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Mechanical Engineering Department

Taibah University
Madinah Munawwarah, KSA
2020, October
This document is a work in progress. It will continue to be updated and resent to
you as more chapters are added.
CONTENTS

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1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objectives 1
1.3 List of experiments / Demonstrations 1
1.4 Preparation for lab 2
1.5 Safety rules 2
1.6 Laboratory Report 2
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2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Objectives 5
2.3 Equipment 5
2.4 Theory 6
2.5 Experimental procedure 7
2.6 Observation data 7
� ���������� ������������� 9
3.1 Introduction 9
3.2 Objectives 9
3.3 Equipment 9
3.3.1 Venturi Tube 10
3.3.2 Measuring Equipment 10
3.4 Theory 11
3.4.1 Avoiding Cavitation 12
3.5 Experimental procedure 13
3.6 Precautions 14
3.7 Observation table 14
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4.1 Introduction 15
4.2 Objectives 15
4.3 Theory 15
4.4 Equipment 16
4.5 Experimental procedure 17
4.5.1 Initial Operation 17
4.5.2 Venting the Apparatus 17
4.5.3 Assembly of the glass pane 18
4.5.4 Filling and injecting the ink 18
4.6 Observations 19
4.6.1 Flow diagram of a triangular profile 19
4.6.2 Flow diagram of a wing profile 19
4.6.3 Sources and negative sources 19
4.7 Precautions 20
� ���������’� ��������� ������������� 21
5.1 Introduction 21
5.2 Objectives 21
5.3 Equipment 21
5.4 Theory 22
5.5 Experimental Procedure 24
5.6 Observation Table 25
5.7 Precautions 25
5.8 Results and Discussion 26
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6.1 Introduction 27
6.2 Objectives 27
6.3 Equipment 27
6.4 Theory 28
6.5 Experimental Procedure 29
6.6 Observation Table 30
6.7 Results and Discussion 30
� �������� �� ����� �� ������� ��� ��������� ���� 33
7.1 Introduction 33
7.2 Objectives 33
7.3 Equipment 33
7.4 Theory 35
7.4.1 Determining the volumetric flow 35
7.4.2 Changing from laminar to turbulent flow 35
7.4.3 Determining the pipe friction factor 35
7.4.4 Determination of theoretical pipe friction coefficient 36
7.5 Experimental Procedure 36
7.6 Observation Tables 38
7.7 Precautions 38
������������ 41
1 INTRODUCTION

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The theoretical concepts and relationships introduced in the Fluid Mechanics, Ther-
modynamics – I, and Thermodynamics – II courses describe the general nature and
behavior of real phenomena. All physical concepts must be verified experimentally
if they are to be accepted as representing laws of nature.
This course is designed and embedded in the mechanical engineering program
in order to develop the understanding of how the actual behaviour of real fluid
and heat flows compares with the results of analytical models developed in the
theoretical course.

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The students after successful completion of this course will be able to:
• Understand and perform the main steps of physical experiments.
• Review important concepts of Thermo-fluids.
• Perform hands-on experiments in Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics and Air-
Conditioning.
• Interpret and present results of the experiments performed.

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Following experiments and demonstrations are to be performed in the laboratory:

• Familiarization and flow rate measurement with hydraulics bench unit

• Fluid viscosity measurement using rotating disk viscometer
• Cavitation demonstration
• Flow visualization
• Demonstration of Bernoulli’s principle
• Orifice and jet velocity measurement
• Measurement of friction in pipes in laminar and turbulent flow
• Flow behavior at weirs and drag bodies
• Steam pressure curve of saturated steam using Marcet boiler
• Internal combustion engine demonstration
• Steam power plant demonstration
• Cooling tower demonstration
• Refrigeration training unit demonstration

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Before performing the experiment, students must go through the handout and thor-
oughly understand the phenomenon to be studied. They should also understand
the procedure of the experiment.
Each student group should also plan the recording of the observation data. The
experimental data-sheet listing all the parameters that will be measured for each
experimental objective should be prepared before hand. The signature of the in-
structor must be obtained after the observations have been recorded.

