personality, a hypotheses for
how to assess consumers’ opinions of celebrity endorsers emerges, as illustrated in the figure below:1075
1067
University
1068
Ibidem.
1069
Till B. et Al., (2008), Classical Conditioning and Celebrity Endorsers: An Examination of Belongingness and Resistance to Extinction
Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 25(2), pp.179–196
1070
Mowen, J. C., Brown, S. W., (1981) On Explaining and Predicting the Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsers. Advances in Consumer Research 8,
pp. 437-441
1071
Ibidem.
1072
Ibidem.
1073
Aaker, D. A., Myers, J. G., (1987),Advertising Management, 3rd ed., New Jersey: Prentice- Hall
1074
Ohanian, R. (1990), Construction and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness.
Journal of Advertising, 19 (3), pp. 39- 52
1075
University
142
Figure 33. Overall Opinion of the Celebrity Endorser - (2019)
For marketing practitioners, the need to identify and select the most efficacious endorsers for brands is a
continuous challenge, which has only been compounded by the entry of non-celebrity endorsers, or influencers,
to the field.1076
3.5.5 Celebrities as Human Brands
“I think people love having a person behind a brand who lives it.
The idea of storytelling is really important.”
- Aerin Lauder1077
As has been noted by Thomson amongst other, celebrities are often considered to be human brands in the eyes
of consumers,1078 as they are the subject of marketing, interpersonal, or inter-organisational communications.1079
In addition, as celebrities may be perceived to be human brands,1080 their appeal is judged on the basis of a
brand personality-based framework, as previously addressed in this chapter. This is in large part due to
1076
Ibidem.
1077
Aerin Lauder Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/aerin_lauder_613839.
1078
Thomson, P. (2006), “Chapter 4 – Field.” Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts, edited by Michael Grenfell, Acumen Publishing Limited, 2008, p.105.
1079
Parmentier, M.-A., Fischer, E. & Reuber A. R. (2013), Positioning person brands in established organizational fields. Journal of the Academy of
Marketing Science, 41 (3), pp. 373–387.
1080
Thomson, P. (2006), “Chapter 4 – Field.” Pierre Bourdieu: Key Concepts, edited by Michael Grenfell, Acumen Publishing Limited, 2008, p.105.
143
mechanisms of anthropomorphism, in which humanistic characteristics are ascribed to non-human, or
inanimate, entities such as brands.1081 Working from this presupposition that celebrities are, in fact, human
brands, it can be stated that:
their performances on- and off- stage, off- and online, public or private, are marketing and branding
exercises. Their everyday life choices and values are intrinsically private, but performed in public. These
actions create brands and branding identities. Consequently, the human brand identities sell product
brands through endorsements and persuasions by giving personality qualities to inanimate brands; and
they encourage consumption through being an idealized consumer and a commodity vessel.1082
For the purposes of this thesis, celebrities may be understood to be “any well-known persona who is the subject
of marketing communication efforts,”1083 their identities a product of a “multi-dimensional classification or
mapping of the human world and our places in it, as individuals and as members of collectivities”1084 in which
celebrities are categorised as being something more than human.
It should be noted, however, that celebrities do not become brands simply by mere force of will or
chance of fate. Rather, celebrity human brand identity is forged through a process of co-creation in which a
variety of stakeholders in the process, including advertisers, press, talent management, broadcast networks,
consumers/fans, and celebrities themselves,1085 work in collaboration to develop a personal brand. This multi-
sided project has been inexorably altered by the widespread adoption of social media networks, which have
provided additional outlets for co-creation between fans and celebrities,1086 in which celebrities have the
heightened opportunity shape, revise, and negotiate their identities as human brands.1087
Inasmuch, celebrities use of social media channels may be seen as a response to the need for a reflexivity
of identities in today’s society.1088 This reflexivity, which is the creation of varied, dynamic images by means of
the processes of human brand identity, are products of the post-modern dialogue on identity and self-identity.1089
One such example of this phenomenon can be gleaned from the ways in which celebrity identity and brands are
perceived to differ in the case of multiple endorsements.1090 For instance, in a scenario where a celebrity
endorses multiple brands or products, perceptions of his or her identity, and how his or her image, personality,
1081
Aggarwal, P., & McGill, A. L. (2007) Is that car smiling at me? Schema congruity as a basis for evaluating anthropomorphized products. Journal
of Consumer Research, pp. 468–479.
1082
Centeno, D., & Wang, J.J. (2016), Celebrities as human brands: An inquiry on stakeholder-actor co-creation of brand identities, Journal of
Business Research.
1083
1084
Jenkins, R. (2014). Social identity. Routledge, p. 5.
1085
Business Research.
1086
Business Research.
1087
Boffard, R. (2014). “The value of celebrity endorsements”. BBC News Business. Retrieved February 3, 2016, from:
http://www.bbc.com/news/business-30392829
1088
Business Research.
1089
Schroeder, J. E. (2005), The artist and the brand. European Journal of Marketing, 39, p.1291–1305
1090
Business Research.
144
and values entailed within are viewed, are essentially contextual. However, while human brands are both
contextual and reflexive, they typically remain stable, with an essential or core truth about a given celebrity’s
personality underpinning the many layers of perceived identity.
Moreover, as celebrities are generally believed to possess tangible cultural value, both through their
work and their presence as an exceptional being in society, their work is also interpreted as being
representations of their identity.1091 As is such, celebrities are not mere representations of themselves, they are,
instead personae with an elevated significance, both culturally and socially, in the world.1092 They are our heroes
and our villains; the objects of our affection and the stuff of our nightmares; they are somehow more than
human, and somehow less than gods. By rendering themselves so omnipresent, while so untouchable at the
same time, celebrities harness the power of human brands to translate words and images into relationships that
deeply link consumer to brand, whether they be micro-celebrities, macro-celebrities, news celebrities, or insta-
celebrities.1093
3.5.6 Celebrity Branding on Instagram
“Reputations can be built, attacked, and destroyed on social media. It's a huge game-changer - instantaneously emboldening
adversaries and shortening the
ride for any corporate or personal brand.”
- Judy Smith1094
As the preeminent platform on which celebrity branding occurs today, Instagram has become a mecca for
celebrities looking to refine their brand image, strengthen relationships with fans, and open channels of
communication. Indeed, Instagram has become so popular for celebrities that three-quarters of top 100 profiles
on the platform are owned by celebrity users.1095 Typically, on a celebrity account, images from both public and
private life are shared, ranging from self-promotion to the vagrities of everyday life. One is just as likely to see
an Insta-celebrity such as Cristiano Ronaldo singing along to a song in his car as to receive information about
his upcoming match,1096 for example. As is such, Instagram can be argued to be conduit through which to catch
a not-so-fleeting glimpse of a celebrity’s lived experience, which has been shown to be instrumental in the
construction of strong attachments between human brands and consumers.1097 In today’s dynamic social media
1091
Ibidem.
1092
Ibidem.
1093
Ibidem.
1094
Judy Smith Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 31, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/judy_smith_823192
Chicago Style Citation
1095
Albergotti, R. (2014), Still growing inside Facebook, Instagram hits 300 million users. Wall Street Journal Digits Tech News and Analysis.
available at: http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2014/12/10/still-growing-inside-facebook-instagram-hits- 300-million-users/, accessed May 2019
1096
Cristiano Ronaldo Instagram Account https://www.instagram.com/cristiano/?hl=en
1097
Victorzon (2014), Artist consumption in social media, original title in Swedish, Artistkonsumtion på sociala medier. Helsinki: Hanken School of
Economics
145
landscape, celebrity branding on the platform is an obvious trend, not just as endorsers,1098 but as brands in their
own right as an extension of personal image.1099
As regards celebrity influence of Instagram, whereas upwards of 70% of millennial consumers report
being influenced by their peers in consumption decisions, and 30% of those surveyed stated that they would be
likely to buy a product recommended by a non-celebrity influencer, only 4.5% of respondents said they would
be swayed by a celebrity endorsement in a digital context.1100 As is such, especially in youth demographics,
celebrities hold little influence over the purchase decisions of the majority of consumers. Moreover, a mere 3%
of consumers claim to be influenced by celebrity endorsements in such scenarios.1101 As addressed in the
preceding section, influencers hold much greater influence in social media environments than celebrities, as
traditionally understood. Rather, celebrities’ presence on social media should be understood as activity in
human brand creation and recreation, as opposed to a commercial endeavor in a conventional brand-endorser
model.
Conclusion
In the complex digital environment of Web 2.0, wherein social media platforms have flourished and new,
influential stars have been introduced to the celebrity firmament, a wholly new conception of what constitutes a
brand has emerged. To trace the roots of this phenomenon, one needs look no further than social media, which
has proven a fertile ground for the development of human brands, either those embodied by celebrities as
traditionally understood or by influencers - the new crop of contemporary culture and society’s opinion leaders.
Through careful analysis of the fundamental differences in personality, engagement, interaction, and influence
above all else, a classification system reveals itself by which to separate those special few with the power to
influence and the influenced. Celebrities, as the embodiment of human brands, and their influencer counterparts
native to platforms such as Instagram, are the focus of Chapter Four, in which the differences between these
rarified users and the bulk of average users as further dissected in reference to the mechanisms of narratives, in
the form of both visual and verbal storytelling.
1098
Business Research
1099
Kowalczyk, C.,Royne, M. (2013), The Moderating Role of Celebrity Worship on Attitudes Toward Celebrity Brand Extensions. Journal of
Marketing Theory and Practice 2, p. 211-220.
1100
Collective Bias, Peers Have Influence Over Consumers, Celebrities Don't, last seen 15th may 2019
https://www.collectivebias.com/blog/blog-2016-03-non-celebrity-influencers-drive-store-purchases
1101
Ibidem.
146
Chapter Four
Celebrity Branding Content Strategies on Instagram
“For me it was always about sharing my life with people and seeing their reaction to it.
That was everything I ever wanted to do.”
- Chiara Ferragni,
Founder of The Blonde Salad and the Chiara Ferragni Collection
4.1 Introduction to Celebrity Branding Content Strategies on Instagram

The cases presented in this chapter represent the means by which storytelling is employed by brands, including
human brands, on social media platforms, specifically focussing on Instagram as a communications channel. In
addition, through storytelling, such as is currently seen on Instagram, human brands intend to not only entertain
their audiences, but seek recognition for their unique traits and in their efforts to convey finely-tuned messages
about the individual and his or her experiences, image, values, and, identity. In turn, the stories which are told
on such platforms serve as indices through which the public can better understand the expectations of the
society in which they live and, thus, learn to better adapt to the society in which they belong through the
examples set by opinion leaders in a given community.1102 Therefore, it is argued that such narration is an
essential conduit through which to make sense of contemporary culture and a society.1103
Of the brands analysed in this chapter, there exists a singular aspect held in common which ties them
together, though, superficially, they seem to represent very different permutations of celebrity on Instagram. To
this effect, the celebrity case studies selected as the focus of Chapter Four demonstrate how fame is leveraged
on social media in service of the creation of human brands. While seemingly unrelated to one another, it is
posited in Chapter Four that Chiara Ferragni and Cristiano Ronaldo are representative of human brands
constructed through their respective social media presences, which has resulted in the identification of their
individual identities with a distinctive, personal brand which is seen by the public to be representative of their
real essence. Therefore, it may been said that a brand is born as a result of the fame and subsequent influence of
an individual with whom it is associated through the transmission and ensuing consolidation of human brand
identity by means of a communication strategy focussed on personal storytelling.
1102
Fontana A. (2016), Storytelling d’impresa: la guida definitiva, Hoepli Editore, Milano, p.59.
1103
Ibidem.
147
4.1.1 Self-Storytelling, Brand Storytelling
“Visual storytelling utilizes both language and art to pass on the essence of who we are.”
- Debbie Millman1104
Within the contemporary content continuum, in which an incessant flow of content and information flows from
user to user on multifarious digital platforms, brands whose identity are grounded in celebrity identity and
image, notably Chiara Ferragni Collection and The Ferragnez for Chiara Ferragni and CR7 for Cristiano
Ronaldo, are examined. Furthermore, it is these factors, it is argued, which has lead to the enormous commercial
success of such brands which serve as the unifying principle for this chapter. Indeed, through close examination
of such brands emerge a common thread which unites these figures: a strong communication strategy rooted in
the telling of stories, at the heart of which is the practice of brandtelling, or the telling of a story of a person who
is both an individual and a brand. These stories, which interweave self, experience, product, and identify contain
within them their own distinctive cultural value and, as will be argued, are essential in the era of Web 2.0
marketing. Storytelling, thus, is an indispensable skill that is to be considered necessary for those who want to
both listen and be heard.1105 Moreover, beyond the innate human desire to speak and be heard, as will be
demonstrated, the communication which is engaged in by influencers and celebrities alike on social media has a
significant effect on the purchase intention, reputation, and brand awareness of audiences, while, at the same
time, serves to expand the community of fans and followers of those who tell stories online.
In the modern era, where the use of digital marketing tools is inevitable and essential to achieve positive
sales results, it is not possible to ignore the need of consumers to have more authentic and direct contact with
brands. In other words, marketing based on static or constructed images, such as those on which traditional
advertising is based, has become an inadequate tool. Rather, what is most appreciated by consumers in
contemporary society is a narrative of authentic experiences, taken from moments of everyday life. To narrative
these stories, brands and their representatives, have made significant use of influencers and celebrities on
Instagram, and by leveraging their fame on the platform, have increased the relevance of the products
associated with them. The visual content sharing platform, it is further argued, allows its users to share a
glimpse of one’s lived experience, those moments which form the stuff of life, all while never forgetting that the
purpose of such communication is to spread a story which is credible in the eyes of one’s audience. Inasmuch,
storytelling on Instagram is understood to be a mechanism through which understanding is generated and
interaction is instigated, involving the storyteller and storylisteners alike in the shaping of a narrative.1106
1104
Debbie Millman Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com, Retrieved May 27, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/debbie_millman_915813
1105
Fontana A. (2018), Storie che incantano. Il lato narrativo dei brand, Macerata, ROI Edizioni.
1106
148
In addition to the creation of human brands through storytelling, another element which unites the
brands examined is the endorser role undertaken by Ferragni and Ronaldo prior to the creation and sale of
branded products by said parties. Indeed, as was addressed more thoroughly in Chapter Three, the role of
celebrity endorser and that of a human brand, while they may be superficially similar, are distinct. Moreover,
the stories that are told in service of both activities differ substantially, as they do to other forms of narrative; a
difference which centres round the need: to demonstrate the distinctive personality of a brand; to engage with
audiences; to involve and emotionally connect with consumers; and to arouse strong feelings, such as fear,
happiness, surprise, and wonder, all whilst leveraging the values and ideals shared by its stakeholders. As is
such, it is necessary for brands to tell stories with which their audiences may empathise, absorbing the values
entailed within the narrative, all while experiencing the same sensations and emotions of the storyteller, leaving
the story transformed by the act of narration.1107
In current consumption contexts, branding and marketing alike have been unilaterally shaped by the
unavoidable influence of the storytelling economy, in which the goal is not just to sell a product, but to weave a
story through the strategic usage of content designed to provoke an emotional response in audiences. The aim,
therefore, of storytelling in the service of personal branding is not strictly financial, but the constant increase of
possibilities. Possibilities which enchant, allowing narrative to forge links that lead consumers to believe they
belong within the storyworld, increasing their willingness to invest both time and money in the story and the
storyteller. Through the use of said content, whether it be in the form of text, images, videos, stories, branding
activities are built and shared, and through which services, products and brands are proposed1108 resulting in
greater emotional empathy, a stronger sense of belonging, and, ideally, feeling of love between consumers and
the consumed.
4.2 Case One: From Influencer to CEO: Chiara Ferragni and the Chiara Ferragni Collection
“Personality, for me, is the strongest statement.”
-
Over the course of the last decade, Chiara Ferragni has shown herself to be more than her barbie-like persona
belies1110 by transforming herself from a young law student cum fashion blogger in Milan into one of the most
powerful opinion leaders in contemporary fashion and luxury sectors.1111 Indeed, her trajectory from hobby
1107
Vignali, D. (2019, gennaio 13). Storytelling aziendale: cos’è e come può migliorare l’immagine del tuo brand.
https://www.dariovignali.net/storytelling-aziendale-cose-e-come-puo-migliorare-limmagine-del-tuo-brand/
1108
Fontana A. (2018), Storie che incantano. Il lato narrativo dei brand, Macerata, ROI Edizioni.
1109
1110
Financial Times(2019),Financial Times,Chiara Ferragni — the Italian influencer who built a global brand, last seen 20 may 2019
https://www.ft.com/content/9adce87c-2879-11e9-a5ab-ff8ef2b976c7
1111
Ibidem.
149
blogger to being named one of the top 500 most influential figures in fashion by the Business of Fashion1112 can
hardly be defined as commonplace, and is, rather, quite exceptional within the context of fashion blogging. As a
digital entrepreneur and influencer by practise and nomenclature, Ferragni is representative of the strength of
personal branding and the power which is wielded by the best amongst the crop of modern fashion and lifestyle
influencers on Instagram.1113 As is noted by the researchers behind Harvard Business School’s study of
Ferragni, she has succeeded in creating a shoppable experience of narrative,1114 through which she has
differentiated herself from her competitors, securing her position as a leader in the field.1115
This position of influence on a global scale is not due simply to the size of her legions of followers,
though it is vast by anyone’s reckoning, but by Ferragni’s ability to generate awareness and notoriety1116
through the act of storytelling. To her 16.5 million followers at present count1117 - or roughly the equivalent of
the population of the Netherlands1118 - Ferragni, the daughter of a novelist,1119 can be seen to a storyteller par
excellence who has enraptured her followers by offering more than just a glimpse into her life, from the
everyday to the exceptional. Inasmuch, she may be understood to be an embodiment of the phenomenon of
affirmation in influencer marketing,1120 which has its roots in the identification of individuals who have
influence on potential buyers. By shedding the elitist airs of the established fashion media and speaking directly
to her audiences in the form of on-going narratives about her life as a businesswoman, mother, and wife,
Ferragni has amassed millions of followers for her narrative, portioned out in an average of six posts a day.1121
4.2.1 The Blonde Salad: A History of Influence
“Some loved me, some hated me - but they all followed me.”
It has been 10 years since Ferragni begun writing her fashion blog, The Blonde Salad, whilst studying
international law at Milan’s Bocconi University,1123 and in the interim the once-anonymous Italian blogger has
been propelled to global stardom. The story of her ascent to being one of Forbes 30 most powerful people in the
1112
https://www.businessoffashion.com/community/bof500/2018
1113
Ibidem.
1114
Keinan A., Maslauskaite K., Crener S., Dessain Vincent (2015), The Blonde Salad, Harvard Business School. https://thehighville.com/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2016/03/Caso-The-Blonde-Salad.pdf
1115
Ibidem.
1116
Launchmetrics (2019),The State of Influencer Marketing: the Annual Report, available on Launchmetrics.com
1117
Chiara Ferragni Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/chiaraferragni/?hl=en
1118
Demography of the Netherlands, last seen 24 May 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography_of_the_Netherlands
1119
The Blonde Salad Blog, Everything You need to know about the Blonde Salad New Talents,last seen 20 may 2019,
https://www.theblondesalad.com/en-EG/all-mag/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-blonde-salad-new-talents
1120
Eshuis, J., Klijn, E. & Braun, E. (2014). Marketing territorial et participation citoyenne : le branding, un moyen de faire face à la dimension
émotionnelle de l'élaboration des politiques ?. Revue Internationale des Sciences Administratives, vol. 80(1), pp. 153-174.
1121
Chiara Ferragni Instagram Account:https://www.instagram.com/chiaraferragni/?hl=en
1122
1123
150
world under 30,1124 began as a 22-year-old student, posting photos of her outfits on the pioneering visual
content site, Flickr.1125 It is from this first foray onto the Internet, which took the form of a photo diary of her
daily life, that the origins of the Chiara Ferragni brand are to be found.1126 Delving into the prehistory of the
Internet, to the dawn of social media, reveals of treasure trove of Ferragni's early attempts at content creation.
Even in the early days of Flickr, Ferragni’s images, which show her dressed in a combination of high and low
end fashions - Chanel handbags and Zara pants, Gucci accessories and H&M shirts, for instance - offer insight
into how she has established herself as a force to be reckoned with in the world of International fashion.
At that time, Ferragni, who was engaged to Riccardo Pozzoli, a finance student at Bocconi, first began to
formulate her entry into the American market.1127 Indeed, it was Pozzoli who first suggested to Ferragni that she
ought to bring her incipient blog to social media and on a Sunday morning in 2009, in the midst of a Skype call,
the two decided to start The Blonde Salad,1128 intending it to be a hodge-podge of fashion, photography, travel
and lifestyle, in the form of a visually compelling fashion blog.1129 With a 510 euros investment from Pozzoli -
10 euros for the domain name and the other 500 for a camera - the blog was launched on 12 October 2009.1130
Within a month, it had gained an average of 30,000 daily visitors.1131
The humble beginnings of Ferragni’s self-styled blog, its name a tongue in cheek reference to the
countless dumb blonde jokes associated with public figures such as herself,1132 in which she posed for
amateurish photo in smudged make-up and high-street fashions,1133 were soon met with acceptance by Milan’s
fashion world. As little as three months after The Blonde Salad went live, Ferragni began to receive invitations
industry events, such as Milan Fashion week. After which her presence in the international fashion world has
steadily grown, resulting in the eventual creation of a business that generates upwards of €10 million a year at
present, establishing Ferragni as one of the highest paid influencers on the Instagram today.1134 However, at its
inception, Ferragni’s first company, TBS Crew S.r.l., which was founded in Cremona in March 2011, was not
her sole endeavour. She, along with Pozzoli, founded the first iteration of The Blonde Salad, dividing ownership
nearly evenly, with Ferragni owing 55%, and Pozzoli 45%; the former representing the creative talent, and the
1124
Forbes, (2015), “30 under 30 aho are moving the world 2015.” http://www.forbes.com/sites/carolinehoward/2015/01/05/30- under-30-who-are-
moving-the-world-2015/
1125
1126
Ibidem.
1127
Ibidem
1128
Ibidem
1129
1130
Ibidem
1131
Ibidem
1132
1133
Garnsworthy J. (2015), How Things Change: 14 Major Fashion Bloggers’ First-Ever Instagram Photos, last seen 24 May
2019, https://stylecaster.com/fashion-bloggers-first-instagram/
1134
Waterhouse J. (2018),The 6 Highest Paid Fashion Bloggers on the Internet, last seen 22 May 2019,
https://www.harpersbazaar.com.au/fashion/highest-paid-fashion-bloggers-17513
151
latter representing the business end of the operation.1135 However, this state of affairs would not last for long,
and in 2013, a mere two years after founding the company, the two-person team expanded, hiring new
employees and moving from their makeshift office to their home in Milan.1136
It was at this point at which Ferragni first expressed a desire to become a celebrity, and set her designs
on the creation of a collection of branded shoes and bags.1137 While previous attempts at manufacturing a
product to be sold alongside her blog posts had been meet with failure, in 2013, the Chiara Ferragni Collection
was reborn with Ferragni as creative director, and flanked by a trio of young designers, touting the merits of
their all-Italian offerings.1138
However, despite the burgeoning success of Ferragni’s first collection, 2013 also marked the decline of
The Blonde Salad as audiences began their migration of social media platforms, such as Instagram, which
gained widespread popularity in the first half of this decade.1139 With the popularity of her blog falling quickly,
Ferragni made the move to the platform, which she had joined the year prior. Her first post on the platform in
January 2012, featuring a selfie of the blonde blogger and her dog,1140 was rapidly followed by ever more
sophisticated content resulting in the current state of affairs in which, after accumulating nearly 20,000 posts,
Ferragni is one of the most well-known and highest paid figures of the platform.1141 2013 also marks the year in
which she moved to Los Angeles in 2013, stating that the Milan stage had become “too small.”1142 Just as the
she had sought differentiate herself by dying her naturally reddish-brown hair blonde, she too sought to separate
herself from the pack of fellow fashion bloggers by internationalising herself, learning English and relocating to
America in an attempt to give herself an advantage over her more parochial competitors.1143
It was not long after that Forbes named her in its “30 under 30” list of influential figures in the world of
business in 2015.1144 As a further sign of her acceptance as a mainstream figure in the corporate world, she was
used by the Harvard Business School as a case-study on how the dual streams of a blog and a personal brand as
a business may be monetised,1145 a notion which had significantly lower traction in 2015 as compared to the
state of marketing today. Following in the wake of mainstream recognition by the international media, Ferragni
returned in Milan in 2016 triumphant as the world’s most followed fashion blogger and lucrative endorsement
1135
Ibidem.
1136
Ibidem
1137
Ibidem.
1138
Ibidem.
1139
Ibidem.
1140
Chiara Ferragni’s post with Matilde last seen 30 May 2019, https://www.instagram.com/p/htKZ8/
1141
1142
1143
Ibidem.
1144
1145
Keinan A., Maslauskaite K., Crener S., Dessain Vincent (2015), The Blonde Salad, Harvard Business School.
152
deals with some of the most important names in fashion.1146
4.2.2 The Ascent of Chiara Ferragni as a Global Celebrity
“Be patient - if something is supposed to happen, it's going to happen.

