MEE1004- Fluid Mechanics

Instructor
Dr.K. NagamalleswaraRao
Emp ID: 14768
Associate Professor
CDMM
VIT, Vellore
What we will do? –with Fluid Mechanics Knowledge
• Design of
• Storage tanks
• Ships
• Dams
• Other hydraulic structures.
 Course Objectives
1. To apply hydrostatic law, principle of mass and
momentum in fluid flows, concepts in Euler’s
and Bernoulli equations.
2. To provide fundamental knowledge of fluids,
its properties and behaviour under various
conditions of internal and external flows.
3. To determine the losses in a flow system, flow
through pipes, boundary layer concepts.
 Course Outcomes
• Student will be able to,
1. Analyse various hydraulic systems by applying the
fundamental laws of fluid statics.
2. Solve the fluid flow governing equations by taking
suitable constraints and assumptions
3. Evaluate major and minor losses in pipes
4. Analyse the practical significance of open channel flows
5. Perform dimensional analysis on any real life problems
6. Interpret the boundary layer aspects of laminar and
turbulent flows
7. Experimentally determine the fluid properties and flow
parameters using various experimental setups.
 Module 1: Introduction to Fluid Statics
Course Outcomes: 1,7
• Definition of fluid: In physics, a fluid is a substance
that continually deforms under an applied shear
stress, or external force. Fluids are a phase of matter
and include liquids, gases and plasmas. They are
substances with zero shear modulus, or, in simpler
terms, substances which cannot resist any shear force
applied to them.
• Concept of continuum: The concept of
continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous
description of matter where the properties of the
matter are considered as continuous functions of
space variables.
• Fluid properties: temperature, density, and
composition. Mass and volume are examples of
extensive properties, which are properties that depend
on the amount of material. Density, temperature, and
pressure are examples of intensive properties.
• Classification of fluids: Ideal, real, Newtonian and Non-
Newtonian
• Pascal’s Law: principle of transmission of fluid-pressure
• Hydrostatic Law: Hydrostatic law is a principle that
identifies the amount of pressure exerted at a specific
point in a given area of fluid lying on top of a surface. It
can also refer to the overall weight of this fluid on a
surface.
 Module 1: Fluid Statics Continued…

• Pressure and its variation in a static Fluid

• Measurement of static fluid pressure
• Manometers
 Module 2
Hydrostatic Forces and Buoyancy
Course outcomes: 1,2
• Hydrostatic forces on Plane –Inclined and Curved
surfaces: When a surface is submerged in a fluid,
forces develop on the surface due to the fluid. The
determination of these forces is important in the
design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other
hydraulic structures.

• Buoyancy: is an upward force exerted by a fluid that

opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed
object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with
depth as a result of the weight of the overlying
fluid.
• Condition of Equilibrium for Submerged and
Floating Bodies:
The equilibrium of floating or submerged
bodies requires that the weight of the body acting
through its centre of gravity has to be collinear
with an equal buoyant force acting through the
centre of buoyancy. ... For
stable equilibrium of floating bodies,
metacenter(M) has to be above the centre of
gravity(G).
 Module 2 Continued…
• Centre of Buoyancy, Metacentre
• Determination of Metacentric Height
The metacentric height (GM) is a measurement
of the initial static stability of a floating body. It
is calculated as the distance between the centre
of gravity of a ship and its metacentre. A
larger metacentric height implies greater initial
stability against overturning.
 Module 3: Fluid Dynamics
Applications: River water discharge, flow of air, lava, glaciers, and the Earth's
mantle
Course outcomes: 2,7

• Types of flows
• Control Volume
• Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Continuity
• Euler and Bernoulli’s equations Momentum
equation
• Navier-Stokes Equations-Applications.
• Navier–Stokes Equations.
The N-S equations describe fluid flow. They are used for
• Weather forecast
• Aeroplane design and testing
• Ship design and testing
• Determining currents in rivers
• Calculating drainage systems
• Design of harbours and dykes
• Design of combustion and jet motors
• Design of windmills
 Module 4: Flow through pipes
Course outcomes: 3,7
Flow through pipes is an important engineering problem in fluid mechanics. Almost in
all our daily operations, we come across pipe flow. For example, the household water
supply, sewage flows etc. The pipe flow is also used for the transportation of chemicals
and petroleum products in different chemical and oil industries.