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The following rules must be followed in the lab:

• Always wear shoes before entering lab.

• Do not touch anything without the permission of instructor/ lab assistant.
• Read carefully the lab manual before performing experiments.
• Check electrical connections before starting the equipment.
• Do not put your hands while the machine is in operation.
• Do not tamper measuring instruments.
• Do not open the casing of the equipment.
• Do not unplug any electrical connection.
• Switch off the power supply to the experimental setup on completion of the
experiment.
• Do not leave chemical containers on the working tables.
• Use safety goggles wherever necessary

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Each lab group will turn in a single report for each experiment.
Reports should be concise but complete. Use your own words; verbatim copying
of the hand-out must be avoided. Do not pad the length of a report unnecessarily.
The reports must be free of grammatical and spelling mistakes.
Reports must be typed, using the template separately provided.

The report should contain the following sections:

• Title page
– Title of experiment
– Group ID; names of group members
– Date experiment was performed
– Date report was submitted
• Objectives
• Theoretical background
 �.� ���������� ������ 3

– What principle is this experiment designed to illustrate?

– Describe the theory and any relevant equations/derivations.
• Equipment
– Describe all components used during the experiment.
– Include a neat schematic diagram with all parts labeled and dimensioned
(as required). Copying sections of a report, or sharing sketches with other
groups is not permitted.
– Provide a definition of all symbols used.
• Procedure
For each objective in a given experiment:
– Initial setup
– Procedure
– Parameters varied
• Results
– Raw data should be arranged in tabular form. Some data may be tabu-
lated in the Appendix.
– A completely worked-out sample calculation is required for repetitive
calculations.
– Use MS Excel (or any other spreadsheet program) for tabulation and
plotting graphs.
• Error analysis
– Perform an analysis to show how all the individual errors in your mea-
surement contribute to the total error in the final quantity. (See error
analysis handout for an example.)
– Suggest ways to reduce error in the final result.
• Discussion and conclusions
– What did you learn from this experiment?
– What discrepancies did you notice between theory and experiment?
– What would you do to improve it?
• Appendices
– Include copies of all notes taken during the experiment: (1) Name of
data recorder, (2) group members present, (3) date, (4) all data recorded,
including brief comments to help you later during data reduction and
analysis.
– Do not use erasers during note-taking (just draw a line through your
mistake and proceed).
2 MEASUREMENT OF VOLUMETRIC
F LO W R AT E U S I N G H Y D R A U L I C S
BENCH

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The hydraulics bench unit provides the basic services for the pumping and volumet-
ric measurement of the water supply. All the additional accessories and experiments
are used with hydraulics bench.
Using the hydraulics bench helps avoid wasting water, as used water is recircu-
lated.

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• To learn about the components of the unit.

• To measure the flow rate with the help of volumetric tank.

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The working surface of the unit is in fibreglass, moulded to provide a recessed area
on which to mount experiments. An integral weir tank is provided along with a
volumetric measuring tank.
The measuring tank is stepped to enable for accurate measuring of both high
and low flow rates. A level indicator allows convenient read out of the flow. The
measuring tank discharges into a fibreglass sump tank via a valve. Overflow pipe
is provided. An electric motor drives a submersible motor driven pump which
delivers water to the outlet at the working surface for connection to the individual
experiments.

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6 ����������� �� ���������� ���� ���� ����� ���������� �����

Materials used in the bench construction and its modules have been carefully
selected in order to minimise corrosion problems. The entire unit is self-contained
and mobile. For low volumetric measurement use the 2 litre measuring cup.
Different components of the hydraulics bench are shown in Fig. 2.1.

