Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

TOPICS:
IV. Methodology in Language Educational Research
1. Design
2. Locale
3. Participants
4. Instruments
5. Data Collection
6. Data Analysis
7. Ethics in research

OBJECTIVES: At the end of these lessons, students are expected to:

a. Articulated the importance of understanding the elements and parts of a research
methodology
b. Completed the research methodology part of their paper

TIME FRAME: Week 7-8

DISCUSSION:

The Research Methods, Documentation and Sampling Techniques

Research vs. Method

As earlier defined, research is a careful, systematic, and scientific study and investigation in some fields of
knowledge. while method is a scientific way of examining an issue, an event or a problem. It is a formal
process or procedure of Investigating something in accordance with formal steps and guidelines for the
purpose of arriving at a solution or remedy for the specifically identified problem or issue.

The Types of Research Methods:

A. Historical Method.

Historical method is also known as documentary method. In looking into the truth of the past event, the
researcher should avail himself of the use of documents on recorded information and facts.

The historical method is manifested in form of the narration of striking happenings about the past problem
which finds proper applicability to the current problems.

1. Primary sources of document preferred

2. Secondary sources may be availed of in cases where primary sources are not available
3. Evaluation of events, and personages should be in the contexts of peoples' culture and standards of the
past era.

Historical method in education has been in use in the past to a greater extent than any other method of
research, during the development of educational research. Historical method of research is also called the
documentary research as it makes use of historical documents and other records. It relates to the historical
technique of research where historical records, documents and relics are made use of in dealing with
problems on hand recounting some aspects of past life and critical research for truth is made in the light of
past events. Historical research may be defined as the study of problems of education making use of
historical source and techniques in order to evolve universal generalization and principles. Historical
research is the application of scientific method of inquiry to historical problems. It demands standards of
careful methodology and spirit comparable to those which characterize other types of research. Although

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
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everyone is a historian in that, he remembers what occurred in the past, such history does not meet the
criteria of historical research. It is to be a science and it must achieve some standards of excellence as
other forms of research.

Purpose and values of historical research.

1. The foremost purpose is to gain a clear perspective of the past and the present. The present problems
are understandable only on the basis of past.
2. It provides us with a greater appreciation of the culture and of the role which education is to play in the
progress of society.
3. This study provides important information concerning the effects of certain past educational practices
and may suggest programmes for future action, based upon the evaluation of the past experiences.
4. It helps avoiding making mistakes of the past.
5. Such approach makes it easier to recognise and identify significant factors in the existing complex
situation.
6. It enables us to understand the dynamics of educational change.
7. It develops understanding of the deep-rooted causes of the present day educational problems.
8. It develops our ability to locate, analyse and appraise historical evidence and to understand the
limitations of this evidence.
9. It helps remove educational prejudice, misconceptions of facts.
10. It is a necessary foundation for any educational reform.
11. It enlightens us as to how the functions and roles of social institutions have shifted from time to time.
12. It inspires respect for sound scholarship and reverence for great teachers. Moreover the history of
education seeks to answer three important questions, i.e., the question of evaluation, the question of
resemblance and the question of value.

Types of historical research.

1. Bibliographic research. It aims at determining and presenting truthfully the important facts about the life,
character and achievements of important educators.
2. Legal research. It aims to study the legal basis of educational institutions run by the different religions
and castes, relation between central and state governments with regards to education, legal status of
teachers and students, administration of private aided schools, school finance, participation of students in
the administration of universities etc.
3. Studying the history of ideas. It involves the tracing of major philosophical or scientific thoughts from their
origins through their different stages of development.
4. Studying the history of institutions and organizations. Studying the history of some prominent schools,
universities and other educational institutions also provide numerous problems for significant historical
research.

Classifications of the Needed Historical Materials

1. Relics symbolic of the past event.

2. Inscriptions and documents.

3. Transmitted information from reading materials on tales and songs.

Steps in historical research.

1.Selecting the problem.

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
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The investigator should have a clear mind about problem. The problem should be significant. It should be
one which cam be solved through research. He should formulate it in simple terms. If the problem is very
vast, it should be delimited. He should have familiarity with previous research in the field. He should see
that duplicity does not take place.

2. Formulation of hypothesis. The hypothesis that the researcher constructs for historical research are
useful in explaining events, conditions or phenomena of the historical period in question.