Whenever I've tried to force things, they didn't go right.”
As Ferragni’s popularity grew in this period, so too did the need to form a team to manage the Chiara Ferragni
brand. As former business partner Pozzoli notes, “Very quickly Chiara emerged as an international celebrity and
brands were willing to pay her for her presence.”1148 Capitalising on her new-found fame, Pozzoli and Ferragni
took the decision in 2013 to from a team exclusively devoted to managing her her celebrity and recruited an
accountant, a public relations professional, and a project manager responsible for booking events, fashion
shoots, interviews, and publicity.1149 The team, which initially worked out of Ferragni and Pozzoli’s Milan
home, dedicated themselves to shaping the public’s perception of Chiara Ferragni as a brand, while the face of
the eponymous brand spent 90% of her time travelling in Asia, South America, the US, and Europe building her
credibility as a globally recognised public figure.1150 As Ferragni notes of this early period in her celebrity, “I
would wake up at 6AM, get my makeup and hairstyle done, give an interview, shoot an editorial, go to an event,
then go have a dinner with some designer, and get to bed way past midnight. It is an image kind of job.”1151
Pozzoli, conversely, as the team’s business manager remained in Milan managing the growing team at The
Blonde Salad, concerning himself with the daily business-related decisions related to the brand.1152
By early 2014, a year after Ferragni first left for America, she had already begun commanding fees
ranging from $30,000 to $50,000 USD for her participation in fashion industry events, such was the power of
her celebrity at that point.1153 She was, at that point already,
the most popular blogger globally in terms of her daily followers and no other blogger in the world has
the same geographic spread of audience. That aside, she has also become a real star in the fashion
1146
1147
1148
Financial Times(2019), Financial Times,Chiara Ferragni — the Italian influencer who built a global brand, last seen 20 may 2019
1149
Ibidem.
1150
Ibidem.
1151
Ibidem.
1152
Ibidem.
1153
Ibidem.
153
press. If you buy 20 fashion magazines today, half of them will feature news on Chiara. Nobody else,
except for several top models, has got such coverage.1154
Indeed, in the first quarter of 2015, before being named as one of Forbes most powerful figures, Ferragni had
already been featured on the cover of international issues of leading fashion and women’s interest magazines,
such as Grazia, Vogue, Lucky, Instyle, and Marie Claire.1155 This jump in visibility, placing Ferragni amongst
the ranks of international celebrity, was a turning point in her career. Shedding the constraints of her online
fashion blogger status, Ferragni transformed herself in this period into a mainstream figure with recognisable
star power, as it were. Though Ferragni sees things differently, “I still don’t call myself a celebrity. It’s such a
different profession and such a different job than just being a blogger,” Ferragni has stated “But I would like to
do even more work as a celebrity in the future. It allows me to live fully my passions for travel, lifestyle, and
fashion altogether.”1156
This assessment of her celebrity is echoed by Sabina Belli, chief executive of jewellery brand Pomellato
which has collaborated with Ferragni in the past, who has stated that “Chiara speaks directly to the digital
generation,”1157 allowing her to find a common language through storytelling which has connected her will
millions of followers round the world.1158 It is this ability to reach her audience which has lead to her ascent
within the world of fashion’s elite; however, not everyone within the industry is so complimentary, with
criticism ranging from “I doubt she has real substance,” to “I don’t think anyone sees her as cool. She is
mainstream. For a brand that is not just trying to sell handbags she is not the right kind of person.”1159 As will be
elaborated in the proceeding section, despite naysayers, today Ferragni, following her recent marriage to Italian
rapper Fedez, is a superbrand in her own right.
4.2.3 The Chiara Ferragni Brand Today
“Going to meet Chiara Ferragni, social media meteorite, is like going to see
the queen of a small realm. In fact, not so small a realm.”1160
Chiara Ferragni, as previously discussed, has risen from the rank of anonymous fashion blogger to “social
media meteorite” in the decade following her first blog, The Blonde Salad, and with her recent marriage, the
scope of her influence has only seemed to grow ever larger. Indeed, it was her three day nuptial celebration to
the Italian rapper, which “generated a total audience-driven Media Impact Value of $36 million across online
1154
1155
Ibidem.
1156
Ibidem.
1157
Ibidem.
1158
Ibidem
1159
Ibidem.
1160
154
and social, and sparked over 67 million interactions (a.k.a engagement). #TheFerragnez generated over $8
1161
million in MIVTM for brands” which has tipped the scales in the direction of international stardom.
Together the celebrity couple, and their combined 25 million followers, have the ears of a population equivalent
to the size of Australia - a vast platform by anyone’s standards.1162 Of Ferragni’s 16 million followers,1163 three-
quarters of which are located in Europe, primarily Italy where Ferragni has centred her operations since 2016,
followed by France, Russia, and, finally, Spain, concentrating her global influence in the European market.1164
An additional 15% of her followers can be found in Asia, and the remaining 10% constitute her American
followers.1165 However, when Ferragni’s number of followers is analysed in terms of quality follows, that
number drops to roughly 11.6 million potentially real fans, based on quality engagement, which totalled 244,491
comments and posts as of March 2019.1166 This ranks Ferragni as one of the most well-known figures in the
world of fashion on Instagram, and, indeed, by some estimates she is within the top 30 most highly paid figures
on the platform, commanding nearly 20 thousand USD per post.1167
In addition to her revenue from online endorsement deals with brands such as Lancôme, Dior, and
Intimissimi, Chiara Ferragni as a brand, which generates upwards of 8 million USD annually,1168 financial
strength primarily originates from her fashion line, Chiara Ferragni Collection.1169 The line, which is focussed
on clothing and accessories, was launched in 2010, with flagship stores in Milan, Paris, and Shanghai, pop-up
stores in major department stores worldwide, and a dedicated online site to manage the digital flow of shoppers.
Of the reported €30 million euros in combined revenues stemming from her modelling and endorsement deals
combined with her retail site, the single largest revenue stream flows from The Chiara Ferragni Collection.1170
The collection, which is sold in more than than 300 stores worldwide today is comprised of footwear,
backpacks, bomber jackets, sweatshirts and T-shirts, among other items, the vast majority of which are
embellished with either the bloggers signature winking eye logo or her initials.1171 In addition to the strength of
the brand in already established locations, as was first reported in 2017, this year Ferragni, in a deal with Riqing
Group, has set her sights on fast-tracking growth in China, where 14 flagships will be opened by year end, with
1161
1162
Ibidem.
1163
Statista Portal, Key figures of influencer Chiara Ferragni's presence on Instagram as of April 2019*, Last seen 20 may 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/910708/key-figures-of-chiara-ferragni-s-presence-on-instagram/
1164
1165
Ibidem.
1166
Statista Portal, Key figures of influencer Chiara Ferragni's presence on Instagram as of April 2019*, Last seen 20 may 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/910708/key-figures-of-chiara-ferragni-s-presence-on-instagram/
1167
Hopper (2018),Instagram Rich List, last seen 26 May 2019, https://www.hopperhq.com/blog/instagram-rich-list/
1168
1169
Legend, (2017)Chiara Ferragni is now CEO and president of The Blonde Salad
https://hashtaglegend.com/post/chiara-ferragni-ceo-and-president-blonde-salad
1170
1171
155
an additional 35 other brick-and-mortar locations to follow in the near future.1172 This comes on the heels of
numerous pop-ups and collaborations with key retailers including Level Shoes in Dubai, LuisaViaRoma in
Florence, IT Hong Kong, Le Bon Marché in Paris, Saks Fifth Avenue in New York and others.1173
Figure 31. Instagram Progress Graph for Chiara Ferragni Collection - Blade.com (2019)
1172
Abel K. (2017),Chiara Ferragni Collection inked a deal with Riqing Group to fast track growth in China and they plan to open 35 stores there in
the next few years, last seen 26 May 2019,
https://wwd.com/business-news/retail/the-blonde-salads-chiara-ferragni-sets-retail-expansion-10998922/
1173
Ibidem.
156
4.2.4 The Chiara Ferragni Collection
“I've never done fashion school or anything like that. But I have good instincts.”
Initially, Ferragni, who is well-known for her extensive collection of designer accessories,1175 had toyed with
the concept of creating a limited capsule collection that would become a brand of her own.1176 As Ferragni
remarked, “I have always been fascinated by the bag and the shoe world more than any other accessories, but I
also thought that it might be perfectly fine to have one or two bags in one's wardrobe as they are more universal
– and I felt that I would always prefer an iconic Chanel or Hermès bag to my own!”1177 As the businesswoman
notes, she believed she would have more opportunities by focussing on shoes alone, she explains: “I love so
many different shoe designers and shoe styles. Sometimes I go to a vintage market and I buy vintage shoes, and
I love them more than any other designer shoes. And shoes change so much: you have party shoes, daily shoes,
work shoes, holiday shoes... everybody buys new shoes once in a while.”1178 This initial foray into the world of
shoe design was met with failure, however, due to poor choice in manufacturer.1179 Ferragni and her business
partner at the time, Pozzoli, had been approached by an Italian footwear producer in early 2011 to begin her
eponymous collection, however the pair soon realised that the manufacturer was unable to fabricate her designs,
this, in addition to distribution and quality issues, would lead to the faltering of the brand shortly after its launch
in 2013.1180
With the licensing agreement with their manufacturer about to expire in the same year, Ferragni and
Pozzoli regrouped and took the decision to concentrate the bulk of their efforts on the construction of a strong
brand of their own, backed by a legitimate business.1181 To this aim, Pozzoli sought out the angel investor, Paolo
Barletta, who then provided the initial €500,000 needed to overhaul the brand, resulting the spring 2013
relaunch of the Chiara Ferragni Collection, now owned by Ferragni, Pozzoli, Barletta, and sales manager
Lorenzo Barindelli.1182 Under the terms of the newly developed licensing agreement, the Chiara Ferragni
Collection received 10% of revenue in royalties, rendering the agreement a hybrid royalty scheme, with control
over design secured in the hands of Ferragni’s team in exchange for the majority of profits being directed back
into the Italian manufacturer’s coffers.1183 By year end, the collection had generated €500,000 revenue in a
1174
1175
Who What Wear (2018) Chiara Ferragni’s Handbag Closet. Accessed 30 May 2019, https://www.whowhatwear.co.uk/chiara-ferragni-handbag-
closet
1176
1177
Ibidem.
1178
Ibidem.
1179
Ibidem.
1180
1181
Ibidem.
1182
Ibidem
1183
Ibidem
157
mere five months - a figure which would grow exponentially in the coming years.1184 Indeed, by 2014, one year
after the reformulated brand was launched, profits reached €4 million euros annually, with a little under
€200,000 euros generated from the online site in sales within the first six months.1185
The growth which the Chiara Ferragni Collection experienced in 2013/2014, notably, coincides with the
decline of The Blonde Salad blog, as previously elaborated. Facing the migration of her followers en masse to
social media networks, in particular Instagram, 2013 became a “turning point”1186 for the brand, as notes
Pozzoli. In response to falling numbers on the blog, Ferragni began to link her Instagram account with content
posted on The Blonde Salad site, and despite shuffling her audience from her blog to Instagram profile, the
platform has had an overwhelmingly positive impact on the overall strength of Ferragni’s business.1187 In
reference to the visual content sharing platform, Ferragni has said,
an Instagram profile is something that everybody has now. Individuals have it, companies have it,
celebrities have it, and people can easily see the difference in numbers: Kim Kardashian has 139 million
followers, and their neighbor has 200 followers. People who have never even heard of me can now type
my name on Instagram and check that I have 3 million followers, and instantly they assume that I must
be someone famous. Companies understand the value of that.1188
Capitalising on her fame on the platform, Ferragni has worked steadily to build her brand, while at the same
time, attempting to dissociate it from her celebrity, so that the brand will continue to function not just on the
basis of her starpower, but on the merits of the product, distribution network, collaboration with designers, and
advertising.1189
One such example of collaboration with well-established designer includes Ferragni’s recently
announced branded line with Lancôme.1190 The capsule collection, which features lipsticks, eyeshadow,
mascara, and a palette bearing Ferragni’s signature eye logo, was released in May 2019 and marks her transition
into the beauty market.1191 In her previous brand collaborations the blogger has exclusively partnered with
brands in the apparel and accessories industry, such as Converse,1192 Levi’s,1193 and Disney.1194 This newest
collaboration with the French beauty giant, Ferragni states is evidence of her continued dialogue with an ever
1184
Ibidem
1185
Ibidem
1186
Ibidem
1187
Ibidem
1188
1189
Ibidem.
1190
Ignazzi C. (2019),Chiara Ferragni lancia una linea make up per Lancôme, ma è polemica sul prezzo, last seen 30 May 2019,
https://www.ilmessaggero.it/moda/news/chiara_ferragni_lancome_beauty_ultime_notizie-4519441.html
1191
Ibidem.
1192
Cipolla G.C. (2018),Chiara Ferragni e Converse insieme per una capsule collection “brillante", last seen 30 May 2019
https://www.ilmattino.it/moda/stilisti/chiara_ferragni_converse_insieme_capsule_collection_brillante-4094121.html
1193
Collezioni, Levis , Chiara Ferragni Capsule Collection, last seen 30 May 2019, https://www.collezioni.info/en/levis-chiara-ferragni-capsule-
collection/
1194
Waller W.(2018),Exclusive, Chiara Ferragni to Partner With Shop Disney on Capsule Shoe Collection, last seen 28 May
2019,https://wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-scoops/exclusive-chiara-ferragni-partner-with-shopdisney-on-capsule-collection-of-shoes-1202642651/
158
growing pool of consumers, in which she hopes to foster values of empowerment, achievement, and
independence, as is shown in the following quote: “We worked on a product and communication that is
relevant for the girls of my generation. Flirty, inspiring and fun are the three key words of this empowering
project. I deeply believe that makeup is a huge weapon to feel better with yourself, to face your everyday
challenges and to achieve your goals [fiercely].”1195 The launch of her branded collaborated with the French
cosmetics firm has been widely promoted in posts on Instagram, as well as on IG Stories and IG TV, reaching
upwards of 17.6 thousand users in less than a week.In turn, the capsule collection further reinforces Ferragni’s
brand values and identity, tying her entry to the beauty industry to her preexisting human brand and fashion
brand, The Chiara Ferragni collection, further solidifying her already strong position in the field. To this effect,
according to the MIV, the collection founded by the Italian digital entrepreneur, positioned third for research
volume, dominated the first quarter of 2019 with a MIV of $ 10.9M, made for 94.8% on social media thanks to
the support of the different brand account.1196
To better contextualise Ferragni’s latest success, we turn to a key figures representation of the financial
health of The Chiara Ferragni Collection.
Figure 35. Serendipity S.r.l - Serendipity (2017)
The 2017 financial statements of Serendipity Srl, which owns the Chiara Ferragni Collection, produced a net
profit of € 272,965. Revenues from sales and services amounted to € 1,685,286 in 2017 as compared to the
1195
Salibian S. (2019),Chiara Ferragni Partners With Lancôme for Makeup Capsule Collection, The range launched exclusively on Douglas.it., last
seen 30 May 2019, https://wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-scoops/chiara-ferragni-lancome-beauty-capsule-collection-1203140696/
1196
159
previous year which was € 1,443,774, so it is possible to state that there was a substantial increase in revenue,
as is shown in the graph below :
Figure 36. Income From Sales, Chiara Ferragni Collection - (2017)
The revenue recorded in financial statements, on a basis basis of returns, on vouchers, discounts and premiums,
as well as taxes directly related to them, are calculated below. Revenue deriving from the provision of services
are recorded when the service is rendered. In the particular case of continuous services, the relative revenues are
recorded for the amount accrued.
160
Figure 37. Total Production Value of Serendipity Co. Ltd. - (2017)
To better understand the success of the Chiara Ferragni Collection, a SWOT analysis is presented in the figure
below:
Figure 38. SWOT Analysis of Chiara Ferragni and the Chiara Ferragni Collection - Personal Elaboration
of the Author (2019)
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
- Strong social media follower -Low brand awareness
base -Lack of product diversity
-Popularity of founder, Chiara -Weak brand credibility
Ferragni -Few retail channels
-Unique and original designs
- Collaboration with
established designers
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
-Increasing demand for -Too many emerging fashion
customization brands
-Brand Identity intensification -Decrease in Chiara Ferragni’s
-Increased budget and popularity
resources to take the brand to -Moderation of blogger’s
the next level importance and influence in the
-Importance of bloggers’ fashion world
opinions as brand validators
161
Today, Chiara Ferragni Collection is one the most searched for new Italian brands online, bested only by Palm
Angels and GCDS in terms of search queries performed in 2018;1197 however, when accounting for “buzz,” that
ill-defined something special which keeps people talking, of the three, it is the Chiara Ferragni Collection which
has generated the most buzz in the first quarter of 2019.1198 This is due in large part to the continued online
presence of Ferragni, as both the spokeswoman and face of the brand on Instagram, who registered a media
impact value of $10.9 million and 94.8% in 2018.1199 Ferragni, the newly named ambassador of the LVMH
Prize, which lends her a much desired credibility in the industry, hopes to continue the trajectory of the brand’s
growth by improving the quality of her designs by hiring outside talent from prominent, streetwear fashion
house, such as the much-hyped Off-White label,1200 which was founded by Louis Vuitton’s artistic director.1201
This reinforcing of the brand’s credibility is an element of Ferragni’s strategy to cede control of the
brand’s image and everyday operations to those within her team. “I am trying to evolve the brand that will go
ahead by itself without my continuous support,” Ferragni states “I want to be more behind the scenes. And that
people will like it because they like the product.”1202 This is in line with the business model of another
millennial-influencer turned businesswoman, who Ferragni is noted to emulate, Emily Weiss, the founder and
chief executive of beauty brand Into the Gloss.1203 It also ties into the model developed by Kim Kardashian
West, in which more and more family members have been incorporated into the Ferragni brand. As previously