• Measurement in pipe flow

• Major loss (Energy Losses or head losses) explained by
Darcy–Weisbach equation
• Moody’s diagram: In engineering, the Moody chart or Moody
diagram is a graph in non-dimensional form that relates the
Darcy-Weisbach friction factor fD, Reynolds number Re, and
surface roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe. It
can be used to predict pressure drop or flow rate down such a
pipe
 Module 4: Flow through pipes
• Minor losses (Loss of head entry, change in diameter etc)
• Multi reservoir problems
• Pipe network design : (In fluid dynamics, pipe
network analysis is the analysis of the fluid
flow through a hydraulics network, containing
several or many interconnected branches. The
aim is to determine the flow rates and pressure
drops in the individual sections of the network.
This is a common problem in hydraulic design.)
• Hagen Poiseuille equation:
Hagen-Poiseuille equation. Consider stationary
laminar flow in a pipe with viscosity μ, flow rate Q,
average velocity U, pipe length L, pipe radius R,
and pressure difference ΔP. The Hagen-Poiseuille
equation is given as: Δ P = − 8 μL R 2 U or Δ P = − 8
μL π R 4 Q . It gives the pressure drop in
an incompressible and Newtonian fluid in laminar
flow flowing through a long cylindrical pipe of
constant cross section.
• Turbulent flow:
Turbulent flow is a type of fluid (gas or
liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to
laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in
smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the
speed of the fluid at a point is continuously
undergoing changes in both magnitude and
direction.
 Module 5:
Course outcomes: 4,7
Open channel flow

• Types of open channel flows

1 Steady Flow
Flow is said to be steady when discharge does not
change along the course of the channel flow.
2 Unsteady Flow
Flow is said to be steady when discharge changes with
time.
3 Uniform flow
Flow is said to be uniform when both the the depth and
discharge is same at any two sections of the channel.
4 Gradually Varied Flow
Flow is said to be gradually varied when ever the
depth changes gradually along the channel.
5 Rapidly Varied Flow
Whenever the flow depth changes rapidly along the
channel the flow is termed rapidly varied flow.
6 Spatially Varied Flow
Whenever the depth of flow changes gradually due to
change in discharge the flow is termed spatially varied
flow.
• Specific Energy
• Specific force
• Critical flow
• Hydraulic jumps/Surges and gradually varying
flow concepts
• Measurement of discharge in open channels.
Area velocity method.
Manning’s Equation (Gauckler-Manning- Strickler
Formula)
 Module: 6- Dimensional Analysis
Course outcomes: 2,5
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used to predict physical
parameters that influence the flow in fluid mechanics. The analysis involves
the fundamental units of dimensions MLT: mass, length, and time
• Dimensional homogeneity
• Raleigh’s method: (is a conceptual tool used in physics,
chemistry, and engineering. This form of dimensional
analysis expresses a functional relationship of some
variables in the form of an exponential equation.)
• Buckingham π theorem: (the theorem states that if
there is a physically meaningful equation involving a
certain number n of physical variables, then the
original equation can be rewritten in terms of a set
of p = n − k dimensionless parameters π1, π2,
..., πp constructed from the original variables.)
• Non-dimensional numbers: (Dimensionless
numbers in many fields of engineering are collections
of variables that provide order-of-magnitude estimates
about the behavior of a system (Table 1.5). They are
often derived by combining coefficients from
differential equations and are oftentimes a ratio
between two physical quantities.)
• Model laws and distorted models
• Modelling and similitude: Similitude is a concept
applicable to the testing of engineering models.
A model is said to have similitude with the real
application if the two share geometric similarity,
kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity. ... The
concept of similitude is strongly tied to dimensional
analysis.
 Module 7: Boundary layer flow
Course outcomes: 2,6