1. Volumetric measuring tank with 7. Water supply for accessories

channel with pump

2. Remote sight gauge 8. Flow control valve

3. Sliding valve 9. Overflow pipe

4. Sump tank 10. Switch box

5. Drain cock 11. Discharge cap

6. Submersible motor driven pump 12. Water supply connection for ac-
cessories without pump

Figure 2.1: Details and components of a hydraulics bench

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To determine volumetric flow rate, use stopwatch to establish time t required for
raising the level in the volumetric tank from 20 to 30 litres. Close the outlet valve
and read the actual volume at the remote sight gauge.
The volume flow-rate is calculated as

V
V̇ =
t
 �.� ������������ ��������� 7

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To measure the flow rate, follow these steps:

• Turn on the pump.
• Set the stop watch to zero.
• Close the valve at the bottom of the volumetric tank, wait until the liquid
reaches a value of 20 litres and at the same time start the watch.
• After the liquid reaches a value of 20 litres, stop the watch.
• Read off and note the measurement time and the high value of water in tank.
Use table 2.1 to record the observations.
• Calculate the flow rate.

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Use Table 2.1 to record the readings of the experiment.

Table 2.1: Observation table for measuring volume flow rate by hydraulics bench

V (L) V t (s) t V̇ (L/min)

3 C AV I TAT I O N D E M O N S T R AT I O N

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Cavitation, a frequently occurring problem leads to damage in centrifugal pumps,

marine propellers and other fluid machinery. The cavitation demonstration unit
makes the process of cavitation visible in a transparent venturi tube.

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Investigating cavitation process in a venturi tube for varying flow rates in liquids.

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The demonstration unit offers the opportunity to make the process of cavitation
visible using a transparent venturi tube. Pressure is converted to velocity in the
venturi tube until the pressure is reduced below the vapour pressure associated with
the ambient temperature. Vapour bubbles then form in the smallest cross-sectional
area of the tube; these then collapse again on the expansion of the cross-sectional
area of the flow.
The table top apparatus is clearly laid out and contains equipment for all the
necessary measurements. Specific settings can be made with valves so that several
forms and various intensities of cavitation formation can be generated.
The Demonstration Model requires a water connection that has an inlet pressure
of approximately 3 – 4 bar. Both the connections to the water supply and the drain
are made using hoses with rapid action hose couplings.

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Details and components of the cavitation demonstration unit are shown in Fig.
3.1.

�.�.� Venturi Tube

The venturi tube has three tappings that are connected to manometers via hoses
with rapid action hose couplings. At the start of the experiment all couplings should
be connected to the venturi tube so that water does not run out of the connections.

�.�.� Measuring Equipment

Along with three spring-tube manometers, the Demonstration Model is also fitted
with a bimetallic thermometer and variable area flowmeter. The thermometer’s

1. Table top frame 6. Manometer

2. Pressure reducing valve 7. Venturi pipe

3. Spherical valve 8. Spherical valve

4. Variable area flowmeter 9. Water drain connection

5. Thermometer 10. Water feed connection

Figure 3.1: Details and components of a cavitation demonstration unit

 �.� ������ 11

bimetallic strip is contained in an immersion sleeve that hangs directly in the flow,
by this means the actual temperature of the flowing medium is measured.
The variable area flowmeter measures the flow rate. A float is drawn along a
conical tube by the flow. The flow in ltr/h can be read off on a scale adjacent to the
top edge of the float.
The Demonstration Model requires a cold water supply. This supply should be
able to deliver an inlet pressure of 3-4 bar. The water feed to the unit is to be
connected to the water supply using a hose and rapid action hose coupling. The
drain water should be fed from the output of the Demonstration Model to a drain
using a hose.

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If the static pressure in a flowing liquid falls to the vapour pressure of the liquid
at its current temperature, e.g. due to an increase in the absolute velocity of the
liquid, vapour bubbles form inside the liquid at this point (Fig. 3.2). The zone
in which vapour forms is either locally stable or pulsates and thus disturbs the
normal flow pattern. The vapour bubbles are drawn along by the flow and collapse
suddenly when, further along the path of the flow, the static pressure exceeds the
vapour pressure again. This formation and sudden collapse of vapour filled voids
is termed cavitation.