noted, Ferragni’s wedding to Italian rapper Fedez which was watched by a global audience of 67 million,1204
and the creation of The Ferrangez brand, marked her introduction to the rarified heights of celebrity on
Instagram. In addition to her husband and son, her younger sisters Valentina, who has 2.4m Instagram
followers, and Francesca, who has a further 728k followers, and her mother Marina, with a respective 380k
followers, have expanded Ferragni’s audience to the size of a nation larger than that of Australia.1205
1197
1198
Salibian S. (2018),Chiara Ferragni Collection Opens Parisian Flagship, After opening in Milan, Shanghai and Chengdu the
influencer/entrepreneur’s namesake label unveils its first outpost in Paris, Last Seen 29 May 2019,
https://wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-scoops/chiara-ferragni-collection-opens-parisian-flagship-1202895761/
1199
Meliado E. (2019),Palm Angels, GCDS e Chiara Ferragni Collection le giovani insegne più “hot” del trimestre
https://it.fashionnetwork.com/news/Palm-Angels-GCDS-e-Chiara-Ferragni-Collection-le-giovani-insegne-piu-hot-del-
trimestre,1089845.html#.XOpTwdMzbMI
1200
1201
Kaitlyn T. (2018),The hottest fashion brand in the world was built on irony and $1,000 sweatshirts, And Rihanna and Kanye and A$AP Rocky,
Last seen 29 May 2019, https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/10/30/18027074/off-white-timeline-history-luxury-streetwear-virgil-abloh
1202
1203
Ibidem.
1204
De Klerk A. (2018),Was Chiara Ferragni's wedding gown more influential than Meghan Markle's?There were 67 million interactions on
Instagram about the Italian nuptials, last seen 28 May 2019,
https://www.harpersbazaar.com/uk/bazaar-brides/a23002827/chiara-ferragnis-wedding-gown-more-influential-than-meghan-markles/
1205
162
4.2.5 Seriality and Narrative: Theories on the Chiara Ferragni Brand
“In a few years, we might not still be into Instagram, but hopefully
I'll be into the next thing and have fun do it.”
Furthermore, Ferragni, and the human brand she embodies, are evidence of the intensity of interest which her
private and public life engenders in her followers. The phenomenon of seriality, an essential mode of cultural
production in contemporary society, in which a narrative is divided into segments that are released to audiences
in a serial can be seen as a foundational mechanism behind Ferragni’s storytelling practices on Instagram.1207
Indeed, the scopophilic spectacle of Ferragni's everyday life which forms the basis of the content on her profile,
combined with the ostentation of her relationship with fellow celebrity Fedez, has triggered many of the same
narrative mechanisms - of seriality, plot and pacing, character development, and intrigue - which are more
commonly associated with television programmes, radio plays, and nineteenth-century novels, than with an
Instagram post.1208 It may even be argued that Ferragni, consciously or not, as she famously claims to post
wholly intuitively without a set communication strategy,1209 draws on many of the same techniques of
serialisation seen in the distribution of novels in chapters in newspaper or magazines of the last century; and
serial format of radio plays and television in the twentieth century in the form of soap operas.1210
By drawing on these techniques, Ferragni leaves her legions of followers waiting in anticipation with
bated breath: every half-told narrative, every time a story is broken into segments on Instagram stories, every
mile stone and much-anticipated event keeps her audience riveted to her own personal story.1211 From adverts
for designers brands to moments of family life shared with the world,1212 the content posted on her profile tells a
story which, in another context, would be understood to form the basis of a novel; from its publication on a
mass communication medium; to the fragmentation of her story into posts; to the repetitiveness of the narrative
schemes she employs; to the loyalty of her enraptured audience; and, finally, to the breadth of her scope of
influence owing to her power to tell authentic, compelling stories.1213
In addition, as her story is not told through analogue photography and film, her narrative may evolve and
take on new permutation by the minute, rendering it something which is no longer constructed by an audience a
1206
1207
Polesana M.A. (2017),Chiara Ferragni: il corpo simulacro,IULM Libera Università di Lingue e Comunicazione di Milano.
1208
Ibidem.
1209
1210
1211
Ibidem.
1212
Chiara Ferragni Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/chiaraferragni/?hl=en
1213
163
posteriori, but as it happens, lending a diachronic and synchronic dimension to her story.1214 Ferragni who is a
master of integrating diachronic and synchronic timelines in her storytelling, is often seen to pause her current
narrative by inserting photos of past events, both recent, such as her multiple repostings of her engagement to
her now husband at a concert in Verona, and distant, such as in family snaps from her childhood.1215 This
interweaving of past and present strands of a single overarching life narrative adds layers of authenticity to her
storytelling by presenting content as both a form of documentary and celebration.1216 Inasmuch, besides the
mechanisms of seriality, Ferragni can be said to make use of the techniques of Baasan brand narration, in
which a brand draws on its history to both attest to its solidity and credibility while also establishing its strength
and effectiveness through the value entailed by its past history.1217 As is such, Ferragni’s presence on Instagram
must be interpreted not just as another influencer posting cute outfit photos, but as the work of a skillful narrator
and businesswoman fully engaged with her audience and responsive to their need for storytelling.
4.3 Case Study Two: A Narrative of Redemption, Cristiano Ronaldo and the CR7 Experience
“Winning - that's the most important to me. It's as simple as that.”
- Cristiano Ronaldo1218
Cristiano Ronaldo, the world’s highest paid football player at present and a global celebrity with a sphere of
influence that reaches far beyond the football pitch, serves as the third case study examined in this thesis. Like
Chiara Ferragni, Ronaldo has distinguished himself within his chosen field and has, as a consequence, found
himself in a position of great influence over the followers he has accrued, both professionally as an athlete and
as a businessman and face of his brand, CR7. However, Ronaldo’s journey to become one of the most
recognisable and widely-known footballers today has been fraught with countless struggles, from a difficult
childhood to struggles both off and on the pitch. As is such, his story is one of redemption and of rebirth, in
which the Portuguese footballer has shifted the dialogue on his career and celebrity, leveraging his fame to
better tell his own story while developing a distinctive brand in the meanwhile.1219 Not content to simply be,
arguably, the greatest living footballer, Ronaldo has reinvented himself in recent years in service of the creation
of his own human brand, marking his entry into the world of digital marketing with the launch of his digital
brand, 7egend in addition to his fashion and fragrance lines under the CR7 brand umbrella.1220 As the most
1214
Ibidem.
1215
Ibidem.
1216
Ibidem.
1217
Ibidem.
1218
Cristiano Ronaldo Quotes:Winning - that's the most important to me. It's as simple as that. Cristiano Ronaldo
Last seen 29 May 2019,https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/cristiano_ronaldo_745006
1219
Rocknread (2019), Storie Che Incantano – Intervista Andrea Fontana
https://www.rocknread.it/storie-che-incantano-intervista-andrea-fontana/
1220
La Repubblica (2015) https://www.repubblica.it/rubriche/la-storia/2015 12/news/129987558/#slider129993132
164
followed athlete in the world, with 120 million followers on Facebook,1221 78 million on Twitter, and an
additional 168 million on Instagram,1222 Ronaldo’s audience is roughly the half of Europe,1223 lending the
footballer the ears a significant portion of the world’s consumers through his activities on social media. In
addition to his digital brand and social media presence, he has also sought to bring his message to television,
truly completing the transmedia trifecta and expanding his audience even further. To better understand how the
Juventus forward and five time champion of the FIFA Ballon d'Or1224 has become such a global powerhouse, we
turn to his history as both an athlete and a celebrity.
4.3.1 Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro: Celebrity, Athlete, and Entrepreneur
“There are people out there who hate me and who say I'm arrogant, vain, and whatever. That's all part of my success. I am
made to be the best.”
Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro, better known as Cristiano Ronaldo, has gained international renown as a
professional footballer and is, undoubtedly, one of the greatest players of all time,1226 with a record five Ballon
d'Or awards,1227 four European Golden Shoes award,1228 six league titles,1229 five UEFA Champions League
titles,1230 and one World Cup win,1231 the prolific goalscorer, holds countless records and has received
innumerable awards for his feats on the pitch. The now 34 year old, who first signed with Manchester United at
age 18 some fifteen years ago,1232 ascent in the field has been meteoric, making him one of the most valuable
and sought after players in the world, as is evidenced by the historic transfer fees and remuneration he has
received throughout his career.1233 Indeed, Ronaldo has consistently ranked amongst the world's highest-paid
1221
Cristiano Ronaldo Facebook Account: https://www.facebook.com/Cristiano/
1222
Cristiano Ronaldo Instagram Account:https://www.instagram.com/cristiano/?hl=en
1223
World Population, last seen 30 May 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population
1224
Trans Market, Cristiano Ronaldo, Last Seen 30 May 2019, https://www.transfermarkt.co.uk/cristiano-ronaldo/erfolge/spieler/8198
1225
Cristiano Ronaldo Quotes. (n.d.). BrainyQuote.com. Retrieved May 27, 2019, from BrainyQuote.com Web site:
https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/cristiano_ronaldo_745016
1226
Knight R. (2018),Pelé has been voted the greatest footballer of all time Brazilian star beats out Diego Maradona, Lionel Messi and Cristiano
Ronaldo to top spot, Last seen 28 May 2019,https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/pele-greatest-footballer-brazil-messi-ronaldo-maradona-
voted-a8371576.html
1227
Top end Sports, Ballon d'Or award, last seen 20 May 2019,
https://www.topendsports.com/sport/soccer/list-player-of-the-year-ballondor.htm
1228
Goal.com,Golden Shoe 2018-19: Messi, Mbappe, Ronaldo & Europe's top scorers
https://www.goal.com/en/lists/golden-shoe-2018-19-messi-mbappe-ronaldo-europes-top-scorers/qlukekp7wi9s1cgl9fc4y2zo4
1229
List of career achievements by Cristiano Ronaldo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_career_achievements_by_Cristiano_Ronaldo#Club
1230
Samedi (2018)Ronaldo first to win five Champions League titles,Cristiano Ronaldo has become the first player to win five UEFA Champions
League finals, Last seen 16 May 2019, https://fr.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/newsid=2475340.html
1231
Kelly R. (2018),Cristiano Ronaldo's history at the World Cup: 2006 debut, 2014 heartache & record-breaking 2018
https://www.goal.com/en/news/cristiano-ronaldos-history-at-the-world-cup-2006-debut-2014/3gago097ess01szjb0ve7nhu9
1232
Manchester Unitided F.C.: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C.
1233
Reed A. (2018),How Cristiano Ronaldo’s Juventus move could start the summer transfer domino effect, last seen 12 May 2019,
https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/11/cristiano-ronaldo-juventus-move-start-of-summer-transfer-season.html
165
athlete by Forbes,1234 in addition to being named the world's most famous athlete by ESPN in 2016, 2017, and
2018.1235
Cristiano Ronaldo’s humble beginnings as a child from a middle class family on the Portuguese island of
Madeira belie the success he has achieved both on and off the football pitch.1236 As addressed above, the
football champion has gained international acclaim through his athletic feats over the last fifteen years,
beginning with his sensation first professional season playing for Manchester United at the age of sixteen.1237
The now 34-year-old celebrity footballer in recent years, however, has caught the attention of consumers for his
personal branding efforts, drawing upon his vast fan base to serve as the foundation for the creation of his CR7
brand. By all accounts, his efforts have been largely successful, with CR7’s assets estimated to amount to 280
million USD1238 and a growing empire of hotels, museums, and restaurants under his belt.
Between record-breaking performances on the pitch and his victories in football’s most important
championships, Ronaldo has become a living legend - an image encouraged by Ronaldo himself whose social
media communications refer to him simply as “The Legend.”1239 The “monster who came to earth from another
planet,"1240 as Ronaldo refers to himself, has built his CR7 brand with the same talent, discipline, dedication,
and strategic insights which have advanced his sporting career, and, just as his career as an athlete has sparked
criticism and idolisation alike,1241 so too has his personal brand attracted both supporters and detractors.
However, despite his remarkable success on the pitch, to consider Ronaldo to be simply a football player
occludes the way in which the Portuguese footballer has capitalised on his celebrity as one of the most well-
known athletes in the world to become a human brand. As both an endorser and a promoter of his own personal
brand, he has earned millions, making him one of the most highly paid and influential star athletes alive today,
taking home a salary of €61 million annually, with a further €47 million coming from endorsements alone.1242
Moreover, the mere association with his name, for instance, to FC Juventus has led to an increase of the
club’s value, making him truly one of the most valuable players today. This effect has also been witnessed in
Ronaldo’s many endorsement deals from which 47% of his revenue stems.1243 Ranging from Nike, for which he
serves as a brand ambassador, to other top brands such as Armani, Samsung, EA Sports, Herbalife, American
1234
Forbes,The World's Highest-Paid Athletes https://www.forbes.com/athletes/#1b21f66855ae
1235
World Fame 100, last seen 15 May 2019http://www.espn.com/espn/feature/story/_/page/WorldFame/espn-world-fame-100-2018
1236
Rollin J.(2019), Cristiano RonaldoPortugese Football Player, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cristiano-Ronaldo
1237
Ibidem.
1238
Milano F. (2018), Ronaldo da sogno estivo a realtà della Juve: quanto vale il marchio CR7, Last seen 15 May 2019,
https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/notizie/2018-07-03/ronaldo-sogno-estivo-juve-quanto-vale-marchio-cr7-165553.shtml?uuid=AEufqNGF
1239
Ronaldo Update Facebook Account:https://www.facebook.com/RonaldoUpdate/
1240
Della Palma A. (2018), Siamo sicuri che Cristiano Ronaldo non sia il più grande di sempre?, Last seen 25 May 2019,
https://www.corrieredellosport.it/news/calcio/champions-league/2018/04/04-
40915041/siamo_sicuri_che_cristiano_ronaldo_non_sia_il_pi_grande_di_sempre_/
1241
Sportsnet, Cristiano Ronaldo surprised by increasing criticism, Last seen 18 May 2019,
https://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/cristiano-ronaldo-surprised-increasing-criticism/
1242
Forbes,The World's Highest-Paid Athletes https://www.forbes.com/athletes/#1b21f66855ae
1243
Ibidem.
166
Tourister, Castrol, KFC, Emirates, and Toyota amongst others, the footballer has proven his business acumen by
securing numerous lucrative endorsement deals in recent years. However, it is Ronaldo's lifetime Nike contract,
which is worth $1 billion USD which has had the greatest impact on his global celebrity.1244 It should come as
little surprise that myriad firms, across a variety of sectors, have sought out Ronaldo to become the face of their
brands as he is most popular athlete in the world with a total 340 million social media followers.1245 In addition
to Ronaldo’s role as an endorser, heis own brand of CR7 branded products, a chain of hotels located in Europe
and North America, and a string of restaurants in Brazil, has further increased the scope of his influence as a
globally recognisable celebrity.
Turning to a close examination of his eponymous brand, CR7, which gained its name from Ronaldo’s
initials plus the number on his first jersey,1246 has comprised the bulk of Ronaldo’s revenue in recent years.
Indeed, the brand is arguably the main source of his financial success and, moreover, serves to differentiate the
footballer from other greats in his field who have foregone the opportunity to fashion personal brands for
themselves. CR7, which is composed of six different commercial lines - Footwear, Underwear, Junior,
Fragrances, Limitless, and Digital-Transformers - has proven itself to be exceptionally successful due in large
part to the distinct marketing strategy present in each, focussing on the creation of social profiles designed to
intercept specific targets and broaden Ronaldo’s already substantial audience.1247
To this effect, the various CR7 brands have largely focussed their communications and marketing
strategy on accruing as many followers as possible on social media. CR7 Footwear, the most successful of
Ronaldo’s self-styled brands, has amassed roughly 250 thousand fans on Facebook1248 and over 1.1 million
followers on Instagram,1249 for instance. These figures have been bolstered by the fact that Ronaldo has
appeared as both a promoter and a model for the brand, in an effort to target consumers who view the player as
being representative of an aspirational lifestyle brand.1250 Ronaldo’s CR7 Underwear line, which is distributed
in Spain, Portugal and, recently, in Italy, has further increased his credibility, not just as an athlete, but as a
brand in his own right.1251 These lines, in combination with CR7 Junior, his children’s clothing line, CR7
Fragrances, which produces perfumes, shower gels, aftershaves, deodorants and gift products, and CR7
1244
Cristiano Ronaldo, 2018 CELEBRITY 100 EARNINGS, last seen 18 May 2019 https://www.forbes.com/profile/cristiano-
ronaldo/#2b751b64565d
1245
Roca A. (2018), Cristiano Ronaldo: The social media king, last seen 18 May 2019
https://www.marca.com/en/football/international-football/2018/10/20/5bca53b7e2704e11378b463d.html
1246
Baptista R. (2018),Brand CR7: Cristiano Ronaldo tra marketing, social e storytelling, Cristiano Ronaldo non è solo un fenomeno calcistico ma
anche social e pubblicitario: un'analisi del brand CR7 tra storytelling e marketing, Last seen 14 May 2019
https://www.insidemarketing.it/brand-cr7-tra-marketing-e-storytelling/ https://www.insidemarketing.it/brand-cr7-tra-marketing-e-storytelling/
1247
La Repubblica (2015) https://www.repubblica.it/rubriche/la-storia/2015
12/news/129987558/#slider12999313222/dal_volo_di_jordan_a_cristiano_ronaldo_quando_il_campione_diventa_logo-gallery-
=https://www.sporteconomy.it/cr7-si-trasforma- in-industry-of-wide-consumption /
1248
CR7 Footwear Facebook Account: https://www.facebook.com/cr7footwear/
1249
CR7 Footwear Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/cr7_footwear/?hl=en
1250
Sports Economy (2017) 22/dal_volo_di_jordan_a_cristiano_ronaldo_quando_il_campione_diventa_logo-gallery-
=https://www.sporteconomy.it/cr7-si-trasforma- in-industry-of-wide-consumption /
1251
Ibidem.
167
Limitless, a denim line, each with their own legions of followers, serve as tangible proof of all the Juventus
champion's initiatives on social media.1252
Figure 39. SWOT Analysis of Cristiano Ronaldo and CR7 - Personal Elaboration of the Author (2019)
STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
-Strong social media follower base -Low brand awareness outside of Southern
-Popularity of founder Europe
-Association with a winning brand -Lack of credibility as a designer
- Relationship with well-established -Ronaldo embroiled in scandal following
brands such as Nike rape allegations
OPPORTUNITIES THREATS
-Increasing demand in some markets, -Emerging competitors in the field