• Boundary layers
• Laminar flow and turbulent flow
• Boundary layer thickness
• Momentum integral equation
• Drag and lift
• Separation of boundary layer
• Methods of preventing the boundary layer
separation
 Applications of boundary layer concept
• Automobiles - An automobile with more streamlined body is
more efficient than a less streamlined body. A more streamlined
body means the boundary layer of air flow will not break from
the body surface so less will be the form drag.
• Airplanes - Design of air foils are important in airplanes. The air
foils are designed as per the need of boundary layer flow so
that it can be advantageous as per the need of airplane. The
important thing is the angle of attack of air foils. So the air foils
are designed in such a way so that there is smooth take off and
landing of the plane in normal conditions.
• While the plane takes off it needs to overcome air
resistance so the air foil is designed accordingly so
that there is no separation of boundary layer but the
same air resistance is used to advantage while
landing because the plane needs to deaccelerate.
Therefore the angle of attack of air foil changes
which breaks the boundary layer and hence air drag
is created which helps in deceleration.
 Module 8: Contemporary issues
• Contemporary issues in the growth of fluid
mechanics
• Like environmental, space related, air
pollution, biology, chemical mixing and a
variety of issues and their probable solutions.
 Definition
 Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with
both stationary and moving bodies under the influence of
forces.
 The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is
called statics, while the branch that deals with bodies in
motion is called dynamics.
 The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science
that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)
or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
 The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.

2
 Definition
 The study of f1uids in motion, where pressure forces are
not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the
pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in
motion. that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
 Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several
categories.
 The study of the motion of fluids that are practically
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as
hydrodynamics.
 A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.

3
 Definition
 Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases
through nozzles at high speeds.
 The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
 Some other specialized categories such as meteorology,
oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally
occurring flows.

4
 What is a Fluid?
 A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid,
and gas. A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred
to as a fluid.
 Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis
of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or
tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.
 A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence
of shear stress, no matter how small.
 In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress
is proportional to strain rate.

5
 What is a Fluid?

 When a constant
shear force is
applied, a solid
eventually stops
deforming, at some
fixed strain angle,
whereas a fluid
never stops Figure.
deforming and Deformation of a rubber eraser
approaches a certain placed between two parallel plates
rate of strain. under the influence of a shear force.

6
 What is a Fluid?
 In a liquid, molecules can move
relative to each other, but the volume
remains relatively constant because of
the strong cohesive forces between the
molecules.
 As a result, a liquid takes the shape of
the container it is in, and it forms a
free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
 A gas, on the other hand, expands until
it encounters the walls of the container
and fills the entire available space.
 This is because the gas molecules are
widely spaced, and the cohesive forces
between them are very small.
 Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a
7 free surface
 What is a Fluid?

 Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gases
Difficult to compress and Easily to compress – changes of
often regarded as volume is large, cannot normally
incompressible be neglected and are related to
temperature
Occupies a fixed volume No fixed volume, it changes
and will take the shape of volume to expand to fill the
the container containing vessels
A free surface is formed if Completely fill the vessel so that
the volume of container is no free surface is formed.
greater than the liquid.