3. Collection of data. As compared to other method, collection of data in this method is difficult. Historical
data has to be inclusive. It will create a lot of confusion. So researcher has to be on guard against it. He
has to propose a number of headings into which the data may be classified.

The efforts of the historian in the collection of data are seriously handicapped because of many difficulties.

1. He has not lived at the time and is thus removed from the events that he investigates. Therefore he must
draw his data from the experiences and observations of others.
2. The recorded experiences are available in their exaggerated form and are full of superfluous details.
3. The recorded experiences may be written form and out-dated point of view and do not suit present day
requirements.
4. The records which have been destroyed cannot be created over again. The available records are
incomplete and otherwise defective in several ways.
5. The historical data are not comparable to the materials of the physical sciences.

They have to be reconstructed in many cases from unverifiable source.

Sources of history.

The following is the list of documents:

1. Legislative acts such as laws etc

2. Court decisions.
3. Reports of committee.
4. Proceedings of officers like NCERT.
5. Reports of commissions like Kothari Commission.
6. Newspapers and periodicals.
7. Autobiographies, letters, novels etc.

Following is the list of remains

1. School buildings, furniture etc.

2. Photographs of teachers, children and parents.
3. Forms of certificates, attendance sheets etc.
4. Textbooks, exercise books etc.

Primary and secondary sources

Historical sources are of 2 kinds:

a. Primary sources. Primary sources are the original sources; the first witness to a fact. Primary sources
have been kept unconsciously or consciously. Tools, weapons, clothing, building, painting, coins etc are the
examples of primary sources unconsciously kept. Autobiographies, letters, diaries etc are consciously kept
for information.

b. Secondary source. Secondary sources are the reports of the persons who reported the testimony of an
actual witness. The writer of the secondary source was not on the scene of the event. Secondary sources
are not trusted completely, but they serve some useful purpose.
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c. Historical criticism. The historians does not often use the methods of direct observation since he gets
much of his data from the reports of those who witnessed or participated in these events, the data is
subject to historical criticism.

Primary Source

A primary source is anything that gives you direct evidence about the people, events, or
phenomena that you are researching. Primary sources will usually be the main objects of your
analysis.

If you are researching the past, you cannot directly access it yourself, so you need primary sources
that were produced at the time by participants or witnesses (e.g. letters,
photographs, newspapers).

If you are researching something current, your primary sources can either be qualitative or
quantitative data that you collect yourself (e.g. through interviews, surveys, experiments) or
sources produced by people directly involved in the topic (e.g. official documents or media
texts).

Research field Primary source

History • Letters and diaries

• Photographs and video footage
• Official documents and records
• Physical objects

Art and literature • Novels and poems

• Paintings and art installations
• Films and performances

Communication and social studies • Interview transcripts

• Recordings of speeches
• Newspapers and magazines
• Social media posts

Law and politics • Court records

• Legal texts
• Government documents

Sciences • Empirical studies

• Statistical data

Secondary Source

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from
primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books, articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic

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• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works

• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably
test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

A secondary source is anything that describes, interprets, evaluates, or analyzes information from
primary sources. Common examples include:

• Books, articles and documentaries that synthesize information on a topic

• Synopses and descriptions of artistic works
• Encyclopedias and textbooks that summarize information and ideas
• Reviews and essays that evaluate or interpret something

When you cite a secondary source, it’s usually not to analyze it directly. Instead, you’ll probably
test its arguments against new evidence or use its ideas to help formulate your own.

What do you use primary sources for?

Primary sources are the foundation of original research. They allow you to:

• Make new discoveries

• Provide credible evidence for your arguments
• Give authoritative information about your topic

If you don’t use any primary sources, your research may be considered unoriginal or unreliable.

What do you use secondary sources for?

Secondary sources are good for gaining a full overview of your topic and understanding how
other researchers have approached it. They often synthesize a large number of primary sources
that would be difficult and time-consuming to gather by yourself. They allow you to:

• Gain background information on the topic

• Support or contrast your arguments with other researchers’ ideas
• Gather information from primary sources that you can’t access directly (e.g. private letters
or physical documents located elsewhere)

When you conduct a literature review, you can consult secondary sources to gain a thorough
overview of your topic. If you want to mention a paper or study that you find cited in a secondary
source, seek out the original source and cite it directly.

Is a movie a primary source?

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary
depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography,
narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

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 Republic of the Philippines
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If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to
learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are
using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation.

