SIMPLE COMPOSITE SLAB TECHNOLOGY UTILIZING LATTICE
GIRDERS PRINCIPLE.
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION.
Over decades, precast construction in its various forms have been an area of significant
and important interest in the construction industry due to standard quality, savings from either of
concrete, formworks and labour force, increased construction speed, low energy consumption,
Safer construction processes and durable structures of which one of the common and important
structural members involved; is the floor slab accounting up to about 270million m2 of its precast
and composite form reported in China in 2019, a forecasting of 2billion m 2 in next five years and
3billion m2 in next ten years(Zhang, Li, et al., 2021;Zhang, Zhu, et al., 2021).
Recently, the form of precast slab construction namely Semi-precast lattice girders
composite slab which was inverted by the German invertor has gained popularity in all of Europe
countries while being less popular to almost negligible application in most of African countries
including Tanzania. The slabs are made of precast concrete slab not less than 50 mm thick
roughened at the top to enhance bonding strength with the cast in situ concrete toppings, a light
reinforcement fabric to strengthen it against bending effects, and triangular lattice girder(s) with
bottom chords within the precast slab and diagonals protruding from the precast slab and meeting
at the top chord to provide stiffness along the span, horizontal shear strength and achieving
composite action with the cast in situ weld mesh reinforced concrete toppings. To minimize
quantity of concrete its construction may be accompanied by highly qualified hollow block
system as shown in figure below;
Fig.1 (a) solid lattice girder concrete slab (b) Hollow blocks lattice girder floor system
(R.Jasson,2010)
(S. Newell & Goggins, 2021).
Advantages accompanying the system include less propping, labour and material
requirements compared to ordinary formwork as the precast plank act as permanent formwork
during in-situ casting avoiding installation and dismantling of formwork before and after
hardening of the concrete topping respectively resulting to savings in total formwork costs up to
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40% of in situ concreting works (Löfgren, 2003), surface finish is better due to level soffit to an
extent that the slab can be decorated directly and used without additional finishes, speeding up of
construction works, easy of quality assurance and control as the planks can be pre-fabricated off-
site resulting to durable structure. Despite the advantages mentioned above; some disadvantages
prevails which includes connection difficulties, requirements of dimensional tolerance, and
sometimes the size of the crane depending on the nature of the project.
The advantages it offer, has attracted a considerable number of studies on the structural behavior
of composite lattice girders slab based on specific part/area such as joints, construction stage as
at this stage the precast lattice girder slab has to ensure capacity to carry its own weight, self-
weight of concrete toppings and construction loading, and full scale tests under both
serviceability and ultimate limit state using either analytical approach, laboratory and on-site
tests, finite element approach or a combination of them to analyze the suitability of various
configuration that will optimize and setup limits for its use to explore its potentiality.
In the study made by (Löfgren, 2003) to evaluate the structural and performance contribution,
behavior as well as mechanisms of lattice girders at construction stage, a number of
2600x1180x50mm lattice girders precast concrete C25 slabs were casted by varying slab height
and top chord diameter. Analysis of test results was such that increase in top bar diameter and
modulus of elasticity of the concrete increased the peak load and stiffness of the elements.
Laboratory test and finite element simulation results were compared resulting to conclusion that
the numerical analyses results reflected the possibility of analyzing lattice girder elements. Lastly
recommended that for genuine optimization, a broad understanding on behavior of different
structural configurations and material properties over a complete life cycle is highly required.
On the other hand, laboratory tests and finite element modelling carried out by(Shane Newell et
al., 2018) evaluating the same, Five(5) 3600x550x65mm lattice girder concrete class 50 slabs
were casted varying slab height from 100-290mm,top chord, diagonal and bottom chord
diameter. In addition to laboratory tests, analytical methods namely the beam bending method
and the axial deformations method as well as numerical models generated with the AutoDesk
Robot software to analyze deflection and stress levels within slabs. Though taller and shallower
girder systems were accurately analyzed by the axial deformations and beam bending method
respectively; two sets of physical testing data where one particular slab was analyzed, results
displayed poor overall consistency and correlation with analytical and numerical results. This led
to conclusion that modelling of a lattice girder concrete slab system is difficult to achieve.
(Furche & Bauermeister, 2011) carried out a study on long erection spans utilizing strengthened
lattice girders mainly assessing the bending and shear strength of a total of 78 full scale precast
concrete C25 lattice girder reinforced slab varying slab height and width, top chords and
diagonals diameters and configurations. It was found that upper chord buckling lead to failure in
bending between nodal points. Buckling across longer lengths of the upper chord were noticed
with increase in girder height. It was concluded that strengthening by proper configuration and
instalment of lattice girder concrete could result into longer spanning section.