8
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas
of engineering and science. Examples are:
 Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries and veins
 Airflow in the lungs
 Flow of cerebral fluid
 Households
 Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
 Piping and ducting network of heating and air-
conditioning systems
 refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, washing
machine, water meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner,
radiator, etc.
 Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
9  Movements of air currents and water currents
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment,
pollution-control equipment, etc.
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines,
rockets, jet engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices,
the cooling of electronic components, and the
transportation of water, crude oil, and natural gas.
 Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems
 Chemical Engineering
 Design of chemical processing equipment
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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 Turbomachines: pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc.
 Military: Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion
of chemical agents, etc.
 Automobile: IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external
aerodynamics, etc.
 Medicine: Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, Lab-on-a-
Chip device, glucose monitor, controlled drug delivery, etc.
 Electronics: Convective cooling of generated heat.
 Energy: Combuster, burner, boiler, gas, hydro and wind
turbine, etc.
 Oil and Gas: Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill
cleanup, etc.
 Almost everything in our world is either in contact with a fluid
11 or is itself a fluid.
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 The number of fluid engineering applications is enormous:
breathing, blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines,
airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs,
engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.
 When you think about it, almost everything on this planet
either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.

12
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

13
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

14
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

15
 Classification of Fluid Flows
 There is a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered
in practice, and it is usually convenient to classify them on
the basis of some common characteristics to make it
feasible to study them in groups.
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
 When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a
friction force develops between them and the slower layer
tries to slow down the faster layer.
 This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid
property viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness
of the fluid.
 Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow…
 There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid
flows involve viscous effects to some degree.
 Flows in which the frictional effects are significant are
called viscous flows.
 However, in many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.
 Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.

17
 Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

18
 Classification of Fluid Flows
Internal versus External Flow
 A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external,
depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a
confined channel or over a surface.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow.
 The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.
 Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow, and
airflow over a ball or over an exposed pipe during a windy
day is external flow .

19
 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
 A flow is classified as being compressible or
incompressible, depending on the level of variation of
density during flow.
 Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to
be incompressible if the density remains nearly constant
throughout.
 Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains
unchanged over the course of its motion when the flow (or
the fluid) is incompressible.
 The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus
the flow of liquids is typically incompressible. Therefore,
liquids are usually referred to as incompressible substances.
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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow…
 A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of
liquid water at 1 atm to change by just 1 percent.
 Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A
pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a
change of 1 percent in the density of atmospheric air.
 Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if
the density changes are under about 5 percent.
 The compressibility effects of air can be neglected at
speeds under about 100 m/s.

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 Classification of Fluid Flows
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
 Some flows are smooth and orderly
while others are rather chaotic.
 The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of
fluid is called laminar.
 The flow of high-viscosity fluids
such as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
 The highly disordered fluid motion
that typically occurs at high
velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called
turbulent .
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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

 The flow of low-viscosity fluids
such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
 A flow that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent is
called transitional.

23
 Classification of Fluid Flows
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
 A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on
how the fluid motion is initiated.
 In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in
a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
 In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means
such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the
rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of
cooler (and thus denser) fluid .
 In solar hot-water systems, for example, the
thermosiphoning effect is commonly used to replace pumps
by placing the water tank sufficiently above the solar
collectors.
24
 Classification of Fluid Flows
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
 The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.
 The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
 The opposite of steady is unsteady.
 The term uniform implies no change with location
over a specified region.

25
 Properties of Fluids
 Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
 Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
 Other less familiar properties include viscosity, thermal
conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and
elevation.
 Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass
of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
 Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the
size—or extent—of the system. Total mass, total volume V,
and total momentum are some examples of extensive
properties.
26
 Properties of Fluids
 An easy way to determine
whether a property is
intensive or extensive is to
divide the system into two
equal parts with an imaginary
partition.
 Each part will have the same
value of intensive properties
as the original system, but
half the value of the extensive
properties.

27
 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density
 Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of
the mass of a f1uid to its volume. Thus mass per unit
volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted the symbol
ρ (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic
meter, i.e ., kg/m3.
 The density of liquids may be considered as constant while
that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
 Mathematically mass density is written as.
Mass of fluid

Volume of fluid
 The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
28
 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density
 The density of a substance, in general, depends on
temperature and pressure.
 The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to temperature.
 Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially
incompressible substances, and the variation of their
density with pressure is usually negligible.