especially Southern Italy -Public relationships missteps
-Brand Identity intensification -Reaching the end of his professional
-Increased visibility as Ronaldo is now career as a footballer
the most followed person on Instagram -Consumer attention divided between CR7
and brand endorsements
4.3.2 The Influence of Cristiano Ronaldo on Social Media
“We cannot live being obsessed with what other people think about us.”
The influence of Cristiano Ronaldo on social media in undeniable - with over 350 million followers on the three
major social media platforms and brands clamoring to engage his services as an endorser at a reported 750
1252
Ibidem..
1253
168
thousand USD per post,1254 he has been the most popular person on Instagram since January 20191255 and the
most popular footballer on Facebook,1256 rendering his reach and influence unparallelled in the field of celebrity
athletes. These statistics are confirmed by his ranking of the Davie-Brown Index (DBI), a metric designed to
quantify consumers’ perceptions of celebrities, whether they be athletes, politicians, musicians, film stars, for
brand agencies and marketers.1257 Moreover, the DBI is not simply a tool to measure celebrity popularity, but an
essential data top that may be exploited to assess a celebrity’s ability to influence consumers’ purchase intent
and brand affinity.1258 Ronaldo’s DBI score, for instance, reveals that more than 90% of consumers are aware of
Ronaldo as an athlete and celebrity; whereas, when compared to Messi, a footballer of commensurate
professional ability, only 87% of those polled were able to identify him.1259 Ronaldo’s widespread recognition is
due, in large part, to his success on the football pitch, as being, arguably, the world’s greatest living footballer
naturally would; however, his consistent activity on social media platform should also be considered to be a
vital element of his global notoriety. It is this international visibility, as expressed in his high DBI score, which
makes Ronaldo the most marketable football player in the world.1260
Ronaldo himself would argue that it is his clarity of vision and dedication to winning which has lead to
his position of prominence in the field. The footballer, who once remarked when asked what motivated him,
“Winning - that's the most important to me. It's as simple as that,”1261 is a standard bearer in the field of
celebrity athletes on social media, and, indeed he could rightly be said to be winning the competition to become
the best known footballer in the world.1262 How then has he achieved such great strides on social media? As will
be further elaborated below, Ronaldo can be seen to exemplify four metrics of influence in his social media
communications on platforms such as Instagram.
The development of a personal brand: through social media, Ronaldo has crafted a personal brand based largely
on his own perceived traits of strength, affability, and competence, in his CR7 product line. Following in wake
of the Vero Athlete, Brava Persona, and Life Coach prototypes, which failed to positively influence a target
audience due to their lack of breadth, CR7 has found enormous success in Europe by expanding its offerings to
1254
Roca A. (2018), Cristiano Ronaldo: The social media king, Last seen 18 May 2018, https://www.marca.com/en/football/international-
football/2018/10/20/5bca53b7e2704e11378b463d.html
1255
Statista Portal, Instagram accounts with the most followers worldwide as of May 2019 (in millions), last seen 18 may 2019
https://www.statista.com/statistics/421169/most-followers-instagram/
1256
Soccer players with the most Facebook fans as of April 2019 (in millions), last seen 18 May 2019,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/275885/soccer-players-facebook-fans/
1257
Nielsen Sports,Sochi Insights,https://nielsensports.com/sochi-celebrity-dbi-2/
1258
Ibidem.
1259
Mandal R. (2018),The Digital Marketing Case Study of Cristiano Ronaldo, last seen 30 May 2019,https://digitalready.co/blog/the-digital-
marketing-case-study-of-cristiano-ronaldo
1260
Ibidem.
1261
1262
Statista Portal, Instagram accounts with the most followers worldwide as of May 2019 (in millions), last seen 30 amy 2019,
169
include a wide variety of products and ranges.1263 In addition, CR7 is easily associated with Ronaldo himself,
sharing many of the same points of reference in terms of brand identity, image, and values.
Authentic communication: above all, communication on social media must be authentic in the eyes of
consumers to be compelling and Ronaldo’s posts do just that. He is perceived to be open and honest about who
he is and what he stands for, even when what he reveals is less than desirable, such as when he dismissed
allegations of rape against himself as “fake news” on Instagram.1264 Regardless of social media missteps such as
these, he is consistent both in the content of the posts he publishes and in the format they take on, which is
mostly visual with limited text.1265 This strategy serves to increase his fan base, without alienating speakers of
other languages as Ronaldo almost exclusively captions his images in either his native Portuguese or
English.1266
Relevant sponsorship and endorsement deals: unlike other athletes, or celebrities for that matter, Ronaldo has
confined himself to endorsing brands which ultimately serve to bolster his popularity while reinforcing the
image and values of his own personal brand.1267 Beyond the creation of CR7, which embodies Ronaldo’s public
identity as a personal brand, the footballer has focussed on amplifying his image of the unbeatable sportsman by
partnering with fitness and lifestyle brands, such as Herbalife, EA SPORT, and Nike, with which he has secured
a one billion USD lifetime contract, an honour shared with Michael Jordan and LeBron James alone.1268
The creation and nurturing of relationships that add value to a personal brand: Ronaldo can be said to be a
master of relationship building in service of his personal brand without ever giving the impression that
somehow his actions are motivated by secondary motives, such as financial gain or fame.1269 Instead, his
interactions with fellow players and fans alike are perceived to be genuine and stemming from an authentic
interest in the community which has been built up around his global celebrity.1270 Indeed, he is well-known in
1263
Propato G.L.(2018), Il brand Cristiano Ronaldo: il suo modello di marketing, comunicazione e personal branding, Human Marketing,last seen 20
May 2019, https://www.lucapropato.com/blog/cristiano-ronaldo-marketing-personal-branding.html
1264
Graham C. (2018), They want to promote themselves by using my name': Cristiano Ronaldo calls rape accusations 'fake news' in grinning video
on Instagram to his 142 million followers just hours after US model said he violently assaulted her, last seen 28 May 2019,
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-6223165/Ronaldo-posts-video-calling-rape-allegations-fake-news-Instagram.html
1265
1266
Cristiano Ronaldo Instagram Account: https://www.instagram.com/cristiano/?hl=en
1267
1268
Badenhausen K.(2016),Why Cristiano Ronaldo's $1 Billion Nike Deal May Be A Bargain For Sportswear Giant, last seen 28 May 2019
https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/12/02/cristiano-ronaldos-1-billion-nike-deal-is-a-bargain-for-sportswear-giant/
1269
1270
Ibidem.
170
large part for his generosity and compassion, especially towards children’s causes to which he has donated
millions over the course of his career.1271 One such example of his involvement in charitable causes is the selfie
application launched by CR7, in which all proceeds are donated to Save The Children.1272 From children’s
charities to giving a fan with a broken nose the jersey off of his back,1273 Ronaldo is seen to be a figure for good
in his field, further bolstering positive associations in consumers between Cristiano Ronaldo the individual and
Cristiano Ronaldo the brand. This is reflected in the enormous growth of his popularity on social media as
reflected in the figure below:
Figure 40. Growth in Cristiano Ronaldo’s Social Media Profile - Ninjaletics (2018)
1274
1271
Serudsindia,CHARITY WORK BY CRISTIANO RONALDO WILL MAKE YOU HIS FAN (FOR SURE), LAST SEEN 28 MAY
2019,https://www.serudsindia.org/charity-work-by-cristiano-ronaldo/
1272
Save the Children,Soccer Superstar Cristiano Ronaldo Launches New Selfie App, Donation for Every Download Helps Kids in Need
https://www.savethechildren.org/us/about-us/media-and-news/2016-press-releases/soccer-superstar-cristiano-ronaldo-launches-new-selfie-app--dona
1273
Cristiano Ronaldo gave a t-shirt fans for broken nose (2011),https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dM2uLCJNF50&feature=youtu.be
1274
171
4.3.3 Personal Branding, Storytelling, and the Creation of a Narrative of Greatness
“I'm aware that, whatever the circumstances, there will always be speculation about me.”
Few, if any, have been to monetise their reputation as well as Cristiano Ronaldo who, through a strategy
combining international renown as a champion athlete, multiple advertising and endorsement contract with
major brands, and well-defined personal branding based on storytelling on social media, has become not just the
most followed person on Instagram,1276 but also one of the most well-paid athletes of all time.1277 As the
foundation of Ronaldo’s success as a public figure is the narrative around his legend of football glory and
mystical beginnings,1278 which is reinforced by the strategic use of storytelling in CR7’s brand communication
on social media channels.1279
Instances of storytelling as applied to brand communication are rife in Ronaldo’s social media pages,
such as his participation in the "Striker Force 7," cartoon series on Facebook in which the player is both the
protagonist and superhero of a ragtag team of human and alien footballers.1280 Indeed, Ronaldo’s foray into the
world of children’s entertainment can be seen as part of a larger strategy in service of the myth-building around
which his public image has been constructed.1281 Ronaldo himself has been shown to be keen to build the myth
on his own exceptionalism, or “superpower” as it were,1282 stating “I am a monster who came to earth from
another planet,"1283 conceivably to become the best football player in the world.
The myth-building enterprise at the heart of the CR7 brand was further bolstered by his transfer to
Turin’s Juventus team, which was described by those in the industry as "the coup of the century."1284 However,
1275
1276
Statista Portal (2019),Instagram accounts with the most followers worldwide as of May 2019 (in millions),
1277
Forbes,The World’s Highest-Paid Athlete, https://www.forbes.com/athletes/#82c8d3f55ae5
1278
Della Palma A. (2018), Siamo sicuri che Cristiano Ronaldo non sia il più grande di sempre?, last seen 30 May 2019
https://www.corrieredellosport.it/news/calcio/champions-league/2018/04/04-
1279
anche social e pubblicitario: un'analisi del brand CR7 tra storytelling e marketing https://www.insidemarketing.it/brand-cr7-tra-marketing-e-
storytelling/
1280
Cision, Cristiano Ronaldo Launches "Striker Force 7" Comic Book As Part Of "Free Comic Book Day" On May 4th, 30 May 2019,
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/cristiano-ronaldo-launches-striker-force-7-comic-book-as-part-of-free-comic-book-day-on-may-4th-
300843571.html
1281
anche social e pubblicitario: un'analisi del brand CR7 tra storytelling e marketing https://www.insidemarketing.it/brand-cr7-tra-marketing-e-
storytelling/
1282
Marca,Cristiano Ronaldo: People think I'm not human but I am, last seen 28 May 2019,,https://www.marca.com/en/football/real-
madrid/2016/11/08/5822397946163f85458b4695.html
1283
Della Palma A. (2018), Siamo sicuri che Cristiano Ronaldo non sia il più grande di sempre? Last seen 18 May
2019,https://www.corrieredellosport.it/news/calcio/champions-league/2018/04/04-
1284
Sky Sport,Ronaldo alla Juve, il colpo del secolo, Last seen 22 May 2019,https://sport.sky.it/speciale/calciomercato/cristiano-ronaldo-alla-
juventus.html
172
this move was not mere jockeying for power on the pitch, but the result of well-developed marketing strategy on
the part of Juventus and Ronaldo alike, rendering the historical transfer remarkable not just for the size of the
investment in a single player, but that fact that 340 million euros transfer fee is estimated to be repaid to the club
by virtue of the sale of merchandise featuring Ronaldo alone.1285 As has been noted by Sardella, "In terms of
marketing, the Ronaldo-Juventus operation appears as a giant coup co-branding: two companies get together to
achieve common business goals. Beyond the field, Juventus and Ronaldo can conquer the most important
market, answering a simple question: what do CR7-JUVE fans want to buy? The crisis becomes the code name
of a money machine ready to win all the marketing wars.”1286 From this transfer, Ronaldo stands to increase his
revenue through merchandising, advertising, and promotions, while increasing his credibility and visibility in
the field.1287
In addition, Ronaldo, who has an enormous following on social media, has only increased his public
visibility by signing with the team, as is seen in the jump in follows, likes, and other metrics of user engagement
following his transfer.1288 Like Chiara Ferragni, the first case study addressed in this chapter, he has been seen
to capitalise on major announcements such as his transfer to Juventus, the birth of his twins, and holidays1289 -
his top three most liked photos respectively on Instagram - to craft a public narrative about his life, as both a
public and private figure. In addition, Ronaldo’s posting schedule, in which fragments of a single unifying
narrative are told in serial installments, can be seen as evidence of his use of seriality as a narrative tool. These
mechanisms of narrative, which serve to engage, compel, and convince his audience as evidence of his strength
as a storyteller and narrator of his exceptional experience.
Conclusion
Through the case studies examined in Chapter Four emerges a template for effective human brand building
through storytelling on social media platforms, specifically Instagram. As has been addressed in Case Study
One, focussing on Chiara Ferragni, and Case Study Two, centred round Cristiano Ronaldo, these two figures
have built up sizable social media followings based largely on their abilities as storytellers par excellence which
have been used to both increase their fame and develop a narrative focalised on their own distinctive brand
identities. Through a process of strategic communication, using narrative tools such as seriality and mixed
temporality, Ronaldo and Ferragni, as the living embodiment of a brand, have managed to effectively convey a
number of elements associated with persuasive storytelling on social media, including: credibility and
1285
Ibidem.
1286
Falcini D. (2018), CR7+Juventus, insieme per fare tantissimi soldi A poche ore dall'annuncio del portoghese la società bianconera ha ottenuto più
di un milione di follower in più, che ora deve monetizzare. Perché l'affare del secolo è il primo caso di co-branding tra due grandi multinazionali del
pallone, Last seen 14 May 2019 https://www.rollingstone.it/sport/cr7juventus-insieme-per-fare-tantissimi-soldi/420044/#Part6
1287
anche social e pubblicitario: un'analisi del brand CR7 tra storytelling e marketing, Last seen 14 May 2019
https://www.insidemarketing.it/brand-cr7-tra-marketing-e-storytelling/
1288
Ibidem.
1289
Agbo N. (2018), Cristiano Ronaldo Tops “Most Liked Instagram Posts Of All Time”, last seen 15 May 2019,https://guardian.ng/life/cristiano-
ronaldo-tops-most-liked-instagram-posts-of-all-time/
173
authenticity; attractiveness; and, perhaps most importantly, relatability. These aspects of their respective
communication strategies can be seen to be an essential elements in the creation of a human brand, as the
mechanisms behind anthropomorphisation require the supplementation of human-like traits to the brands,
typically set in motion by the perception of distinctive features of personality such as agreeableness,
conscientiousness, and competence, in an non-human actor. Therefore, Ronaldo and Ferragni, rather than just
being an attractive face behind a brand’s image, have developed a distinctive brand personality which is easily
recognisable and differs from her competitors in the field. In addition, by pivoting between platforms when
required, in order to attract continuously larger audiences, Ferragni and Ronaldo demonstrate the need for a
responsible, flexible, interactive brand strategy that takes into consideration the rapidly changing tastes of
consumers in the digital era.
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Chapter 5
Research Framework, Research Methodologies, and a Review of the Findings
5.1. The Qualitative Research and Methods Employed
My research project consists of, firstly, qualitative research and, secondly, quantitative research undertaken. In
respect to the former, I made use of semi-structured interviews dividing the recipients of the interviews on the
basis of the categories identified in Chapter Three - namely, influencers, celebrities, and experts in the fashion
sector - to understand how contemporary brands can make effective use of the mechanisms of storytelling
through Instagram. In addition, I examined the parameters and drivers of purchase intention of consumers on the
platform. Interviewing is the most common information collection tool in the social
sciences: according to some estimates, upwards of 90% of social science research uses information gathered
through interviews.1290 Thus, for the aforementioned qualitative research, I have selected semi-structured
interviews as my principle means of gathering data. In a semi-structured interview "the interviewer has a list of
previously established topics on which he must gather all the information requested with the right to adapt both
the questions and the order in which he puts them to the interviewees."1291 Following this principle, I have
undertaken qualitative interviews with individuals who can be considered experts in their given fields.
Experts in the field of influencer marketing, including Giulia Gaudino, Giorgina Clavarino, and Vera
Arrivabene serve as interview subjects. The questions addressed to the latter aim to understand the impact of
storytelling on Instagram Stories, based on anecdotal experience and the activities of the given individual
carried out on the platform. The questions focus on the importance of personal storytelling in the construction of
human brands and emphasise the differences between that of the role of celebrities as endorsers for corporate
brands, and the kind of narrative self-promotion which occurs on Instagram by influencers in service of self-
brand building. For the experts in the sector interviewed, in addition to the topics already mentioned, the
questions addressed to them focussed on the launch of new brands on Instagram, and the added value that can
be derive from the use of Instagram, in particular of IG stories, on consumer purchase intention. Of the
aforementioned experts, the answers provided by McKinsey Partner, Michele Bertoncello, were especially
significant, in their relationship to phases of CDJ (Consumer Decision Journey), and to the relationship between
CGI (Customer Growth Index) and the use of Instagram.
However, the common thread that unites all the interviews undertaken in service of Chapter Five, is the
notion that effective storytelling practices cannot disregard the use of social media as an essential arena in which
narrative building takes place today. As is such, it is posited that Instagram, with its multitude of features which
1290
Brenner, M.(1980), Social method and social life, New York.
1291
Pitrone, M.C., (1984),Il sondaggio, Milano.
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facilitate both verbal and visual communication with ever larger audiences, is certainly an important - although
not decisive - factor in the purchase intentions of consumers. Rather, CDJ, brand awareness, and brand loyalty
are understood to be much more significant aspects of the strategic use of Instagram as a communication tool by
marketers.
The interviews were an effective tool to understand the drivers that affect purchase intention, in relation
to their impact of social networks, including Instagram. The conversational climate was well-suited to those
interviewed who, although recorded, showed interest and willingness to both pose and respond to questions. The
answers were spontaneous and direct because they were not prepared in advance. On the day of the interviews, I
provided the questions to each interviewee respectively so that he or she could better understand the questions
posed to him or her by reading the questions and having time to respond. In essence, a real, organic
conversation took place between myself and the interviewees. Below is a summary of my findings and the
interviews themselves.
5.1.1 The Interviews
5.1.2 Interview One: Michele Bertoncello, Partner at McKinsey & Company (14 May 2019)
1. Based on your experience, can you say that the phases of the McKinsey's Consumer Decision Journey
can be applied with the same effectiveness to the decision-making processes related to the brands which
aim to increase their value on the use of Instagram?
They certainly apply, but the nuances are different, in particular for the stimulus to purchase and for loyalty. As
for the Instagram CDJ, it is much more effective, especially for awareness and consideration, which are the first
steps. The more we advance towards the purchase and loyalty phases, the more the sensorial, visual, and
immersive elements are important in the customer's experience, so in these phases the social media has less
impact, considering also that Instagram has no transaction platform direct, which allows immediate purchase
through a click. So its effectiveness in the purchase phase is lower than other digital touchpoints.
2. Based on your experience, the influence on purchase intention intended to satisfy a personal need of the
consumer remains unchanged, even in cases when the lever towards purchase is neither a product nor brand
alone, but the person who embodies the brand?
In general, the use of testimonials and brand ambassadors is more effective in the consideration phase, or in the
loyalty phase; therefore, the use or repurchase of a product is due to the desire to associate with a celebrity.
Also relevant is the awareness phase if the company opts to position the product in any medium. In the purchase
phase the impact of the endorsement or testimonial decreases as having to make an economic outlay, the
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experience becomes very personal, so surely the incidence of the testimonial is lower compared to the other
phases of the CDJ.
3. The impact generated downstream on the brand is maximised by storytelling if it is built into the
message through multiple means, on multiple channels, and strengthened. So, in your opinion, given that
through Instagram Stories the consumer has some time to stay with the content - the intended average being
15 seconds - for purchase intention, are Instagram stories an effective form of advertising?
Instagram, in general as a platform, is much more effective in the phases of awareness, familiarity and
consideration, as to further stimulate the purchase it is necessary to minimise the distance of the consumer from
the purchase, which means that ideally in the best platforms in the world a single click purchase is possible.
This cannot be guaranteed by Instagram; therefore, normally Instagram Stories always refer to a site or a
platform where the transaction takes place. The stories are relevant in the last phase of consideration, the one
that then leads the consumer to purchase.
4. Based on your experience, as there is a relationship between initial consideration and growth of the
customer base, what influence does Instagram have on the CGI (Customer Growth Index), taking into
consideration the effect on the relationship between Initial Consideration Score and the market share
obtained by the brand?
It is very difficult to identify a precise numerical correlation that allows us to calculate with precision what has
been indicated. It depends a lot on the effectiveness of the campaign, on the brand, on the product.
5. In your experience, what impact can the use of Instagram Stories have on future observational analytics,
predictive analytics, and prescriptive analytics of brands that identify with a person?
The impact of IG Stories, as a digital touch point, is certainly important as generating additional content
generates an additional value and causes people to be connected longer. Value is generated as data is
generated, and this allows an active and precise profiling of the consumer. This has its pros and cons: if the
time spent on Instagram is considered totally additional to that on other social media the value is much more
important, however, a more correct analysis should consider that time spent on Instagram could be alternative
compared to the use of other social media. It is necessary to consider the quality of the profiling that can be
extracted from navigation on Instagram compared to that obtainable from other social media. It is not very high
more than anything else because it has an interactive content on the part of the consumer in the short term
rather low, as it is actually the social media that fills content with the user who has the freedom to watch them
or skip them, and in this way expresses interest or not in the content. An evaluation of the value produced by an
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hour of browsing on Instagram should be compared with the equivalent time spent on other platforms.
5.1.3 Interview Two: Andrea Patumi, Influencer Manager Digital Dust Agency (30 April 2019)
1. Based on your experience and your role in the industry, has storytelling, in particular narration on IG
stories, become a crucial factor for the visibility and reputation of a brand?
It’s absolutely fundamental to give completeness to the communication. To date, 70% of projects are carried out
through IG stories.
2. Based on your experience, is the use of posts on IG more or less effective than IG stories?
[IG Stories] takes more for positioning than for storytelling. The static post allows the brand to unite, under the
same concept, the different personalities involved in a campaign, for example.
3. As an expert in the field, do you think that Instagram as a media and communications channel is
fundamental for the launch of a new brand? Or, is it possible today to do without it, and for what reasons?
It is critical. Now, the first research a user does when he wants to approach a brand is directly on IG. Even the
search engine has faded into the background. [Instagram] can serve us more in the research phase of the POS
(point of sales).
4. According to you, in the current scenario, would you launch a new brand that identifies with your person
using only IG (stories, posts, IGTV) as a means of promotion? Alternatively, based on your experience,