Is a news paper article a secondary source?

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of
your research

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the
time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze
language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts
about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

source: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/primary-and-secondary-sources/

Internal and External Criticism

Understanding Historiography and Historical Methodology

Historiography
involves the study of the writing of history. It describes historical arguments, theories, and
interpretations over time, how schools of thought on particular events change over time --- like
history. With historiography, the historian looks into the relation between evidence, inference,
explanation and narrative. Moreover, it includes the imaginative reconstruction of the past from
the data derived by the process of historical method.

Historians study history through representations of the past using historical sources and
evidences. The process of critically examining and analyzing these
records,s o u r c e s , e v i d e n c e s a n d s u r v i v a l s o f t h e p a s t r e f e r s t o
historical method .

Historical methodology is crucial in ascertaining the credibility, relevance and

authenticity of a document used in historical research and inquiry.

History is not objective, it is subjective.

Facts cannot speak for themselves. A historian’s job is not merely to seek
andgather historical evidences but interpret these materials in their historical
narratives. Historians are, moreover, influenced by their context, background and ideology, to
name a few. A historian’s subjectivity will influence the process of the historical research in terms of
the methodology used, facts selected and deemed relevant, interpretation and the form of

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writing. A student of history, hence, must raise some questions that will inform his
understanding of a historical narrative.

These are just examples of questions raised to determine the reliability, validity and authenticity of
the document. Source criticism is an integral part of historiography. The historian must ensure that
the sources used in the narrative and interpretation of documents are not forged or corrupted.
Originality of the source increases its reliability.

Pr imary and Secondary Crit icism

P r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t i n h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g . T h e s e sourc
es, however, must go through a critical assessment. Using these sources (mostespecially
primary source) in historical research entail two kinds of criticism, internal andexternal criticism.

External criticism

examines the authenticity of the document or evidence used.

Iti s t h e p r a c t i c e o f v e r i f y i n g t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f e v i d e n c e b y e x a m i n i n g i t s p h
y s i c a l characteristics; consistency with the historical characteristics of the time it was
producedand the materials used for the evidence. A document is examined, for example, to
includethe quality of the paper, type of ink, the language and words used in the material.

Internal criticism

examines the truthfulness and accuracy of the primary sourceor evidence. It looks into the
content of the source and examines its truthfulness andfactuality by looking into the
author’s source, its context, the knowledge which informed itand its intended purpose, among others.

Source : https://www.scribd.com/document/491448733/Topic-3-Internal-and-External-Criticism-docx

Repositories od Primary sources

Primary sources provide an unfiltered view of the past and in so doing offer personal, unique, and
more complex insight into the period being studied. Instead of viewing history as a list of dates
and facts, primary sources provide the original artifacts of historical interpretation.

A repository can provide the materials with environmentally controlled, secure physical and digital
storage and can oversee their proper handling and use. Equally important, it can provide
research access to the contents of the records, both to you and to others.

Some examples of primary source formats/ repositories of primary sources include:

• archives and manuscript material

• photographs, audio recordings, video recordings, films
• journals, letters and diaries
• speeches
• scrapbooks
• published books, newspapers and magazine clippings published at the time
• government publications
• oral histories
• records of organizations
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• autobiographies and memoirs

• printed ephemera
• artifacts, e.g. clothing, costumes, furniture
• research data, e.g. public opinion polls

source: https://www.lib.uci.edu/examples-primary-sources

Repositories of Primary Sources in the Philippines

▪ Asia Pacific Research Center.

▪ Ateneo de Manila University. American Historical Collection.
▪ Ateneo de Manila University. Pardo de Tavera Room.
▪ De La Salle University. University Archives.
▪ Filipinas Heritage Library.

source: https://www.mvorganizing.org/what-are-the-repositories-of-primary-sources-in-the-
philippines/

B. The Descriptive Method

It refers to the methods that describe the

characteristics of the variables under study. This
methodology focuses on answering questions relating
to “what” than the “why” of the research subject. The
primary focus of descriptive research is to simply
describe the nature of the demographics under study
instead of focusing on the “why”.

Descriptive research is called an

observational research method as none of the
variables in the study are influenced during the
process of the research.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and

systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon. It can
answer what, where, when and how questions, but
not why questions.

When to use a descriptive research design

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why
something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

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A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or
more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the
variables, but only observes and measures them.