29
 Properties of Fluids
Specific weight or Weight Density
 Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume.
 Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight
density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
 Mathematically,

Weight of fluid (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

w 
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid x g

Volume of fluid
 xg
w  g

30
 Properties of Fluids
Specific Volume
 Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a
fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a
fluid is called specific volume.
 Mathematically, it is expressed as
Volume of fluid 1 1
Specific volume   
Mass of fluid Mass of fluid 
Volume
 Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is
expressed as m3/kg.
 It is commonly applied to gases.

31
 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
 Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or
density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard
fluid.
 For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the
standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative
density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
Weight density (density) of liquid
S (for liquids) 
Weight density (density) of water
Weight density (density) of gas
S (for gases) 
Weight density (density) of air
Thus weight density of a liquid  S x Weight density of water
 S x 1000 x 9.81 N/m3
Thus density of a liquid  S x Density of water
32  S x 1000 kg/m3
 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
 If the specific gravity of a
fluid is known, then the
density of the fluid will be
equal to specific gravity of
fluid multiplied by the
density of water.
 For example the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6,
hence density of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600
kg/m3.

33
 Properties of Fluids

Example 1.
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one
liter of a liquid which weighs 7 N.

34
 Example 2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of
one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
 Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
 When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart move one over
the other at different velocities say u and u+ du as shown in Fig.
1.1 , the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress acting between the fluid layers:

36
 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
 The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower
layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent top layer.
 This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol τ called
Tau.
 Mathematically,

 or
du
  (1.2)
dy
37
 Properties of Fluids
 where μ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality
and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or
only viscosity.
du
 dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
deformation or velocity gradient.
 From equation (1.2) we have

 (1.3)
du
dy
 Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress
required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
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 Properties of Fluids
Unit of Viscosity.
 The unit of viscosity is obtained by putting the
dimension of the quantities in equation ( 1.3)

Newton second Ns
SI unit of viscosity  2
 2
m m

39
 Properties of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity.
 It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid.lt is denoted by the Greek symbol (ν) called
'nu' . Thus, mathematically,
Viscosity 
 
Density 
 The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.
Newton's Law of Viscosity.
 It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant
of proportionality is called the co-efficient viscosity.
Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1 . 2).

40
 Properties of Fluids
 Fluids which obey the above relation are known as
Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not obey the
above relation are called Non-newtonian fluids.
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
 Temperature affects the viscosity.
 The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of
temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with
increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the
viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and
molecular momentum transfer.
 In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular
momentum transfer due to closely packed molecules and
with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces
decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity.
41
 Properties of Fluids
 But in the case of gases the cohesive force are small and
molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the
increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer
increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between
viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are:
 1 
(i) For liquids,   o  
2 
 1  t   t 
1 Ns
where   Viscosity of liquid at t C, in poise 1 poise 
o

10 m 2
o  Viscosity of liquid at 0o C , in poise
 ,   are constants for the liquid
For water, μ o  1.79 x 10-3 poise,  0.03368and   0.000221
(ii) For a gas,    o  t   t 2
42 where for air  o  0.000017,   0.000000056,   0.1189 x 10-9
 Types of Fluids
1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal
fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which
exist, have some viscosity.
2. Real fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as
real fluid. All the fluids: in actual practice, are real fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is
directly, proportional to the rate of shear strain (or
velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid. A real fluid, in which shear stress
is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity
gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

43
 Types of Fluids

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid.

A fluid, in which shear
stress is more than the
yield value and shear
stress is proportional
to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity
gradient), is known as
ideal plastic fluid.

44
 Example 3
If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by
2
u  y  y2
3
in which u is velocity in metre per second at a distance y
metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and y= 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63
poises.