which tools would you use?
Certainly, yes. Combined with an important online sales force, and considering that the future will be direct
checkout on the platform, I think it is more than enough.
5. Considering the way in which the influencers and celebrities indicated have exploited self-narration
through Instagram to enhance their brand, do you think there are equally effective tools?
YouTube can be a viable alternative. It all depends on the type of brand and the audience to which you are
referring.
6. If the story of the brand were not also the person's story (testimonial of the brand), would it have the same
effect on the purchase intention, in your opinion?
Surely choosing the testimonial is the most important step. Giving your product to an influencer or endorser
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who does not share its values could sometimes be counterproductive
7. In your personal opinion and experience, is the impact that Instagram can have on brand awareness
different when the brand is a human or personal brand compared to the case of a brand that uses an equally
well-known influencer/ endorser, but that does it not identify with the brand itself?
Surely when the testimonial becomes part of the family (brand / friends of the house) the brand's goal is more
impactful and effective.
5.1.4 Interview Three: Agnese Violati, Co-Founder and Digital Manager The Maptique (5 May 2019)
1. Based on your experience and your role in the industry, has storytelling, in particular narration on IG stories,
become a crucial factor for the visibility and reputation of a brand?
To me, today a good storytelling on Instagram is fundamental, particularly for millennials. There are studies
that identify experiential activities as being much more valuable than physical product as they are shareable.
Even the luxury [industry] is moving more and more in this direction. As a case study, you could see the latest
digital activation of Burberry for the launch of the new T-Bag.
It depends on the profile, I think the stories are more effective than the posts for profiles that become "media"
in which the influencer puts his face and tells his daily life day by day (eg https://www.instagram.com /
rockandfiocc / or https://www.instagram.com/conoscounposto/ which also reach 15,000 views per story). It's a
more immersive storytelling. In my case, IG is more a channel to spread beautiful images, travels, and
discoveries. This is why posts on my profile are more effective than stories.
3. As an expert in the field, do you think that Instagram as a media and communications channel is
fundamental for the launch of a new brand? Or, is it possible today to do without it, and for what reasons?
In my experience, I have a digital boutique agency (The Maptique Studio), IG is just a slice of the
communication plan that a brand should activate. In support there should always be Digital PR activities,
press office, events, seeding activities if it is a product et cetera.
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My partner Paola and I decided not to identify our agency and brand with our people as other agencies (eg We
Are Lovers) did. We think that not linking one's image to a business makes it more scalable in a long-term
vision and makes us more free in decisions. The brand should not necessarily reflect the positioning of our
profiles. Eg my IG profile has a 90% Italian audience, The Maptique instead has a foreign audience as its
target.
I think that channels like YouTube, if used well, can be much more effective than IG in some cases (eg.
https://www.instagram.com/camihawke/)
6. If the story of the brand were not also the person's story (brand endorsement or testimonial), would it have
the same effect on the purchase intention, in your opinion?
It depends on the strength of the brand. Emerging brands usually have greater need to rely on influential
profiles in the reference sector than those established and with a very strong brand identity.
7. In your personal opinion and experience, is the impact that Instagram can have on brand awareness
different when the brand is a human or personal brand compared to the case of a brand that uses an equally
well-known influencer/ endorser, but that does it not identify with the brand itself?
In my opinion, identifying the brand with one person can be limiting. I believe that a more tailor-made strategy
built on the needs of the brand, using different profiles every time according to the objective, can reach a more
targeted and heterogeneous target compared to a brand that identifies itself as a single person.
5.1.5 Interview Four: Giulia Gaudino, Influencer (29 April 2019)
1. Based on your experience and your role in the industry, is storytelling - in particular storytelling using
IG stories - a crucial factor for visibility and notoriety?
Storytelling certainly helps to bring the product closer to people because, unlike traditional advertising through
the press, television and radio, which are more aseptic and distant and built to make it clear that it is
advertising, IG Stories allow you to approach the follower - the user - and insert it more truthfully into a
context. This creates more closeness and therefore more effectiveness in the purchase of the product.
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The introduction of the IG stories has increased the work on our part, but also the effectiveness of
communication with followers, since while an Instagram post is more static, generally dealing with
photographs, IG stories of influencers that are seen communicating make a lot advertising more effective.
Companies are becoming increasingly aware of the higher sales effectiveness of IG stories than posts, and are
often led to turn to we influencers to buy packs of stories while leaving out the classic Instagram posts.
Moreover, the use of stories allows us to add an explanation to the image and often to show the use of the
product.
3. As an influencer, do you think that the Instagram platform is fundamental for the launch of a new brand?
Or, is it possible today to do without it, and for what reasons?
It certainly depends on the type of product and the public to which it is addressed, as for some types of more
"popular" products certainly traditional channels such as TV can have a greater influence on purchases than if
it is a clothing line for which it is definitely need to have an Instagram channel. Young brands can use an
Instagram figure that has a following, and so depending on the needs of the company, Instagram allows you to
select the influencer based on the result the company wants to achieve. This is an important feature for
achieving the target requested by the company.
Absolutely yes; there are many examples of brands that use only Instagram as a means of promotion. In my
case, if I were to launch a new brand, which I am planning to do, I would certainly use Instagram only...with
good communication [in] posts and Instagram Stories, alongside a well-structured, very lean online shop. Very
fast, very easy to connect very easily to posts and stories, in order to make the purchase very fast.
Today I think not. I do not know what the advertising channels of the future will be, at the moment it is the most
effective channel ever, and in which I myself would invest the portion of resources available for product
advertising. Given the costs of television commercials or newspaper pages, for the same figures you can
implement a truly massive and effective advertising plan on Instagram.
6. If the story of the brand were not also the person's story (endorsement or testimonial of the brand), would it
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have the same effect on the purchase intention, in your opinion?
Absolutely not. In this way, it would be identical to buying an aseptic television advertisement or newspaper
page, far away, clearly advertising. This is precisely the strength of the story, of storytelling, the fact of relying
on the story of a person in the flesh for the communication of his product. In this way every type of distance is
eliminated and the product inserted in one's daily life is seen, and inserted in its own follow-base. It is on
influencers to keep those who follow us entertained, to have a coherent line and not to betray the trust that those
who follow us have placed in us.
5.1.6 Interview Five: Giorgina Clavarino, Influencer (30 April 2019)
1. Based on your experience and your role in the industry, is storytelling in particular storytelling using IG
stories a crucial factor for visibility and notoriety?
Instagram stories, or social media “stories” in general – have changed the way that we consume social media.
The “stories” format that was pioneered by Snapchat is now a staple of the social media world – which means
that if Instagram stories are not part of your media mix yet, you should seriously start re-considering them.
As much as Instagram stories still do not prove to drive increased visibility, in my experience, they are a
different and unfiltered way of sharing what you are passionate and interested about with your Instagram
followers. The ephemeral pieces of content we see from our friends, family and influencers on Instagram,
Snapchat, and increasingly Facebook, are what consumers want most. The news feed is a relic of the past and
while it’s not going away anytime soon it will no longer have the same impact it has had on society again.
Facebook itself sees stories as the future and says one billion of them are shared on its platform every day but
has so far not being able to monetise them as much as its other ad inventory.
Still important to note though, that Instagram stories in no way impact how the Instagram algorithm works;
meaning that even if you post 100 stories a day, this will not favour your profile. Whilst, posting regularly
Instagram posts will help brands feature higher in users’ timelines and it won’t downrank people who post a lot.
Therefore, my tips are to:
1. Use Instagram Posts frequently to keep your audience engaged and to potentially attract new followers to
your community,
2. Use Instagram Stories to feed extra, unfiltered content to the people that follow you
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Instagram posts and stories should not be considered mutually exclusive. They both serve different purposes
and should be used in different ways to build you brand.
In my experience, Instagram posts allow you to reach more people, simply because they do not disappear within
24 hours. However, Instagram stories allow me to share more amateur snackable pieces of content that show
my true self – this is because you are basically ‘live-streaming’ on a day-to-day your life behind the scenes.
People increasingly crave content, and Instagram stories are the quickest and easiest way to give people that
without too much fuss.
3. As an influencer, do you think that Instagram is fundamental for the launch of a new brand? Or, is it possible
today to do without it and for what reasons?
I believe that before anyone goes off and launches another social media channel, because they think it’s the best
thing to do for a brand –they should stop and rethink their actions, before moving forward. When launching a
new brand, I feel that people often get lost in the sea of options that exist nowadays to promote a brand –
resulting in brands forgetting what their main purpose was.
It’s important that before a brand starts speaking with an audience, that they have a clear view on what their
values and their ambitions are. Once you’ve ticked this box, you can then develop a marketing strategy where
you consider all of the best tools that are available nowadays that can help you achieve that ambition. Not every
single product or service on the planet has to be on Instagram to sell– maybe Instagram is not even the right
place for you to advertise your brand or you might not be reaching the right audience.
Once you have identified the channels that best fit your brand, I recommend that a strategy is developed for
each. Things to keep in mind are: 1. What you will be using the channel for 2. What do you want to say? 3. Who
are you speaking to?
Lastly, do not expect to build a loyal community of followers overnight. Building an organic community takes
time and with Facebook increasingly changing their algorithms, organic social reach is almost dead. Which
means that a balance between organic and paid posts will be necessary to reach more people.
Brands cannot survive simply by relying on rented platforms (i.e. Instagram). Increasingly brands need to
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understand that they need to build their owned platforms too in order to succeed in the competitive world we
now live in. Having a website and an Instagram page is no longer enough, brands need to start working on
building engaging newsletters, catalogs, blogs and kiosks, as they are all important assets within a brand’s
overall owned media portfolio. Despite platforms like Facebook and Instagram allow you to reach huge
audiences (mainly if you pay for it), they are rented, you do not own them. Whilst owned media assets are
directly controlled by the brand. Nobody else.
For social media influencers, Instagram has played a vital role in the success of these brands. I do not believe
that there are tools as effective for social media influencers right now.
6. If the story of the brand were not also the person's story (endorsement or testimonial of the brand), would
it have the same effect on the purchase intention, in your opinion?
I increasingly believe that people buy into people and not into brands. This is often why brands partner with
endorsers and influencers - because they can borrow values from the best talent – helping brands to build
credibility and trust in a world that is increasingly lacking both.
Scarcity of trust towards social platforms with the rise of fake news, clickbait articles and bots, have led
influencer marketing to be a new era of social networking - one that is more about human connection as
opposed to information consumption. It’s one reason why the influencer marketing industry is on the rise,
expected to grow by 41% to 6.5bn in 2019. Brands are looking to work with social media influencers who have
developed deep connections with their audience.
Forbes actually found that 92% of people trust an influencer more than a traditional advertiser. This means that
people buy their products because they trust them. If you remove influencers away from their brand – then no,
there would be no purchase intention there, because there is no credibility.
5.1.7 Interview Six: Vera Arrivabene, Co-founder of Brand Vibi Venice (20 May 2019)
1. Based on your experience and your role in the industry, is storytelling - in particular storytelling using IG
stories - a crucial factor for visibility and notoriety?
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Based on my experience, the answer is yes. IG stories are now like a post, and both are crucial for brand
visibility. These are activities that can be carried out by Instagram accounts, both my own as a founder, and my
sister's, and the brand's. For example, I have fewer followers than VIBI's Instagram, but linking all the accounts
has played a crucial influence on sales. My sister Viola has more followers even than the VIBI account.
2. Based on your experience, is the use of posts on IG more or less effective than IG stories, in storytelling
centred round human brands on Instagram?
Looking at my Insights, for example, I noticed that one of my posts was viewed by 19,000 people while a IG
story of 3000. So, it depends on the content. It is good that the two modalities go hand in hand, but the post was
probably more effective because it is not certain that of the 3000 people who watched my IG Story that all of
them lingered and watched the whole story. Moreover, IG stories are temporary, while posts are permanent;
therefore, a post assumes greater value at the level of contracts, as an influencer. Actually, recently the IG
swipe up function has been added which allows you to link directly to the purchase of the displayed product, so
this could have a positive effect on sales.
3. As an influencer, as well as the owner of the VIBI brand, how do you think IG Stories has influenced and will
continue to influence the purchase intention of Instagram users in respect to your brand? How much does it
affect your market share?
In my opinion it affects things a lot. In our case, having started as a Dior Ambassador, it has brought us
visibility and notoriety which we have used to promote our brand. Instagram is essential, so much so that up
until now we haven’t used any other social media network besides Instagram. Consumers, through the IG
stories, can see the narration of the brand and develop the propensity to purchase.
4. Considering the way in which influencers and celebrity endorsers on Instagram have exploited self-narrative
tools on Instagram to enhance their brand, do you think there are equally effective tools?
Surely there are also other ways. In fact, for our brand we will soon entrust the communication to an agency
that intends to expand the tools of brand storytelling to social media other than Instagram.
5. If the story of the brand were not also the person's story (endorsement or testimonial of the brand), would it
have the same effect on the purchase intention, in your opinion?
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Using other forms of advertising, we would most likely still have achieved notoriety and visibility owing to that
fact that we belong to an aristocratic family connected to the former royal family of Italy, but it would have
taken more time. Thanks to Instagram Storytelling things went much more quickly.
5.1.8 Summary of the Qualitative Survey
In summary, a number of key elements storytelling on Instagram which have emerged from the qualitative
survey are as follows:
● A use of brand storytelling through Instagram is fundamental for brands seeking to market products to
social media users, namely Millennials;
● The same thing cannot be said for all instances, since, for example, in the case of launching a new brand,
the effectiveness of Instagram, rather than of traditional channels, such as TV or print, depends on the
nature of the merchandise and the public to which it is addressed;
● It is not the case that IG stories are more effective than the use of posts in relation to purchase intentions
in all contexts.
● Instagram is important for the launch and positioning of a new brand, but not essential. It is, instead,
only representative of a component of an overall communication strategy that could also be based on
different brand storytelling tools, including YouTube;
● The brand stories that are also the stories of individuals have both pros and cons for brands. On one
hand, the association of the brand with its creator, or endorser, increases its value, especially if it is
linked to a credible celebrity who embodies the brand. In this respect, as evidenced by influencers, the
effectiveness of storytelling through Instagram exceeds that of traditional advertising. On the other hand,
linking the image of a brand to a person can be limiting and reduce its flexibility;
● To maximise purchase intentions, it is necessary from brands to concentrate on platforms that speed up
consumers’ purchases. From this point of view, if it is true that Instagram allows consumers to become
involved with brands through storytelling, the defect of this tool is that it does not allow immediate and
direct purchase on the platform, as it requires connection to an additional platform.
5.2 The Descriptive Quantitative Research
Following the qualitative research, which has allowed me to identify the drivers of purchase intentions triggered
by digital storytelling, I aimed to quantify the relationship which is formed between consumers and brands
through the mechanisms of storytelling in the form of a survey on the impact of the use of Instagram, in
particular the use of IG stories.
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The research focussed not only on the human brands analysed in Chapter Four - Chiara Ferragni and Cristiano
Ronaldo - but also on other brands, particularly those from the world of fashion, which are characterised by the
fact that the creator of the brand coincides with the brand itself and, in doing so, tells one's story through
storytelling which refers to one's own identity.
5.2.1.KKW Beauty
KKM Beauty is the cosmetics brand launched in 2017 by American celebrity and influencer, Kim Kardashian
West, a figure who has an enormous impact on social media, and can be said to focus almost exclusively on
self-promotion through personal storytelling.
Figure 41. Total Instagram Followers for Kim Kardashian (2018)
5.2.1.ii Victoria Beckham
Victoria Beckham started her career as a Spice Girl after answering an ad for young women who were that was
placed in British industry magazine. After selling more than 85 million records with the pop group and marrying
soccer star David Beckham in 1999, she reinvented herself as a fashion star, and was featured on the April 2008
cover of British Vogue, before debuting her fashion line in New York in September that year. Beckham’s brand
can be said to take advantage of the reputation and international fame of its creator, who through her use of
social media, and in particular Instagram, has encouraged the steady growth of her eponymous brand.
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Figure 42. Instagram Progress Graphs for Victoria Beckham - (2019)
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5.2.1.iii Gilda Ambrosio and Giorgia Tordini
The Attico is a brand created in 2016 by Gilda Ambrosio and Giorgia Tordini, two influencers and icons of
street style, who, focussing on the strengths of their personal style, have created a brand that also makes use of
brand storytelling as an ongoing narrative of the daily lives of its creators.
Figure 43. Instagram Progress Graphs for Giorgia Tordini (2019)
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Figure 44. Instagram Progress Graphs for Gilda Ambrosio (2019)
5.2.1.iv Serena Williams
S by Serena is the brand created in 2018 by the tennis champion, Serena Williams, who is already well-known
for her sporting feats and, therefore, had already acquired a huge pool of followers. Counting on this relevance
and fame gained as a top athlete, Serena decided to launch her direct to consumer fashion brand, in addition to
her own capital company. The champion makes the use of digital touchpoints and, in particular, Instagram for
the promotion of her brand.
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Figure 45. Total Instagram Followers for Serena Williams (2018)
Figure 46. Instagram Stats Summary/User Summary for Serena Williams (2018)
5.2.1.v Sophia Amoruso
Nastygal is a vintage fashion brand created by Sophia Amoruso in 2006, at a time when social media was still in
its infancy and she had a non-existent following online. However, by bringing to success the brand in question,
she has also personally reached the status of celebrity. Amoruso has contributed to the strength of her fashion
brand through storytelling in order to increase sales of the brand, in addition to the storytelling she has
undertaken in service of the publication of a book and the creation of her own autobiographical series on
Netflix.
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Figure 47. Instagram Progress Graph for Sophia Amoruso (2019)
5.2.2 The Questionnaire
Following the qualitative research that allowed me to consider the impact of the use of Instagram and, in
particular, the strategic employment of of IG stories as tools of brand storytelling, with consideration given to
the CDJ, I formulated a questionnaire aimed at quantifying the implications on intention to buy.
The assumptions from which this research was born are respectively:
1. In cases where the brand identifies itself so deeply with the subject that creates it and shapes it in
its image and likeness, so as to make the storytelling and the narration of its own person a
fundamental aspect for the success of the brand and of the products themselves, is value added
which then influences consumers’ experience?
2. Is it possible to underestimate the authenticity of brands and their representatives, even if it has
no other purpose than to serve the interests of the company?
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2.2.2.i The Method
The questionnaire, which was devised based on this line of questioning, was administered to a sample of 362
individuals, of heterogeneous age, with the aim of understanding the impact of storytelling on purchase
intentions and relationship formation with brands. Those surveyed may be divided into three categories, namely:
Generation Z (up to 23 years); Generation Y (between 23-38); and, finally, Generation X (over 38 years).
The object of this thesis is to investigate the usage of the mechanisms of narration on Instagram and, in
particular, IG Stories, with respect to the construction of a brand story, and the subsequent influence on
purchase intentions and the creation of strong emotional attachments between consumers and brands which
result from such activities. In as much, the research undertaken in this section seeks to quantify this relationship
between storytelling and purchase intentions through a survey on consumer perceptions of brands that make use
of personal storytelling techniques, with particular attention given to the case studies analysed in Chapter Four
Thus, the questionnaire aims to verify the effectiveness of brand storytelling through the use of Instagram and,
in particular, the use of IG Stories, IGTV, and static posts as determinants of purchase intention.
Furthermore, the questions in the questionnaire seek to quantify the attractiveness of brands and how much of
that appeal is owing to its founder and identification of the brand with him or herself in the form of narratives of
self that are also brand narratives.
The questionnaire was first administered on 10 April 2019 and the data was collected until 30 May 2019. This
time frame coincided with the launch of significant collaborations between some of the brands analysed and
partner firms, such as: the launch of the Chiara Ferragni capsule collection for Lancôme; the purchase of Fenty
by Rihanna brand by LVMH; and the launch of The Attico's capsule collection for Re/done.com.
The questions were designed to target the way in which the brand story influences purchase intentions in
consumers, through the creation of a process of identification and emotional involvement in the consumer.
The questionnaire investigates how the way consumers react to the brand story impacts purchase intention,
generating, in either the short or long term, the inclination to purchase.
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2.2.2.ii The Sections of the Questionnaire
The questionnaire is structured as four sections:
Section I: General Information
● Gender
● Age
● Education
● Occupation
● City of Residence
Section II: Storytelling and Brand Recall
● Are you a user of social media, including Instagram?