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It
collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a
particular population or group.

For example, descriptive studies might be used to answer questions such as:
• What percentage of Head Start teachers have a bachelor's degree or higher?
• What is the average reading ability of 5-year-olds when they first enter kindergarten?
• What kinds of math activities are used in early childhood programs?
• When do children first receive regular child care from someone other than their parents?
• When are children with developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive
services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about the type of
assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children in their programs?
• How do the types of services children receive from their early childhood program change as children
age?

Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the
causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from randomized and quasi-experimental studies.
However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among
variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to
distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus,
descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous
designs.

A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions
guiding descriptive research.

Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios.
The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presenting using descriptive statistics. Using quantitative data,
researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g.,
percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families
that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores
of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as
part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes,
and other characteristics of groups.
Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education research. Each of the methods used
to collect descriptive data have their own strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths
and limitations of descriptive research studies in general.
Strengths:
• Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or
educational settings).
• Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or
additional services to address these problems.

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• Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between
variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis
generating research."
• Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on
large and diverse samples.
Limitations:
• Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.
• Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable
responses.
• The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings.
• Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an
accurate description of the population of interest.

The descriptive is otherwise known as normative survey. This method is concerned with the prevailing or
existing status of an event or problem under this method, the researcher employs the following data-
gathering procedure:
1. questionnaire
2. interview
3. interview observation

In this method, the researcher aims to describe the existing phenomenon with the purpose of exploring the
causes of a particular problem.

Ways of Obtaining Information:

1. Asking the opinions and attitudes of respondents of respondents through the use of survey
instruments that may be validated by observation and interviews of significant others.
2. Probing documents and historical facts.
3. Following –up studies currently and closely related with the present issues.

C. The Experimental Method

In Experimental method, the researcher focuses on what will be the outcome of the study from the point of
view of the future with the manipulation of one independent variable under control and observes the effect
on one or more dependent variables. This process involves two groups, an experimental group, and control
group of equal standing which should undergo a pre-test.

After the experimental group shall have been exposed to the treatment for the prescribed length of time, the
researcher administers a parallel test of the independent variable, after which the researcher determines
the significant difference between the groups. (Acero & Leuterio, 2006)

Examples of independent variables that can be manipulated.

1. Strategy of Teaching
2. Learning activities
3. Devices materials.
4. Learning styles

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The significant difference shall be made the basis of what may be found applicable to future issues and
problems.

D. The Causal- Comparative Method

This method may also be called the Ex Post Facto Research. This research process draws conclusion from
an observation derived from what had already taken place.It explains how and why a phenomenon
occurs.It seeks to study the causes of the eventualities of events or conditions.It describes the subjects
with particular characteristics and study them in comparison with that of the normal group.

E.The Participatory Method

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is an approach to enquiry which has been used since the 1940s. It
involves researchers and participants working together to understand a problematic situation and change it
for the better. There are many definitions of the approach, which share some common elements. PAR
focuses on social change that promotes democracy and challenges inequality; is context-specific, often
targeted on the needs of a particular group; is an iterative cycle of research, action and reflection; and often
seeks to ‘liberate’ participants to have a greater awareness of their situation in order to take action. PAR
uses a range of different methods, both qualitative and quantitative.

This method requires the researcher’s participation in undergoing the activities within the bounds of the
problem sought for investigation .The researcher actually interacts with the samples to personally observe,
evaluate, criticize, and interpret the findings as assessed.

This research method, however, is slow, difficult, and a long process for it requires first-hand information
that may actually be discovered and experienced by the researcher. In spite of its disadvantages, the
participatory research is found to be creative and authentic.

Participatory research is both a range of methods and an ideological perspective. Its fundamental principles
are that the subjects of the research become involved as partners in the process of the enquiry, and that
their knowledge and capabilities are respected and valued.

Participatory research is ultimately about relationships and power. The key relationships are between the
researcher and the researched, and between local people and those actors they see as powerful and who
affect their lives. Participatory researchers act as facilitators and work towards attaining equality in these
two relationships.

Local people involved in participatory research processes are often subordinate in their own social context,
while outside researchers are often perceived as experts who impose their views. Transforming these
dynamics is achieved by enabling local people to articulate their views and express their knowledge
through describing and analysing their own situation and problems. Many participatory research processes
also have an action component, which involve the participants in successive cycles of analysis, reflection
and action.