45
46
 Example 4
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for
lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an
inclined plane with angle of inclination 30o as shown in Fig. 1.4.
The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the
inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness
of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Fig.1.4

47
48
 Example 5
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with
oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil
film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per
sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine : ·
i.the dynamic viscosity of the oil, and
ii.the kinematic viscosity of the oil if the specific gravity of the
oil is 0.95.

Solution. Given:
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Area A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m2
Thickness of oil film dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/s
49
50
Properties of fluids
 Properties of fluids
1. Density or Mass Density
2. Specific weight or Weight Density
3. Specific volume
4. Specific Gravity
5. Viscosity
6. Kinematic Viscosity
7. Thermodynamic properties
8. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
9. Surface tension and Capillarity
10. Vapour Pressure and Cavitation
Specific weight, density, specific gravity
Specific weight, density, specific gravity
Viscocity
Kinematic Viscosity
Pressure and its measurements
Fluid Pressure at a point
Pascal’s Law
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
Forces acting on the fluid element
Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and
Vacuum Pressures
• Feeling the Force
• You're walking outside on a windy day and the wind is strong enough that
you can feel its force. This feeling is caused by the air molecules that are
bouncing off of you. We call this collective force of the air molecules per
unit area the atmospheric pressure. Often, this pressure is measured in
pounds per square inch (psi).
• Have you ever wondered what this pressure would feel like if you were in
space? That's a trick question because there's no atmosphere in space!
There are no air molecules in space, so you wouldn't feel any pressure at
all, which is why we call space a vacuum. In other words, there is absolute
zero pressure in a vacuum.
• We have two ways of measuring pressures, depending on what we use as
reference. They are:
• Absolute pressure
• Gauge pressure
 Absolute Pressure
• One way to measure pressure is to use absolute
zero pressure (like in space) as the base value
against which other pressures are measured.
• The pressure measured relative to this absolute
zero pressure in a vacuum is what scientists
call absolute pressure.
• A pressure measurement below atmospheric
pressure is called negative pressure, or vacuum
pressure.
 Absolute Pressure
• So you might be thinking: ''How is this possible?
On Earth, how do we make measurements based
on a vacuum?'' We use an absolute pressure
sensor. Scientists have found a way to create a
vacuum behind a diaphragm in the sensor. They
do this by removing the air and then sealing the
instrument so that it does not have direct contact
with the outside. So, absolute pressure is also
called sealed-pressure and is typically given in
the unit of psia (pounds per square inch
absolute). This is really helpful because even if
the outside ambient pressure changes, we have
an accurate method to measure the pressure.
 Gauge Pressure
• On the other hand, gauge pressure is measured
relative to the atmospheric pressure. This means that
the measurement values change along with changes in
the atmospheric pressure. So gauge pressures change
as the weather changes, and we can get different
readings even though the absolute pressure reading
would have remained the same.
• When we check the air pressure in car tires, what we
are measuring is the pressure inside the tire relative to
the surrounding atmospheric pressure (i.e., the gauge
pressure). This pressure is also known as vented
pressure and is typically given in the unit of psig
(pounds per square inch gauge).
 Gauge Pressure
• Another instrument that measures gauge
pressure is a mercury barometer, used
specifically to measure the difference
between the vacuum and atmospheric
pressures. The tube is filled with mercury and
immersed upside down into a container of
mercury. A vacuum forms at the closed end of
the tube, where the pressure is zero. At the
open end, the atmospheric pressure presses
against the mercury in the container.
 Gauge Pressure

• When atmospheric pressure increases, the

pressure on the surface of the mercury
increases correspondingly. This causes more
mercury to flow into the glass tube, so the
level of mercury within the glass tube
increases correspondingly. Therefore, the
column of mercury will be higher and we can
read the pressure value marked on the
barometer that corresponds with the top of
the mercury column.
Measurement of Pressure
Manometers
• Simple Manometers
-Piezometer

-U-Tube Manometer

-Single column Manometer

 Differential Manometers
• U-Tube differential

• Inverted U-Tube