● Which of these brands do you associate most with the word ‘success’?
● Which of these brands do you pay most attention to on Instagram?
● Was the use of Instagram decisive for the positioning of the brand you indicated to be the most
relevant?
● In the promotion of which of these brands do you think Instagram is most effective?
● How would you assess the ability of the brand promotion tools mentioned in creating emotional
involvement?
● Have you ever purchased a product from any of these brands for yourself or for others?
● If yes, why?
● Has the association between the brand and its celebrity representative influenced your purchase /
non-purchase decision?
● If you have never purchased a branded product, why?
● On average, how many products from the brands mentioned do you purchase in a year?
Section III: Purchase Factors
● Which of these brands do you like the most?

● Who is the founder of the brands included whose personal history interests you the most?
● Which of these brands would you recommend to your friends and acquaintances?
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Section IV: Practical Applications for the Case Studies Analysed
● If the Chiara Ferragni Collection/ The Ferragnez brand had a different endorser, how much
interest would you have towards it?
● If the CR7 brand had a different endorser, how much interest would you have towards it?
● If behind the indicated brands there was not the celebrity endorser, but an ordinary person, how
much interest in your opinion could they arouse?
● If you worked in the marketing sector of one of the brands indicated what action would you
recommend to make brand storytelling more effective through Instagram?
2.2.2.iii Findings of the Questionnaire
The findings the the questionnaire will be summarised below in the following figures:
2.2.2.iv Section I: General Information
1. Gender (332 answers)
Figure 48. Gender Distribution - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
195
Figure 49. Table Gender Distribution - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
2. Age (332 answers)
Figure 50. Contingency Graph Gender and Age - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
196
Figure 51. Contingency Table Gender and Age - Personal Elaboration on Author SPSS (2019)
3. Education (330 answers)
Figure 52. Distribution of Average Level of Education - Personal Elaboration by Author on Excel (2019)
197
3. Occupation (332 answers)
Figure 53. Reported Occupation of Questionnaire Participants - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
Figure 54. Occupational Frequency Table - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
198
5. City of Residence (332 answers)
Figure 55. City of Residence of Respondents - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
199
Figure 56. Highest Level of Education Achieved - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
200
Figure 57. Frequency Table: Gender, Age, Highest Level of Education Achieved - Personal Elaboration of
Author on SPSS (2019)
2.2.2.v Analysis Section I: Personal Information
As regards the section of the questionnaire on general information, of the 332 total respondents to the
questionnaire, 55.3% of women and 44.7% of men are registered. Indeed, as far as gender is concerned, the
sample can be said to be balanced. The largest age group represented is between 23 and 38 years, Generation Y
(76.8%).
Respondents were mostly professionals (33.4%) and students (31.3%.) The remainder of those surveyed were
office workers (19%), unemployed (6.9%), and finally 9.3% were marked "other".
In regards to the distribution of educational qualifications, no significant differences emerge between the
genders. The frequency of those aged 23-38 who only hold a high school diploma is slightly higher in men
(81%) than in women (74%.) For those over 38 and under 23, the figure is lower than in other groups surveyed.
94.32% of women in the 23-38 age group have a Master’s Degree, while men 97.18% in the same age group
have a Master’s Degree.
Most of the samples come from Rome, which amounts to 45.8% of the entire sample, followed by Terni which
constitutes 14.8%, Milan at 5%, and London which represents 2.4%. All the other cities of origin are around
0.3%.
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2.2.2.vi Section II: Storytelling and Brand Recall
1. Are you a user of social media, including Instagram? (332 replies)
Figure 58. Instagram Users - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
202
2. Which of these brands do you associate most with the word "Success"? (332 answers)
Figure 59. Brand Distribution of Respondents Perceptions of Success - Personal Elaboration of Author
On SPSS (2019)
203
Figure 60. Brand Distribution Table of Success Perception - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
3. Which of these brands do you pay most attention to on Instagram? (332 answers)
Figure 61. Brand Preferences on Instagram - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
204
Figure 62. Frequency Table for Brand Preferences - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
4. Was the use of Instagram decisive for the positioning of the brand indicated by you as being the most
relevant? (332 answers)
Figure 63. Brand Positioning on Instagram - Personal Elaboration of Author on Excel (2019)
205
5. In the promotion of which of these brands do you think Instagram is most effective?
Figure 64. Brand Promotion on Instagram - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
6. How do you assess the ability of the brand promotion tools mentioned in creating emotional involvement?
(332 answers)
Figure 65. Emotional Involvement of Brands on Instagram - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
206
7. Have you ever purchased a product from any of these brands for yourself or for others? (332 answers)
Figure 66. Purchases Intentions - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
8. If yes, why? (69 answer)
Figure 67. Reasons Given for Purchases - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
207
9. Has the association between the brand and its celebrity representative influenced your purchase / non-
purchase decision? (332 answers)
Figure 68. Influence of Celebrity Endorsers on Purchase Intentions - Personal Elaboration of Author on
SPSS (2019)
10. If you have never purchased a branded product, why? (269 answers)
Figure 69. Motivations Behind the Purchase of a Celebrity Backed Brand or Product- Personal
Elaboration of Author on SPSS
208
11. On average, how many products from the brands mentioned do you purchase in a year? (323 answers)
Figure 70. Analysis of the Number of Products Bought Annually - Personal Elaboration of Author on
SPSS (2019)
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2.2.2.vii Analysis Section II: Storytelling and Brand Recall
92% of respondents appear to be active users of Instagram, with only 8% of respondents reporting to not use
social media.
The use of Instagram, for both males and females, reveals the distribution of usage by age, as is illustrated in the
figure below:
Figure 71. Instagram Usage: Analysed by Age and Gender - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
91.8% of women use Instagram. As is visible in the table above, the vast majority of women in the 23-38 age
group use (91%). 78% of Instagram users in total are in the 23-38 age group. In the same age group, those who
do not use Instagram only accounts for 26% of respondents. While the highest percentage of non-users is found
in the age group over 38 years.
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Figure 72. Cross-referenced Instagram Usage: Female Users - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
It was conducted in the two previous tables that Chi-Square (df 2) = 36.21 is significant p value = 0.0000 <0.05,
this means that there is a strong relationship between age and the use of Instagram.
Figure 73. Cross-referenced Chi Square Analysis of Instagram Usage: Female Users - Personal
Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
98% of males surveyed are Instagram users. 82.6% of male Instagram users are aged 23-38. Conversely, those
who do not use it in the same age group are 54% of the 7% of men total who do not use the platform. For those
aged over 38 years, 45.5% of males do not use Instagram.
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Figure 74. Cross-referenced Analysis of Instagram Usage: Male Users - Personal Elaboration of Author
on SPSS (2019)
It was conducted in the two previous tables that Chi-Square (df 2) = 23 is significant p value = 0.00069 <0.05,
this means that there is a strong relationship between age and the use of Instagram.
Figure 75. Cross-referenced Chi Square Analysis of Instagram Usage: Male Users - Personal Elaboration
of Author on SPSS (2019)
This means that the relationship between the use of Instagram and age is weaker in men than in women.
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Subsequently, the distribution of frequencies on the perception of the success of brands was analysed. It is
possible to note that 41.56% of those surveyed perceived Chiara Ferragni to be representative of a successful
brand, while 38.85% saw the CR7 brand as being successful. The remainder varies between 0% and 6%.
Figure 76. Perceptions of Success in Select Brands - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
A cross analysis was carried out between the variable perception of the brand and the gender, the sample being
balanced, the Chi-square is the result (df = 6) = 95.7 very significant with a p value = 0.00001, in fact 32% of
the total number of women sampled perceived Chiara Ferragni as embodying a successful brand, while males
accounted for 8% of the total. The percentage is reversed for the CR7 brand where 30% of men perceived CR7
as a successful brand. The significance of the Chi-Framework obviously depends on the product nature of the
product.
213
Figure 77. Perceptions of Success in Select Brands: By Gender - Personal Elaboration of Author on
SPSS (2019)
Figure 78. Chi Square Analysis of Perceptions of Success in Select Brands - Personal Elaboration of
Author on SPSS (2019)
A cross tabulation has been built between the perception of the brand's success and the purchase of the product,
also in this case the Chi-square (df = 6) = 17.52 is significant with a p value of 0.00755. This shows that there
is a positive correlation between the perception of success and the willingness to buy a product.
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Figure 79. Chi Square Analysis of Perceptions of Success in Select Brands and Purchase Intentions -
Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
In reference to question three, the most significant and strongest brand perceptions of those polled was Chiara
Ferragni with 58.3%, followed by CR7 at 23.9%. The other brands ranged from 2-6%.
Turning to question four, the use of Instagram for brand positioning was (49.4%) very significant, (16.3%)
simply significant, and, finally, (17%) not relevant at all. This shows that not everyone agrees on the relevance
of social media in brand positioning on the market.
In relation to question five, Instagram has been found, by the results of the study, to be most effective for the
Chiara Ferragni brand, with 70.8% of respondents reporting to follow the brand’s promotional activities on the
platform; followed by CR7 with 13.9%. This 70.8% should be multiplied by 49.4%, in order to take into due
consideration those who perceive the importance of brand positioning on Instagram to be significant.
Therefore, the actual quantitative significance of the 70.8% result becomes 35% of the total number of
respondents.
Returning to questions three and five, in analysing the importance of social media for brands in their
promotion, the cross analysis shows that only 50% of those who view Chiara Ferragni Collection’s Instagram
as being important, in terms of promotion, have a positive assessment of the effectiveness of sales of the same
brand. The phenomenon appears to be singular in that among all those who responded that the Ferragni brand
took the greatest advantage of Instagram as a promotional platform, 40% of them believe that CR7’s usage of
Instagram is more relevant. While those who answered CR7 for the promotion, only 3% changed course to
Chiara Ferragni Collection.
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Figure 80. Brand Perceptions - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
In reference to question six, 57% of the sample group stated that the usage of the brand promotion tools
mentioned has lead to medium-high emotional involvement is 27.4%; high and medium-low emotional
involvement come in at 11%.
As regards question seven, 80% of respondents purchased a product from the listed brands. The most effective
linkage between perceptions of brand success and subsequent purchase comes from the Chiara Ferragni
Collection brand; whereas, in CR7 there is a negative relationship between the effectiveness of the promotion
and the act of purchase. 21.13% of those who have indicated the Ferragni brand as being effective in their
promotions have also bought a Chiara Ferragni branded product, while 78.87% have not. The same is true for
CR7. For the other brands listed, hower, despite having a lower reported levels of promotional effectiveness,
the percentages of those who buy the product rise to around 40%. This shows that purchases are made based
on consumer familiarity with the product, and not based on promotional activities carried out on social
networks.
216
Figure 81. Instagram Usage by Influencers and Celebrities and Purchase Intentions - Personal
Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
Turning to question eight, the graph shows that the majority of respondents buy products because of their
association with a specific public figure (40.6%), and an additional 30.4% of respondents make purchasing
decisions based on captivating images. Between 14-18% of respondents are attentive to the quality of the
product as it is linked to the reputation of the brand.
By crossing the purchase motivation with the actual purchase of the brand's products, 86% of those who
consider the image appealing buy the product and 100% of those link the image to the product. This shows the
effectiveness of promotional activities that make use of storytelling carried out on IG Stories and posts on the
purchase intention of the consumers polled.
In reference to question nine, 32.8% of respondents do not consider the connection between purchase
intention and celebrity to be important. 15.4% of those polled see the relationship between the purchase or
non-purchase intention with the celebrity as being present. It should be noted, however, that 19.57% of the
respondents have actually bought at least one product from the brands listed, but not all those who bought the
product pay attention to the celebrity endorser. In fact, among those who have bought celebrity branded items,
only 50.72% of respondents started that they bought the product on the basis of its connection with the
celebrity.
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Figure 82. Instagram Usage and Purchase Intentions - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
59.5% of respondents surveyed are not interested in being seen with a branded product from the brands listed;
however, only 11.2% will not buy a product on the basis of its image being linked to the brand. Among all
those who do not buy a product because they do not want to be seen with it in their possession, 90% are users
of Instagram. This means that they are people informed about the product but storytelling has negatively
affected their purchase intentions. Furthermore, all those who state that they would not buy a brand’s offering
because of their association with the image of a specific figure, such as a celebrity or influencer, are users of
Instagram (100%).
In reference to the final question in this section, the number of products purchased annually is very low, as
92.6% of respondents buy less than two products of the products listed on the questionnaire per year.
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5.2.2.viii Section III: Purchasing factors
1.Which of these brands do you like the most? (332 answers)
Figure 83. Brand Preference - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
2. Who is the founder of the brands included whose personal history interests you the most? (332 answers)
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Figure 84. Founder Preference - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
3. Which of these brands would you recommend to your friends and acquaintances? (332 answers)
Figure 85. Brand Preference in Recommendations - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
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5.2.2.ix Analysis Section III: Purchasing Factors
37.7% of respondents had a positive perception and identification with Cristiano Ronaldo and, therefore, with
his brand. This shows that males tend to more closely identify with the footballer. Whereas, 20.8% of
respondents identified with the Ferragni brand, with more female respondents stating feelings of identification
with Ferragni’s celebrity image.
In total, 34.3% of those surveyed identified with the personal history of Cristiano Ronaldo; 33% with the
history of Chiara Ferragni and her family; and, 13.5% with the story of Serena Williams.
Figure 86. Brand Identification Through Storytelling - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
There is a statistically significant association between the personal storytelling of celebrities and the purchase
of products linked to in celebrity content on Instagram. The Chi-square analysis (df = 6) = 15.3 with a p value
= 0.018 shows that the purchaser of the product is involved with the celebrity or influencer representative of
the product purchased.
In addition, the highest percentage of the respondents would recommend CR7 (39.2%) to friends and family
members. The percentages of those who would make the same recommendation for other brands range from
15-20%.
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5.2.2.x Section IV: Practical Applications on Case Studies Analysed
1. If the Chiara Ferragni Collection/ The Ferragnez brand had a different endorser, how much interest would
you have towards it? (332 answers)
Figure 87. Effects on Chiara Ferragni Brand - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
222
2. If the CR7 brand had a different endorser, how much interest would you have towards it? (332 answers)
Figure 88. Effects on CR7 Brand - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
3. If behind the indicated brands there was not the celebrity endorser, but an ordinary person, how much
interest in your opinion could they arouse? (332 answers)
Figure 89. Effects of a Non-Celebrity Endorser - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS (2019)
223
4. If you worked in the marketing sector of one of the brands indicated, what action would you recommend to
make brand storytelling more effective through Instagram? (332 answers)
Figure 90. Suggestions for More Effective Brand Storytelling - Personal Elaboration of Author on SPSS
(2019)
5.2.2.xi Analysis Section IV: Practical Applications for the Case Studies Analysed
The responses to the questions listed above indicate the way in which changes made to brand endorsement
affects consumers interest in brands. As is illustrated in the figures above, any change in endorsement would
lead to a drastic decrease in the respondent’s interest in purchasing the brand and its products. In fact, about
70% of respondents have a score less than or equal to 3 in the case of Chiara Ferragni. The phenomenon is
confirmed and intensified in the case of CR7 where 52.1% would no longer be interested in the brand if
Ronaldo did not endorse the product.
If behind the brands listed there were not the celebrity endorser, but an ordinary person, interest in the brand
drops dramatically, resulting in roughly 80% having a score of less than or equal to 4. These consumer
attitudes are consistent with choices that cannot be influenced by storytelling.
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Finally, 54.8% of respondents would advise brands to take into consideration the perceived authenticity of
promotional activities engaged in through storytelling on Instagram.
5.2.2xii Two-Way Multivariate Analysis of Variance MANOVA
The quantitative dependent variables are "how much the celebrity influenced the purchase" and "if there was
no celebrity behind the brand, what would have affected the purchase of the brand" evaluated on the 7-point
Likert scale. The factors that resulted significant findings are: Use of Instagram, purchase of the product and
gender. The method is Main Effect Manova: below are the graphs of the averages and the Wilks test. Figure 88
shows that there is a significant relationship between being an Instagram user and the two adaptable
employees; F (2.32) = 8.0135 is significant: p-value <0.05. The average score of users with regard to the
influence on the propensity to purchase is significantly higher than for non-users. This is described in Figure
88 (the vertical bars represent the confidence intervals for the averages.
On the x-axis there are the modalities of the factor while on the ordinates we find the means of the dependent
variable.
Figure 91. Instagram Users - Personal Elaboration of Author (2019)
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Figure 89 shows that there is a significant relationship between the product purchased and the two dependent
variables represented by the average score that the interviewees assigned with regard to the influence of a
celebrity or influencer on the propensity to purchase and an evaluation of the same in the absence of the
character : F (2.327) = 14.024 is significant: p-value <0.05. The average score of purchasers of branded
products regarding the influence on the propensity to purchase is significantly higher than for purchasers of
non-branded products. This is described in Figure 89 (the vertical bars, as in the previous graph, represent the
confidence intervals for the averages.
On the x-axis there are the modalities of the factor while on the ordinates we find the means of the dependent
variable.
Figure 92. Celebrity or Influencer Effect on Purchase Intentions - Personal Elaboration of Author (2019)
In addition, Figure 90 illustrates factors which influence the average score on the influence of storytelling on
purchase intent. The value of Fisher's F is at the limits of significance with alpha = 0.05. F (2.327) = 3.0605 p-
value = 0.04821. The average score on the influence of storytelling on the purchase intention does not change
226
between males and females. Instead, it changes in regards to consumers’ judgment on the usefulness or
attractiveness of the endorser.
Figure 93. Celebrity or Influencer Effect on Purchase Intentions (Males and Females) - Personal
Elaboration of Author (2019)
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Factor Analysis
The eigenvalue graph (Scree Plot) shows a correlation between the variables measured on a 7-point Likert
scale, sufficient to lead to a PCA. This relationship makes it possible to construct groupings between variables
which is useful for the construction of indicators of latent factors. The first two factors explain 34.88% and
25.28% respectively of the overall variability.
Figure 94. Eigenvalue Analysis - Personal Elaboration of Author (2019)
The variables evaluated on the Likert scale were analysed with the statistical technique of multivariate analysis
(PCA) in order to construct latent factors through which to interpret the phenomena through appropriate
indicators. From the factor loadings table we can see that the first factor groups the variables that express the
228
link between the brand and the character (Factor 1) while the second factor is an indicator of how much the
brand-endorser link affects the consumer.
Figure 95. Variable Factors - Personal Elaboration of Author (2019)
5.2.2.xiii Synthesis of the Findings
The questionnaire demonstrates just how successful the brands chosen to serve as the basis of the case studies
in Chapter Four, th Chiara Ferragni Collection and CR7, actually are. Indeed, the other brands selected for the
questionnaire were indicated at minimal percentage levels by respondents.
Perception of brand success, the effectiveness of brand storytelling on Instagram, and purchase
intentions were the parameters used for the purposes of this qualitative and quantitative analysis. Of these
factors, there is a clear link present between consumers’ perceptions of brand success and perceived
desirability of a brand. In addition, the majority of respondents are more likely to buy a product when it is
229
linked to a well-known figure. Moreover, the motivation to purchase, when placed in relation to the actual
purchase of a brand's product, highlights the effectiveness of brand storytelling through IG stories and posts on
purchase intention.
However, when compared to the questions asked to verify the actual incidence of the storytelling
engaged in by a celebrity on purchase intentions, the results were less definitive as many of those surveyed did
not view a significant link between the two factors. As to the second parameter, the questions aimed at
verifying whether the actual purchase of the product was linked to a celebrity’s image, also demonstrated less
than definitive results. Here, of those who were asked if they had bought a celebrity endorser product from the
brands listed, only half had been induced to purchase because of the celebrity-brand connection.
As regards the questions related to storytelling, it can be seen that among those who refrain from
purchasing certain products, the majority of respondents are driven by a desire to avoid showing themselves to
be associated with a particular brand. Of these respondents the vast majority are Instagram users, and are,
therefore, well-informed about the brand and its communication strategies online. Thus, the creation of an
association between a celebrity and a brand through storytelling does not necessarily translate positively into
purchase intentions in consumers.
In addition, as illustrated above, as brand storytelling is engaged in by well-known figures, be they