Means or end?
Different approaches to participatory research vary in purpose, level of participation and representation.
The particular balance of these elements depends on the intentions of those initiating the research, and on
the availability of time and resources.

Purpose
Participatory research is initiated for a variety of reasons. The purpose can be very functional – for
example, to generate specific information on a particular theme for a new programme or policy – or might
aim for the empowerment of communities. Whatever the purpose, it is important that participants are

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involved in both generating and analysing data, as it is during the analysis that much of the learning takes
place.

Level of participation
Local people experience different levels of participation in participatory research processes. In some, they
set the agenda and objectives together with researchers, are fully involved in data collection and analysis,
and can adjust the goals of the exercise and change research activities. The exact balance often depends
on how much power is retained by the researcher or the organisation that has initiated the research.

Representation
Who are the ‘local people’ we talk about? In participatory research it is crucial to understand the make-up of
local communities and the power relations within them, and to include members of different social groups
who have different perspectives on their circumstances. Without due attention to difference, social
inequalities can be reproduced in the research process and its outcomes.

Participatory research and the project cycle

Participatory research and analysis can be used at different stages of the project cycle: problem
identification, assessment of local priorities, monitoring of progress and evaluation. It can be used to inform
policy design and to provide ‘reality checks’ to adjust existing policy frameworks. In each case, to be
effective, participatory research needs to be linked to other stages of the cycle. A widely recognised
problem is that activity planning does not take the outcomes of participatory research into account, resulting
in an intervention that does not do justice to the principles of participatory research.

Participatory research and policy

Participatory research brings out the views of local people: their reality, their challenges, and their
understanding of problems and solutions. Their ideas may prove to be quite distinct from those in charge of
formulating the policies that affect their lives. Participatory research can therefore produce surprising
insights for policy, and may challenge the assumptions on which policy frameworks are based. It may also
reveal why certain development interventions intended to help the poor are not actually used by local
people.

Participatory research and transnational knowledge networks

Much participatory research has focused on either activities at the local level, or on transmitting grassroots
views to governments. But many of the challenges of development and governance in today’s world cross
national boundaries and demand new ways of creating, sharing and using knowledge. This has led some
participatory researchers to focus on building research networks that cross national boundaries to produce
knowledge and action to improve citizen participation and accountability.

F. The Case Method

This method is also called the historical genetic method, for, it delves to study the past, the present, and the
future of the subject or case.

The case study basically concerns itself with the thorough investigation of the original status of an entity
and its periodic development which may give birth to its future condition.

If the method is applied to cases of individual subjects, the researcher would get into the careful and
thorough examination of their lives and their behaviors that contributed to what they are at present which
may draw up their logical views that may affect their transformation in the future.

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H. The Correlation Method

This method is utilized by researchers who intend to describe certain phenomena and ascertain the degree
to which two or more variables are significantly related or correlated.

The correlation measures the relationship through the use of correlation coefficients. This has reference to
the mathematical way of indicating the extent of relationship between variables.

The Research Documentation

There are two general styles of research documentation, viz:

1. The APA (American Psychological Association) 2. The MLA (Modern Language Association)

The use any style of documentation demands consistency. It is not advisable for a researcher to make use
of two styles interchangeably at will in one study. A researcher must be consistent in using a particular style
of his choice. In

Reference List :
https://www.participatorymethods.org/glossary/participatory-action-research
https://www.participatorymethods.org/task/research-and-analyse
http://ddeku.edu.in/Files/2cfa4584-5afe-43ce-aa4b-
ad936cc9d3be/Custom/Methods%20of%20educational%20research.pdf
https://www.voxco.com/blog/descriptive-research/
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/
https://www.researchconnections.org/research-tools/study-design-and-analysis/descriptive-
research-studies

Instructions for Students:

• All outputs can be submitted in either handwritten or computerized.

• Kindly send on the Gclassroom for easy retrieval of submissions.
• Label the file or folder with The task number, surname, given name
Ex. Pen’s Task 2 -Dela Cruz, Juan P.

Flexible Learning Modalities:

• Group Chat/Private messaging through messenger application

• Google Classroom
• Google meet
• Sending of Soft copies of Tasks and Learning Materials
• Sending of Hard copies(upon request )Evaluation Output -Hard copy must be sent to the
CNSC COED Guard house.

DJ V.Abad,PhD/djvabad@yahoo.com /djvabad39@gmail.com
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