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As continuation of the preceding study utilizing the same data (S. Newell & Goggins, 2019)
investigated the precast concrete lattice girder slab behaviour and influencing parameters at
construction stage and limit states respectively. In this case ER gauges were used to study strain
behaviour of the elements, other parameters studied were Moment - deflection behaviour,
stiffness deflection at construction stage and cracking and the data obtained described different
properties of the elements. It was concluded that the obtained rich data would significantly
contribute to development of numerical modelling tool accurately and optimization of the system
at construction stage to reduce cost and labour requirements for propping. Furthermore, one
among eleven recommendations for further studies was carrying out more experimental testing
for lattice girders utilizing a variety of configurations.
(Zhang, Li, et al., 2021) and (Zhang, Zhu, et al., 2021) carried experimental and on site studies
respectively for lattice girder composite slab regarding safety where the main parameter
investigated was loads on structure and its corresponding responses with reference to the
“Chinese Standard for Testing Methods of Concrete Structures (GB/T 50152‐2012)” where
sandbags were applied as uniformly distributed load. In addition to experimental tests, finite
element modelling of the same concentrated mainly on bending and concrete damage behaviour.
In both cases though the magnitude of the results were different, the parameter study depicted
that the load–deflection were within limits as per standards used and results were potential in on
site propping arrangements design, absence to minor cracks under serviceability confirming to
standards and better correlation between finite element model simulation and test results showing
that can be useful tool in analyzing composite slab failure.
Accounting to several previous researchers of behaviour and performance of precast and
composite lattice girder slabs and the ongoing optimization requirement, most recommendations
are made on further exploiting findings for optimization by varying lattice girder slab elements
properties and configurations and development of an accurate finite element simulation tool for
predicting failure mechanism and results.
This study is carried out to evaluate the suitability of a typical simple configuration of composite
slab utilizing lattice girders principle by experimental testing and modelling, establishing
suitability and limits for its use and its cost saving margin over conventional cast in situ.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT.
While the literature indicates that cost, quality and construction time have been an area of great
concern for both Clients, designers and contractors from design stage to final constructed
facility, Achieving project cost, time and quality simultaneous as construction project targets
without affecting each other is not easy since it is likely that optimizing one target results in
affecting others (Wang et al., 2021). This has led to the growing demand for improved
construction methods for cast in situ concrete structures.
Recent and ongoing studies have shown that floor slab is the most effective and frequently
precast concrete structural element used among all and one of the most popular type is the so-
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called composite lattice girder slab used all over Europe which is currently one of the most
modern construction technique in Tanzania(Staszak et al., 2021). It offers more flexibility of
architectural and Structural design criteria in addition to cost effectiveness, quality assurance and
timely delivery.
To explore its potentiality, a need for Modelling and experimental testing of the suitability of
typical “simple composite slab technology utilizing lattice girders principle” prevails to have a
broad understanding on the structural behaviour and properties for both the geometry and
materials including establishing the limits for its use. This will facilitate safe, fast, quality
assured and easy upper floor construction method at an affordable cost to a considerable
populations living in developing countries including Tanzania.
1.20 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.
The main objective of this research is to assess the suitability of a typical simple composite slab
technology utilizing lattice girders principle to broaden exploration of its potential for the
construction industry in Tanzania through modelling and some experimental tests.
To achieve the above main objective, there are some specific objectives to be achieved these are:
1. To evaluate the performance of the precast concrete lattice girder slab at construction
stage.
2. To evaluate the performance of the composite lattice girder slabs under serviceability and
ultimate limit state.
3. To establish functional suitability and limitations of the composite lattice girder slab
under serviceability and ultimate limit state.
4. To compare the construction cost between composite lattice girder concrete slab and
conventional in situ construction.
1.3 METHODOLOGY.
1.3.1 Literature Reviews
This shall involve extensive reading of various composite lattice girder slab related books,
national and international journals, reports and papers as well as goggle scholars published
materials to have a wide range of knowledge related to the study and come up with the best way
to face the problem under study.