influencers or celebrities, who embody brands, there is an enormous involvement on the part of the storyteller
and audience. So much so that there is a high percentage of respondents who feel that they identify with
Cristiano Ronaldo and the brand he embodies, CR7, on a meaningful level. A statistically significant
association emerges between the personal storytelling celebrities engage in on Instagram and the purchase of
products connected brand to the brands they represent. Conversely, the analysis of the practical applications to
the case studies analysed shows that the absence of a celebrity endorser would result in a drastic reduction in
the interest of consumers’ in the purchase of offerings from said brand, this is especially present in the analysis
of the CR7 brand.
Finally, a key point which has emerged from the qualitative analysis is the keenly expressed need for
authenticity in promotion through storytelling, even when performed through Instagram, as the credibility of
the brand is a factor that can be decisive in the mediation of purchase intention.
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Conclusion
Nowadays, storytelling, and, more specifically, brand storytelling, has become an essential element of effective
marketing. Compared to traditional tools of marketing such as print media and radio, the diffusion and impact
of digital tools, through which a combination of visual and interactive elements allows for a greater
involvement and immersiveness, such is seen on social media, has had a transformative effect on the practices
of marketing.
Whether it be brand storytelling or personal storytelling, in the current (content) consumption context,
branding and contemporary consumption have been inextribility influenced by the fiction economy. As ways
of forging the reputational and communicative value of a brand, a product, a person, storytelling opens
channels of communication that have never before been present between brands and consumers. In such
communication the goal is not just to sell a product; rather the aim is to offer a specific plot, a set of contents
that can generate emotions and give meaning. The aim, therefore, is not only financial but the constant increase
of possibilities. The characters and experiences of brandtelling that are presented can, therefore, be traced back
to stories that enchant, that is, those that allow us to build a narrative link that leads the consumer to want to be
part of the story, and for this reason, is willing to invest money.
Thanks to the contribution of social media, these stories are spread out across a plethora of platforms,
with which it is possible to propose hyper-contents under narrative formats. Content, which is represented by
texts, photos, videos, stories, with which branding activities are built and shared, and through which services,
products and brands are proposed, is fundamental to any narrative endeavour. What the brand must be able to
do is find a connection with the public first of all in relation to life-like or experiential narratives. In particular,
if you want to get the most out of narrative branding, you need to take into account consumers' ability to
empathise, tapping into that essentially human ability to think against all stringent logic, make use of
imagination, fantasy, dreams, and beliefs. Inasmuch, it is posited that Instagram has proved crucial for a
number of brands in their attempts to engage in brand storytelling, introduce new products to consumers, and,
ultimately, stimulate purchase intentions.
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Managerial Implications
The managerial implications that can be derived from the contents of this thesis are related to the following
aspects:
For companies and brands that use stories, especially those who use Instagram as a platform, there is a
room for improvement. First, there should be greater emphasis on building strong ties, which is an
appropriate and positive way to build and foster consumer-brand relationships. The literature has also
indicated that storytelling is an effective way of increasing the involvement and attractiveness of the
brand towards consumers; however, but quantitative and qualitative analyses undertaken for the
purposes of this thesis have shown that it is necessary to link brand promotion tool more effectively
with more direct purchase methods, thus reducing the steps between first approach and purchase.
A well-designed brand story must include four elements - authenticity, conciseness, reversal, and
humor - however, authenticity is the used and the most important of these elements. This element is
associated with truth and reality, which has positive effects on brand attitudes and intentions, as
suggested by past research, while the latter elements listed imply notions of clarity and memorability,
thereby also contributing to building positive brand attitudes.
When choosing brand storytelling tools, credibility must be maximised in order to obtain a narrative
that the consumer can actually feel close to, as opposed to a story which feels artificial or otherwise
contrived.
Although there are certainly other alternative tools to traditional forms of marketing, through which
brand storytelling can be carried out, the most effective way to tell story that are the basis of brand
identity, generate participation, interaction and identification at present is Instagram. This is largely due
to the fact that Instagram, and those who make use of it, exhibit a significant of influence on its users,
which has a to direct effect on purchase intentions.
232
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Riassunto
La tesi ha ad oggetto un’analisi della marca quale risorsa chiave per l’impresa, in particolare si esamina
l’importanza della narrazione, nello specifico quale racconto di sé stessi, finalizzato a creare ed accrescere il
valore di un brand. Al centro dello studio non è posto il brand nella sua accezione tradizionale, ma in una veste
che ha avuto risalto e sviluppo soprattutto grazie alla diffusione dei digital media, ed in particolare, di
Instagram. Difatti, verranno presi in considerazione, in particolare, i casi concreti di alcune celebrity, che,
attraverso il personal storytelling hanno puntato, e puntano, gran parte della loro strategia di marketing sulla
narrazione di sé stessi.
Lo storytelling affonda le radici nell’antichità, l’arte di raccontare storie è una delle forme di comunicazione
umana più vecchie, quella maggiormente radicata nel tempo. Di conseguenza il lavoro inquadra storicamente la
sua nascita e lo sviluppo nel tempo, partendo dalle modalità più basilari di narrazione (storie, fiabe, miti), fino
ad arrivare alla realtà attuale.
In primo luogo vengono individuate le origini del racconto in senso ampio, da non confondere con la “storia”
intesa quale descrizione oggettiva ed ordinata di fatti ed eventi così come succedutisi nella loro sequenza
cronologica. Un racconto è qualcosa di diverso, fatto di percezioni, rappresentazioni, memoria, finzione,
immaginazione, personaggi, trame, scene, tutti tenuti insieme dall’interpretazione quale forza – guida. Se è vero
che la distinzione tra storia e storytelling risulta, come descritta, piuttosto chiara, è altrettanto vero che nella vita
quotidiana è difficile scindere le due modalità di organizzare le esperienze, che risultano fuse in una unica, ed è
anche rilevato come ciò accadeva già nell’antica Grecia, laddove si verificava una sovrapposizione tra i concetti
di kronos e mythos.
È stata proposta per definire meglio i confini dello storytelling una classificazione fondata su quattro elementi
principali che lo caratterizzano: il messaggio; il conflitto; i personaggi; la trama. Inoltre, vengono delineate le
tre funzioni dello storytelling, ovvero la funzione pubblica, la funzione individuale dello storytelling ed infine
quella relazionale.
Tra le analisi più rilevanti in materia, vengono evidenziate le cosiddette 6S+1 dello storytelling, classificazione
proposta dal Prof. Fontana per individuare un numero di distinti ruoli che rappresentano le costanti della
narrazione: storyteller, story-architect, story-listener, story, set, show. Oltre questi viene, in realtà, descritta
anche un’ulteriore figura che è quella dello story-holder, che entra in azione quando il pubblico diventa co-
creatore di racconti.
La ricostruzione effettuata prende in considerazione i diversi schemi e modelli narrativi elaborati dai più
importanti autori che si sono interessati alla tematica: Propp, Campbell, Vogler, Booker. Dall’analisi delle
elaborazioni teoriche degli autori indicati, si evince come molti brand abbiano attinto, facendone
un’applicazione pratica evidente, proprio agli elementi narrativi della storia da essi configurati, per creare delle
campagne di marketing, principalmente diffuse tramite i media tradizionali, che rappresentano in modo chiaro
tutti i passaggi dei diversi schemi narrativi illustrati, e che vengono descritte nella tesi. Si tratta di adverts a
volte anche molto noti, venuti alla ribalta proprio in ragione dell’uso peculiare di modelli di storytelling
tradizionali.
Oltre al quadro generale, è svolto un esame più approfondito della valenza del brand storytelling, nell’ambito
del corporate storytelling, partendo dalla descrizione di come la comunicazione attraverso un racconto sia in
grado di influenzare il consumatore, e quindi di attrarlo e legarlo al marchio. Quindi, si analizzano più
specificamente le applicazioni dello storytelling al Marketing, ripercorrendo anche per questo aspetto le
evoluzioni storiche a cui si è assistito. L’uso di meccanismi narrativi non è stato, difatti, sempre parte integrante
degli strumenti del settore, ma ha trovato rilevante diffusione soprattutto a partire dagli anni ’90, ed a maggior
ragione con il boom economico e tecnologico che vi ha fatto seguito, e con più slancio grazie ad Internet. Solo
più di recente è stato, in particolare, apprezzato il tipo di relazione tra brand e consumatore che deriva dallo
storytelling, tanto da rendere necessaria la previsioni di appositi ruoli all’interno delle aziende per occuparsene,
sconosciuti prima dell’avvento dei social media. Proprio la crescita di questi ha portato a rivedere radicalmente
la tradizionale concezione dello storytelling, generando nuove opportunità, ma anche nuove sfide per i
marketers e per le loro campagne.
In particolare, l’analisi del corporate storytelling mette in risalto come una storia rappresenti sempre il racconto
orale o scritto di episodi ed esperienze, passati o presenti, che coinvolgono uno o più soggetti, tanto che essa si
può definire come una serie di eventi posti in un ordine specifico con un inizio, uno svolgimento ed una fine.
Fare storytelling, nell’ambito della gestione del brand, non significa semplicemente raccontare storie, anche
perché non esiste una locuzione italiana che traduca al meglio questo concetto. Si è ipotizzato di tradurre il
termine con “parlare o dire attraverso un racconto”, ma l’esperienza dimostra come il significato non possa
semplicemente considerarsi quello di raccontare storie, ma, in modo più appropriato, costruire racconti.
Quindi, si arriva all’aspetto più rilevante del racconto di marca, che risiede nel corporate storytelling, che
implica dimensioni multiple (individualistica, socio-organizzativa, legale/regolatoria). Le diverse declinazioni
dello storytelling d’impresa mostrano come in tale ambito la narrazione risponde a finalità molteplici ed assume
un’importanza via via crescente. Attraverso le storie i marketers riescono, dunque, ad incrementare
l’engagement con il pubblico, facendolo sentire più autenticamente coinvolto, e con la finalità ultima di creare
una connessione emotiva personale, e da questo punto di vista il corporate storytelling presenta gli stessi tratti
di quello individuale.
Un particolare modello descrittivo dei cinque elementi (Glue, Reward, Emotion, Authentic, Target) su cui si
basa il successo o meno di una campagna di marketing, è rappresentato dallo schema individuato da Nguyen,
che ha elaborato il modello G.R.E.A.T., ritenuto di grande utilità per i marketers per l’elaborazione di storie con
le quali i consumatori sono in grado di identificarsi e sentirsi partecipi.
L’analisi tende dunque a dimostrare come lo strumento della storia rappresenti una fondamentale modalità di
valorizzazione del brand, che affonda le radici in periodi storici ormai lontani, ma che, grazie soprattutto ai
nuovi strumenti digitali ed all’evoluzione tecnologica, ha potuto e continuerà ad avere un ampliamento ed uno
sviluppo di tutte le potenzialità.
Dopo aver illustrato i caratteri generali dello storytelling, viene analizzato proprio l’impatto e l’evoluzione della
narrazione mediante strumenti digitali. Lo sviluppo dello storytelling applicato al marketing è un risultato
direttamente legato alla crescita ed alla diffusione, non solo dei media tradizionali come televisione, radio e
stampa, ma soprattutto dei media digitali, ed in particolare di Internet, e a maggior ragione dei social networks.
Inevitabilmente il modo di raccontare storie, che per migliaia di anni ha caratterizzato l’esperienza umana, ne è
stato modificato, soprattutto in ragione della facilità con cui Internet permette oggi, praticamente a chiunque, di
raggiungere, anche con dispositivi non particolarmente evoluti, una platea mondiale.
Sono le caratteristiche del transmedia storytelling a rivelarsi decisive. Esso consente, mediante l’uso di una
pluralità di diverse piattaforme digitali, di implementare e sviluppare la narrazione attraverso modalità che non
hanno eguali nel passato. Il processo ha avuto un’impennata grazie all’introduzione dei dispositivi mobili,
contribuendo, nel marketing, allo sviluppo di nuove strategie di comunicazione e creando un ambiente in cui lo
storytelling permette di diffondere con sempre maggiore frequenza le storie. Non solo, le nuove piattaforme
consentono anche che queste ultime, una volta comunicate, restino fruibili ed a disposizione del pubblico online.
I cambiamenti tecnologici hanno dato il là ad una cruciale modifica nel ruolo assunto dal consumatore nella
gestione dei media: questo non è più, soltanto, uno spettatore passivo, ma diventa un partecipante attivo in un
processo in cui gli è consentita accessibilità costante alla storia, ed in un contesto in cui la nuova generazione ha
l’aspettativa di poter accedere alle informazioni con facilità e velocità impensabili in passato. Sotto tale profilo,
impatto fondamentale è giocato da media quali Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, che hanno
radicalmente alterato la percezione di come le storie vengono narrate ed il ruolo dell’audience nella narrazione.
L’efficacia di un progetto transmediale nell’accrescimento di engagement verso il pubblico dipende da una
pluralità di fattori, e generalmente si ritiene che la stessa storia debba essere diffusa su almeno tre diverse
piattaforme, in modo tale che ciascuna contribuisca in qualche modo all’intero racconto. Il fattore chiave è dato
dalla possibilità per lo spettatore di diventare partecipante attivo nella storia, attraverso l’uso di una pluralità di
canali, nell’ambito dei quali ciascun media possa dare il suo contributo in modo peculiare allo sviluppo della
storia (Jenkins, 2013).
Lo storytelling è sempre stato una costante dell’esperienza umana, e l’emergere delle nuove tecnologie, ed in
particolare di Internet e dei social media ha fatto sì che il digital storytelling sia giunto ad avere un ruolo
cruciale nel marketing, laddove lo scopo ultimo è quello di innescare il coinvolgimento e la purchase intention
dei clienti. Ciò nonostante, la letteratura non evidenzia unicamente i vantaggi nell’applicazione del digital
storytelling al marketing (connection, identity, brand identification, brand image, application), ma anche alcuni
svantaggi, che possono minarne l’efficacia. Difatti, tra gli errori più comuni, sono segnalati l’uso di messaggi
contraddittori o confusi, di menzogne, l’uso di toni inappropriati, il provocare reazioni forzate.
Gli strumenti digitali permettono che lo storytelling possa diventare sempre più coinvolgente per il pubblico, in
quanto l’impatto della comunicazione visiva è un fattore di accrescimento che contribuisce a far immergere in
modo più profondo lo spettatore nel racconto. Difatti, l’uso delle immagini e di altri elementi visivi rende
chiaramente più efficace la narrazione, ma bisogna sempre considerare che l’autore della storia deve, in tal caso,
accertarsi che le immagini vengano percepite dai destinatari secondo una corretta decodifica, e per raggiungere
tale obiettivo è necessario che da esse siano ricavabili idee facilmente comprensibili.
Lo strumento visivo e le immagini semplificano la comunicazione, così consentendo strategie di marketing
incentrate sui social media, e tra questi, si è scelto di concentrarsi su quello che nell’ultimo decennio ha
registrato l’ exploit maggiore in termini di diffusione ed utilizzo: si tratta di Instagram, lanciato nel 2010, che
proprio sulla sua natura principalmente visuale ha costruito il proprio successo. Come si dimostrerà, le
funzionalità che tale applicazione consente ai propri users ed utenti rappresentano uno dei fattori che lo rendono
tanto indicato come strumento di narrazione, anche per un brand, ma soprattutto, per una persona. Instagram ha
impiegato relativamente poco a scavalcare social media già in passato attivi e diffusi quali Facebook, Youtube,
Twitter ecc., nell’ambito delle strategie di Marketing delle aziende più lungimiranti, che proprio grazie a questa
scelta hanno avuto un impatto incredibilmente positivo sulle vendite. Il suo successo, in particolare, è stato
attribuito alla semplicità dell’approccio comunicativo che consente non solo la diffusione di enormi quantità di
informazioni con modalità visive, ma anche la loro ordinata organizzazione e catalogazione mediante gli
hashtags. Proprio la natura prettamente visuale del media, che si è sviluppato con tassi di crescita
straordinariamente elevati in pochissimi anni, aumentando le funzionalità a disposizione degli utenti, sempre in
un ottica di consentirgli un ruolo progressivamente più attivo, ha rappresentato la sua arma vincente. Oltretutto,
si tratta di un’applicazione gratuita, che mediante la semplice condivisione di un’immagine, senza la necessità di
tante parole o descrizioni (che pure è possibile inserire), consente all’utente di raggiungere un pubblico
planetario. Inoltre, e si tratta di un aspetto da non sottovalutare, Instagram consente all’utente di verificare,
attraverso lo strumento degli Insights, l’efficacia in termini di penetrazione ed interazione della comunicazione
svolta con il suo utilizzo, e, quindi, in definitiva, l’engagement generato nel consumatore, e, di conseguenza, il
successo o il fallimento della comunicazione da parte del brand.
È facile comprendere come tale strumento sia divenuto rapidamente un mezzo privilegiato di interazione del
brand con il proprio pubblico. Per tali motivi, si è ritenuto che Instagram abbia inciso profondamente anche
sulle strategie di marketing delle aziende, che già si avvalevano di Facebook, Twitter e Youtube come strumenti
di comunicazione del marchio, soprattutto e grazie all’introduzione di funzionalità quali le IG stories, che
permettono di dare risalto, con brevi filmati (che restano visibili per 24 ore sul profilo interessato), ad episodi e
accadimenti della vita quotidiana. In tale ottica, grande rilevanza hanno assunto le collaborazioni, soprattutto
quelle con i c.d. brand ambassador ed inluencers, soggetti che, in ragione del loro particolare status, possono
avere con i loro commenti e le loro attività un impatto diretto sul comportamento dei consumatori. Ecco perché,
i brand hanno compreso che sempre più cruciale diventa l’individuazione di quegli influencers che possono nel
modo migliore raggiungere una predeterminata target audience. Le modalità di collaborazione per realizzare tali
risultati sono molteplici, e ciascuna presenta vantaggi e svantaggi, ma sicuramente tutte, nel contesto attuale,
sono molto più efficaci rispetto ai contenuti tradizionali con la finalità di aumentare la visibilità del brand e la
brand engagement, e per modellare le relazioni tra brand e consumatori.
Nell’ottica del lavoro svolto, assume fondamentale rilievo il personal storytelling, inteso come narrazione della
vita di un individuo, ipotesi speciale ed emblematica di come la narrazione incide sulla rappresentazione e sulla
visione della persona, quindi sulla percezione che della persona si ha all’esterno. La narrazione autobiografica
ha avuto sempre un grande potere, a maggior ragione nella realtà attuale in cui le nuove tecnologie di
comunicazione, tra cui anche e soprattutto Instagram consentono di ampliare in modo inimmaginabile in passato
la cerchia di soggetti a cui la storia viene comunicata, e tramite di essa, i valori e l’identità del soggetto. Si ha
riprova dell’importanza di una narrazione quotidiana proprio nei casi di brand che sono oggetto di analisi, in
quanto si dimostra come il racconto della vita reale, della persona che identifica il brand, rappresenti un fattore
cruciale per le strategie di marketing. Sono stati i social media ad amplificare gli strumenti attraverso i quali
attuare strategie di comunicazione, basandosi su quattro fondamentali elementi: il motivo, il contenuto, la rete,
il ruolo sociale e le interazioni. Tali elementi, combinati tra di loro contribuiscono a creare il microcosmo di
interazioni e comunicazione che forma le basi dello storytelling tramite social media.
Non è possibile sottovalutare i processi di umanizzazione del brand (Human Branding), che hanno avuto
rilevante impatto sul marketing, ed in particolare su quello praticato online, attraverso i social networks. Questo
processo in cui l’individuo diventa brand è strettamente connesso con il personal branding, e trova il suo
culmine nell’uso dei social media, che permettono la creazione di un brand status, raggiungibile unicamente
tramite il consumo e l’esposizione tramite i mass media di identità e personalità, come se fossero beni. Quando
gli individui diventano brand, si è assistito ad un fenomeno definito come brand love, per cui si intende un
atteggiamento particolarmente positivo nei confronti di un brand che incarna le emozioni, il comportamento e le
percezioni dei consumatori.
Terreno fertile per lo sviluppo dello Human Branding è il modo in cui le celebrities se ne avvalgono. La
relazione tra esseri umani e brand si basa sull’esistenza di una qualche forma di interazione tra le personalità
delle due entità, in quanto esiste effettivamente una relazione tra individui e marchi. Questa connessione, si basa
sul concetto per cui che i tratti della personalità associati a un marchio possono influenzare l'atteggiamento dei
consumatori. La brand personality consiste proprio in un insieme di caratteristiche umane e tratti della
personalità associati ad un determinato brand, e rappresenta una pietra miliare nello sviluppo del legame
emotivo che si crea tra questo ed i consumatori. Si è ritenuto che essa sia misurabile in termini di tre dimensioni
distinte, che portano ad atteggiamenti favorevoli e generano purchase intention. Queste dimensioni sono la
preferenza, intesa come percezione positiva dei tratti e della personalità di un marchio, in relazione ai benefici
conferiti al consumatore. Il concetto di preferenza è applicabile anche ai marchi umani, poiché la misura in cui i
consumatori conservano impressioni favorevoli sulla personalità o sui tratti caratteriali di una celebrità ha un
impatto diretto per la creazione di una relazione positiva tra marchi e consumatori. Poi c’è l’originalità, quale
percezione di novità della personalità di un determinato marchio, o comunque distinzione, differenza di un
marchio dai suoi concorrenti nel settore. Ed infine la chiarezza, riferita agli aspetti “apparenti e riconoscibili”
della personalità del marchio agli occhi dei consumatori.
L’aspetto che rende interessante l’analisi del “brand umano”, soprattutto, nella forma dei cd. influencers e delle
celebrities di Instagram, consiste nell’esame dei tratti distintivi caratterizzanti tali situazioni, rispetto allo status
ed al comportamento degli utenti medi di Instagram. Per tali motivi si è resa necessaria un’analisi specifica, sia
demografica che per aree geografiche, per genere, per età, per estrazione sociale, volta a fare luce sulle
caratteristiche degli utenti “medi” di Instagram. Vengono posti a confronto coloro che, attraverso tale strumento
si limitano ad un’interazione con il resto degli utenti, e quindi, anche con i brand, rispetto a soggetti che, invece,
hanno fatto di Instagram uno strumento chiave della loro attività professionale: i cd. influencers, soggetti che
hanno acquisito l’abilità e il potere di indirizzare gli acquirenti potenziali di un prodotto o di un servizio,
promuovendo o raccomandando gli articoli attraverso i social media, ed, in alcuni casi, diventando loro stessi i
creatori di personal brand, la cui creazione, sviluppo, e valore sono completamente frutto di strategie di
marketing attuate attraverso social media. Ulteriori differenze messe in risalto sono quelle esistenti rispetto alle
celebrities, in quanto associate a notorietà e straordinarietà di cui le altre figure indicate sono prive, e su cui
proprio queste personalità possono puntare per raccontare storie che vanno oltre l’ordinario, storie che riescono
a colpire l’immaginario del pubblico, e soddisfarne l’aspirazione a poter ricondurre il marchio ad un volto.
Il concetto di celebrity non è più assimilabile a quello delle celebrità “tradizionali”, principalmente modelli a cui
ispirarsi e con cui porsi a confronto: oggi prevale una concezione di celebrity rivoluzionata dall’uso dei social
network, tanto è vero che la fascia di consumatori che maggiormente risente della comunicazione tramite gli
strumenti descritti, corrisponde alla fascia di età più ampia nell’uso di essi, ed in particolare di Instagram, i c.d.
millennials. Inizialmente, il ruolo delle celebrity è principalmente ed esclusivamente quello di endorser di
prodotti, attività ancora oggi più diffusa basata sull’influenza delle loro personalità, in quanto tramite la
“raccomandazione” di alcuni beni piuttosto che di altri, è possibile orientare le preferenze di acquisto dei
consumatori. Dunque attualmente celebrities ed influencers rappresentano utenti d’eccezione, mossi alla loro
partecipazione nei social media ed a Instagram in particolare, da motivazioni che sono diverse ed estranee a
quelle della generalità del pubblico. Le celebrities, soprattutto, hanno mostrato il loro valore come Human
Brands, nel senso di essere identificate nei marchi sponsorizzati, fino a giungere ad un processo di sviluppo del
proprio personal brand. Diverso è il caso degli influencers, sebbene spesso questo ruolo rappresenti il
trampolino di lancio verso lo status di celebrity. Queste persone, spesso, hanno visto rivoluzionata la loro
esistenza semplicemente grazie all’uso di Instagram, ed in alcuni casi dall’anonimato hanno acquisito in poco
tempo una straordinaria notorietà, che, di conseguenza, gli ha permesso di generare appeal nei brand, per il
modo in cui questa notorietà può riflettersi positivamente sulla promozione del proprio prodotto. Limitandosi a
mostrarsi nella loro realtà quotidiana, raccontando storie di vita vissuta, mentre usano e vengono ritratte con
determinati prodotti, queste figure ottengono quale risultato quello di attrarre verso il brand il proprio pubblico,
connettendosi con i consumatori in modo diretto, organico ed autentico.
Mentre gli influencers rappresentano quasi degli “intermediari” tra brand e consumatori, quale applicazione ed
esempio pratico delle affermazioni teoriche sviluppate nella tesi, al centro dell’analisi sono posti due brand che
in modo più significativo rappresentano come la narrazione di marca tramite Instagram, ed in particolare la
narrazione della vita privata e quotidiana di chi li ha creati e li incarna, Chiara Ferragni (per Chiara Ferragni
Collection), e Cristiano Ronaldo (per CR7), siano stati fondamentali per far raggiungere risultati eccezionali a
livello di vendite e di notorietà dei loro prodotti. Questi dimostrano come gli strumenti di marketing digitale
riflettano il bisogno dei consumatori di avere un contatto più diretto ed autentico con i brand, superando le
forme tradizionali di advertising, oramai divenute inadeguate, soprattutto per alcune tipologie di prodotti, se
utilizzate in modo esclusivo. I brand indicati hanno in comune molti aspetti, prima di tutto il fatto di essere
Human Brands, e di puntare sullo storytelling come forma di Personal Branding, vale a dire su forme di
narrazione di sé stessi, per rappresentare anche il racconto di marca.
Chiara Ferragni è nota per la sua ascesa da semplice fashion blogger, prima ad influencer di fama mondiale, ed
infine a musa per milioni di followers, che l’ha portata, nell’arco di meno di un decennio, ad essere addirittura
inserita dalla rivista Forbes nella sua lista “30 under 30” delle figure più influenti nel mondo del business
nell’anno 2015, nonché ad essere oggetto di un Case Study alla Harvard Business School. Quanto la narrazione
personale che viene effettuata quotidianamente sia imprescindibile per il successo e le vendite del brand Chiara
Ferragni Collection, e quanto questa strategia influenzi la purchase intention dei consumatori, è un dato
inconfutabile. Il personaggio in questione, anche grazie all’utilizzo di Instagram, ha captato le tendenza più
evolute delle strategie di marketing, ed ha tramutato questa intuizione in vendite, ed in notorietà del proprio
brand. Non è un caso che Chiara Ferragni abbia compreso come, oltre ad accostarsi ai marchi dei prodotti
patrocinati nella veste di influencer, ciò che impatta maggiormente sul pubblico è la costruzione di storie di vita
quotidiana reale, di credibilità intorno alla propria persona, in modo tale che l’abbinamento con il marchio non
strida con chi lo rappresenta.
Oltre al caso di Chiara Ferragni, è stato preso in esame il brand CR7, che si identifica con il creatore Cristiano
Ronaldo, la cui notorietà non è circoscritta al mondo del calcio e dello sport, essendo riuscito a distinguersi non
solo come atleta e testimonial di vari brand, ma soprattutto come Human Brand per CR7. Il grande successo che
ha caratterizzato tutte le iniziative che ruotano attorno al calciatore, va oltre il semplice endorsement di altri
famosi top brands, ed ha portato il suo personal brand a diventare la principale fonte di successo finanziario.
L’impatto che ha avuto Cristiano Ronaldo sui social network rappresenta proprio l’ingrediente principale che gli
ha consentito di sviluppare un personal brand, che attraverso lo storytelling ha costruito la propria rilevanza.
Gli esempi oggetto di approfondimento rappresentano la dimostrazione pratica di coma la narrazione di sé
stessi, attuata attraverso strumenti digitali, ed in particolare avvalendosi di Instagram per il racconto di vita
quotidiana, quando la persona si identifica con il creatore del brand, diventa brand storytelling a tutti gli effetti.
Oltre alla trattazione teorica, una parte fondamentale del lavoro è quella che riporta gli esiti delle analisi svolte,
oltre alla illustrazione dei contenuti della ricerca qualitativa. Sono state sottoposte delle interviste semi-
strutturate a tre diverse categorie professionali, tutte, a titolo diverso, idonee a fornire un loro punto di vista sui
temi di ricerca, basandosi sulle attività svolte e sull'esperienza acquisita. Si tratta sia di influencers, che di
esperti del settore, nonché di un Partner McKinsey, che, in ragione della loro competenza specifica, sono stati in
grado di offrire un quadro pratico.
Attraverso lo strumento delle interviste qualitative, svolte sottoponendo domande formulate ad hoc in relazione
al campo di attività di ciascun soggetto interpellato, è stato possibile ottenere interessanti evidenze dell’efficacia
dell’uso della narrazione del brand tramite Instagram e tramite IG stories sulla purchase intention, verificando
se si tratta di un aspetto che, in casi diversi da quelli di studio presentati nella tesi, potrebbe risultare altrettanto
decisivo.
I punti chiave che sono emersi dalle interviste qualitative, e dalla ricerca quantitativa descrittiva volta alla
identificazione dei driver della purchase intention nel brand storytelling, attuata mediante la somministrazione
di un questionario a cui ha partecipato un campione di 362 persone, sono molto interessanti. La finalità della
ricerca è stata quella di verificare se alcune delle asserzioni della letteratura analizzate nella tesi, da un punto di
vista teorico, trovino anche un riscontro concreto dal punto di vista pratico – applicativo.
Dai risultati non sono emerse soltanto conferme. Difatti, se è vero che l’uso del brand storytelling mediante
Instagram è fondamentale per il posizionamento del brand, soprattutto nel mercato dei c.d. Millennials, è venuto
fuori che non altrettanto è possibile affermare in modo generalizzato per il lancio di un nuovo brand, in quanto è
possibile che, a seconda del settore merceologico di cui fa parte, potrebbero essere più efficaci i media
tradizionali (televisione e stampa). Neppure, dalle interviste, si è ritenuto che l’uso delle IG stories sia
necessariamente più incisivo ai fini della purchase intention rispetto alla pubblicazione dei posts, soprattutto in
ragione del fatto che mentre le prime hanno una durata temporanea, questi ultimi restano visibili a tempo
indeterminato.
L’altro aspetto di grande rilievo emerso è che la massimizzazione della purchase intention è legata
maggiormente all’uso di modalità che consentano di abbreviare il percorso di acquisto, e di velocizzare la
possibilità del consumatore di finalizzare il coinvolgimento e l’attrattività che invece sono generati dalla
narrazione di marca.
Sicuramente uno dei fattori più incisivi emersi dall’analisi quantitativa è che quando la narrazione di marca
viene associata con l’uso di figure note nell’ambiente, e di celebrities come influencers, si genera un grande
coinvolgimento con il pubblico, e questo si evince dall’alta percentuale di rispondenti che, per esempio,
nell’acquisto del brand CR7 si identifica con il suo creatore, e gran parte di tale engagement deriva dall’uso di
Instagram.
Il questionario, oltre ai brand analizzati come casi principali della tesi, ha riguardato anche altri marchi del
settore fashion, caratterizzati dall’essere il creatore del brand anche il personaggio che identifica il brand stesso,
una celebrità di fama. Sono tutti esempi, non meno rilevanti e significativi, in cui la narrazione di sé stesso
svolta dal personaggio realizza anche il racconto di marca (KKW beauty, Victoria Beckham, The Attico, S by
Serena, Nastygal). Non si tratta, nemmeno in questi casi, di personaggi che accostano in loro nome al brand
semplicemente per promuoverlo o agire da testimonial o influencer, ma di coloro che con il marchio si
identificano, e che, raccontando loro stessi, in modo autentico, diretto, e con il coinvolgimento del pubblico,
realizzano brand storytelling.
È stata svolta, inoltre, anche un’analisi quantitativa MANOVA, che ha dimostrato l’esistenza di una relazione
significativa tra l’essere un utente che utilizza Instragram, l’acquisto del prodotto, ed il genere dell’utilizzatore,
nonché l’esistenza di una significativa relazione tra gli acquirenti del prodotto e le due variabili dipendenti, con
una rilevante incidenza sulla propensione all’acquisto data dall’essere già un utilizzatore del brand.
L’appartenenza ad un genere o all’altro incide in relazione all’impatto dello storytelling sull’intenzione di
acquisto, mentre il punteggio medio dell’influenza dello storytelling sulla volontà di acquisto non varia a
seconda del genere maschile o femminile.
I dati statistici presi in considerazione permettono, dunque, di verificare che in concreto, la narrazione di marca
che diventa racconto della vita quotidiana della celebrity che incarna ed identifica il brand non assume una
incidenza decisiva ai fini della volontà di acquisto, ma, piuttosto, si rivela fondamentale più in una fase
antecedente (consideration), e soprattutto anche in una fase successiva, laddove si tratta di incrementare la
loyalty del consumatore.
Una volta esposti i risultati quantitativi della survey somministrata, e dopo averli analizzati e presi in
considerazione sotto il profilo delle loro correlazioni statistiche, vengono mostrate le conclusioni e le
implicazioni manageriali che dalla ricerca svolta è possibile trarre.
Emerge che l’uso del racconto di marca, specialmente per i brand che utilizzano Instagram, può essere
sicuramente accresciuto, per avere un impatto maggiore sulla purchase intention e sulle vendite. Il fulcro
dell’implementazione deve essere la maggiore enfasi sul legame tra consumatore e brand, in modo da creare un
maggiore coinvolgimento dei destinatari del racconto. Se è vero che la letteratura indica nello storytelling uno
strumento effettivo per incrementare l’attrattività del brand verso i consumatori, è altrettanto un risultato
concreto messo in luce dall’analisi qualitativa e quantitativa svolta quello secondo cui per ottenere risultati
ancor più efficaci in termini di purchase intention, è necessario collegare gli strumenti di promozione del brand
in modo più efficace, predisponendo strumenti di acquisto più diretti, che riducano lo spazio tra il primo
approccio, e la transazione. Inoltre, nel modo in cui si raccontano le storie, è necessario puntare, più che su ogni
altra cosa, sull’autenticità, che associata alla verità ed alla realtà può manifestare effetti più che positivi sulle
intenzioni di acquisto, come anche suggerito da ricerche passate. Tale aspetto è stato ampiamente focalizzato
anche nelle interviste qualitative, soprattutto da parte degli influencers che hanno risposto alle domande, che
hanno evidenziato come anche quando le storie vengono proposte al pubblico tramite Instagram, sia necessario
puntare su prodotti che possano incrementare la credibilità, piuttosto che su una modalità di promozione non
coerente con i propri valori.
Nella scelta degli strumenti di brand storytelling, la credibilità può essere, difatti, massimizzata per ottenere un
racconto che i consumatori sentano vicino, in contrapposizione alle “storie” che vengono percepite come
artificiali o contraffatte.
Si dimostra, in ogni caso, che pur esistendo sicuramente altri strumenti attraverso i quali fare brand storytelling,
alternativi alle forme tradizionali di marketing, allo stato attuale la strada più efficace e che prospetta risultati
più utili nella narrazione di marca, al fine di generare partecipazione, interazione ed identificazione nel
consumatore, resta l’uso di Instagram, attraverso tutte le sue funzionalità, che permettono di mostrare una
significativa influenza sugli utenti in termini di acquisti.

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Dipartimento Impresa e Management

Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Marketing

Cattedra di Gestione del Prodotto e della Marca

The Essence of a Story:

Anno Accademico 2018/2019

Pindar Olympian Ode 1: 28-29

The Art of Storytelling: The Essence of Stories

1.1 What is Storytelling: An Overview …………………………………………………………….1

1.1.1 What is Storytelling and What are Stories? ………………………………….............4

1.1.2 The Four Elements of Storytelling…………………………………………………....7

1.1.3 The Three Functions of Storytelling………………………………………………….9

1.1.4 The 6S+1 of Storytelling …………………………………………………………….11

1.1.5 Thinking Critically about Storytelling: Narratology ………………………………...15

1.1.6 Vladimir Propp: A Morphology of Storytelling……………………………………...16

1.1.8 Christopher Vogler: A Practical Application of Campbell’s Theories………………24

1.1.9 Christopher Booker…………………………………………………………………..27

1.2 Corporate Storytelling………………………………………………………………………….29

1.2.1 Storytelling in Marketing: A History ……………………………………………….31

1.2.2 Corporate Storytelling, People Storytelling ………………………………………...38

1.2.3 Practical Insights for Marketers from Storytelling ………………………………….41

1.2.3 G.R.E.A.T: How to Tell a Compelling Story ……………………………………….45

The Art of Digital Storytelling

2.1 Digital Narratives: Storytelling Across Mediums ………………………………………….48

2.1.1 Transmedia: A Platform for Digital Storytelling………………………………….49

2.1.2 Digital Storytelling: Theory and Practice ………………………………………...54

2.1.3 Digital Storytelling: Practical Applications for Advertising……………………...55

2.1.4 The Advantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers …………………………..57

2.1.4 The Disadvantages of Digital Storytelling for Marketers ………………………..61

2.2 Visual Storytelling…………………………………………………………………………..62

2.2.1 Theories of Visual Storytelling……………………………………………………63

2.2.2 Hallmarks of Effective Visual Communication …………………………………..65

2.3 Personal Storytelling………………………………………………………………………...67

2.4 Digital Storytelling on Social Media and Instagram ………………………………………..68

2.4.1 The History of Social Media ……………………………………………………...69

2.4.2 Instagram: A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words ………………………………72

4.4.3 Instagram and User Engagement …………………………………………………75

4.4.4 Instagram as a Marketing Tool …………………………………………………..80

3.1 Human Branding: An Introduction………………………………………………………....87

3.1.1 Human Branding Defined………………………………………………………...88

3.1.2 Personal Branding and the Creation of Human Brands…………………………..90

3.1.3 Congruence and the Appeal of Human Branding ………………………………..93

3.1.4 Brand Attachment: When Brands Become Loved Ones ………………………..96

3.1.5 Human Branding and Marketing ………………………………………………...99

3.2 The Anthropomorphism of Brands: When Brands Seem Human…………………………99

3.2.2 Consumer-Brand Relationships………………………………………………….101

3.2.3 Building Brand Value Through Consumer Relationships……………………….105

3.2.4 Personification and Performity ………………………………………………….106

3.3 Average Users of Instagram: A Demographic Analysis ………………………………….108

3.3.1 Drivers of Instagram Usage……………………………………………………...114

3.3.2 Brand Engagement in the Instagram Community ……………………………….116

3.4 From Nobodies to Somebodies: Influencers of on Instagram ……………………………..118

3.4.1 Conceptualisations of the Influencer Phenomenon………………………………120

3.4.2 Metrics of Instagram Influence ………………………………………………….122

3.4.3 Influencer Marketing on Social Media ………………………………………….125

3.4.4 Influencer Marketing on Instagram………………………………………………129

3.4.5Theories of Social Influence……………………………………………………...131

3.5 Celebrities: The Apex of Human Brands ………………………………………………….133