1.3.2 Collection of Materials
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The following constituent materials used in this study
i. Portland Limestone Cement (PLC): Twiga Plus, CEM IIB-L Class 42.5N from Tanzania
Portland Cement Public Company Limited (TPC PLC).
ii. Y10 and Y12 deformed High yield steel reinforcing bars type 2 with yield strength of
460N/mm2 in accordance with BS 4449:1997 - Carbon steel bars for the reinforcement
of concrete.
iii. Coarse aggregates shall be Crushed granite from Lugoba Quarry.
iv. Marine board/Steel plate formworks to provide good finish and enhance aesthetic
conditions.
v. Fine aggregate shall be river sand extracted from Mpiji River.
vi. Water: Tap water
1.3.3 Tests on steel reinforcing bars.
The test specimens for Steel reinforcing bars from the supplier; shall be taken and tested in
accordance with BS 4449:1997 - Carbon steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete; to
verify/measure the tensile properties, elongation and rebend test. There after sample lattice
girders shall be prepared with Y12 top chord, Y10 diagonal bars and Y12 bottom chords welded
in accordance with (Standard, 2005) BS EN 10080:2005 - Steel for the reinforcement of concrete
— Weldable reinforcing steel — General.
1.3.4 Concrete Mix Design & Curing.
Concrete mix design and Curing shall be carried out in accordance with BS 5328 – 1 – 1997:
Guide to Specifying Concrete, BS 8110 – 1 – 1997: Structural use of Concrete for maximum
water to cement ratio and minimum cement content requirements and BS 5328 – 2 – 1997:
Methods for Specifying Concrete Mixes. Curing shall be done as per BS 1881 – 111: 1983:
Methods of normal curing of test specimens.
1.3.5 Casting, Sampling and testing of concrete and composite specimens.
1. Casting of precast concrete and composite specimens.
i. Precast concrete lattice girder slab
Casting of 12 Composite lattice girder plank specimens of Length 3600mm, width
300mm and the thickness of the concrete plank 50mm reinforced by Y10
reinforcements in both directions with protruding above a rough plank top surface to
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allow for effective composite action with in situ concrete toppings and shear
resistance shall be carried out on a well prepared formwork in composite with well
mix designed concrete grade 30 and cured for 28 days.
ii. Hollow blocks.
Casting of hollow blocks 550x200x110mm shall be done using mix ratio of 1:2 in
accordance with BS 6073-1:1981 - Part 1: Specification for precast Concrete masonry
units.
2. Sampling.
Fresh concrete sample shall be taken for workability test through slump test. Other
sample shall be properly taken into steel mould compacted and cured for 28 days as per
standards ready for testing.
3. Laboratory testing.
i. 28 days Compressive and splitting tensile strength of hardened concrete shall be
carried out in 100 x 100 x 100 mm cubes and cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 50
mm depth for precast concrete and cast in situ concrete toppings successively.
ii. 28 days Compressive strength concrete block as per BS 6073-1:1981 - Part 1:
Specification for precast Concrete masonry units.
iii. A Four point bending test shall be carried out to 28 days well cured precast concrete
lattice girder plank 3600x300x50mm in accordance with Annex J of the Irish
Standard EN 14747.
iv. Full scale area load test for a semi – precast concrete lattice girder slab
3600x3000x150mm in accordance with “Chinese Standard for Testing Methods of
Concrete Structures (GB/T 50152-2012) after more 28 days of curing from Casting
day of in situ concrete toppings reinforced with weld mesh.
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Studies have confirmed precast concrete construction to be of considerable cost reduction, time
saving, quality based, safety oriented and environmental friendly construction as compared to in
situ concrete construction(Asamoah et al., 2016;Sarhan et al., 2021). Semi – precast concrete
lattice girder slab offer simple installation technology in additional to mentioned advantages
above due to its low weight and various possible flexibility in individual sizes and shape. The
technology have been used over years in European countries including China; with less
popularity or almost no application in most African countries including Tanzania to date.
In Tanzanian construction industry, Semi – precast concrete lattice girder slab construction
methods have been one of the most recent technology with very little applicability to date though
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the technology can be used in residential, industrial, commercial, rural areas and other civil
works construction. This has led to failure of exploring the potentials identified above as it’s
fully utilization requires a broad understanding on the behaviour, properties, application and
performance. Therefore, this study is carried out to broaden understandings and explore the
potentials of simple semi precast concrete slab utilizing lattice girders principle for economic,
timely delivery, quality insurance, safety and environmental friendly construction.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This study shall cover the assessment of suitability of a typical simple precast lattice girders
composite slab at construction stage, semi precast floor slab incorporating lattice girders at
serviceability and Ultimate limit state after 28 days of casting and curing the cast in situ concrete
toppings and evaluation of its cost effective implications as well as its potential to users.
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Furche, J., & Bauermeister, U. (2011). Load tests long erection spans with strengthened lattice
girders. 77, 4–17.
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