Figure 3.2: Pressure variation and cavitation in a venturi tube

The collapse of the bubbles occurs at very high speed similar to that of an im-
plosion and is affected by various parameters such as the pressure gradient, initial
deformation of the bubble shape, flow velocity, the proximity of walls, and the phys-
ical properties of the liquid. Experiments have also shown that local pressure pulses
caused by turbulence can have a significant influence on cavitation, particularly its
initiation.
The bubbles do not collapse concentrically. At the start of the implosion an in-
dentation forms in each of the bubbles, in the case of bubbles near a wall on the
opposite side to the wall, and in the case of bubbles in a free flow, on the higher
pressure side (Fig. 3.3). With increasing notching, a so-called microjet of the liquid
forms that splits the deformed bubbles into two or more parts. If these bubbles are
attached to a wall or are near a wall, this microjet impacts the surface of the wall at
high speed (jet impact) resulting in damage to the wall.
These pressure surges are the mechanical cause of cavitation erosion. The pitting
on the material has a bubble-like, sponge type structure. Therefore especially hard
and resistant materials must be used in machines subject to damage caused by
12 ���������� �������������

Figure 3.3: Implosion of the vapor bubbles formed during cavitation

Figure 3.4: A ship’s propeller damaged by cavitation erosion

cavitation. Cavitation also often results in corrosion. Protective layers are removed
and the roughened, porous surface provides ideal conditions for corrosion.
Gases in a liquid, in particular free and/or suspended air affect the initiation of
cavitation and the intensity of the cavitation erosion process. Thus, for example, a
high air content inside an imploding bubble will reduce the velocity of the implo-
sion due to the compressibility of the air, and thus reduce the damaging effects of
cavitation. The above average loading of materials due to cavitation is a problem
above all in centrifugal pumps and for maritime propellers (Fig. 3.4).
Cavitation is not only visible but also audible, since the implosion of vapor bub-
bles generates noise.

�.�.� Avoiding Cavitation

The following measures reduce the tendency to cavitation:

• Avoid low pressures

• Avoid temperatures near the fluid’s boiling point
• Use thin blade profiles
• Choose blades with low angle of attack
• Avoid abrupt deflections of the flow
• Round off the leading edge
 �.� ������������ ��������� 13

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Before experiments can be performed the following preparations must be made:

1. Check the rapid action hose couplings are secure.
2. Connect the water supply to the water feed and the outlet to a drain.
3. Open the spherical valves fully.

To perform the experiment, follow these steps:

• Turn on the water supply.

• Adjust the pressure reducing valve at its top ring so that a pressure of +0.2
bar is read on the first manometer (venturi tube inlet).
• All the other measured values and the process occurring in the venturi tube
are then noted.
• The pressure reducing valve is then adjusted so that the pressure at manome-
ter 1 increases by 0.1 bar.
• This process is repeated until a pressure of 1.0 bar has been achieved.
• The values measured and observations made are entered as shown in Ta-
ble 3.1.

Table 3.1: Observation table for measuring volume flow rate by hydraulics bench

Inlet Constriction Inlet Flow Water

pressure, pressure, pressure, rate, temper- Observations with respect
p1 p2 p3 V̇ ature to cavitation
(bar) (bar) (bar) (L/h) (o C)

+0.2 -0.55 0 250 20 No bubble formation

A type of “channel” forms

+0.3 -0.95 0 330 19
at the constriction

Small bubbles form at the

+0.4 -0.96 0 350 19
end of the constriction

An increased number of
+0.6 -0.97 0 390 19
larger bubbles are formed

More bubbles, increasing

+0.8 -0.98 0 420 19
noise

Even more bubbles, loud

+1.0 -0.98 0 450 19
noise
14 ���������� �������������

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• At the start of the experiment both spherical valves should initially be open
so that no pressure is built up due to lack of flow.
• During the experiment it is to be ensured that the hose couplings are secure
so as to avoid the possibility of water being suddenly sprayed into the room.

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Record the observations as shown in Table 3.1. Depending on the ambient and other
conditions (water inlet pressure, water temperature), large deviations in values from
those shown in the table may occur during your own experiment.
4 V I S U A L I S AT I O N O F S T R E A M L I N E S

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The flow visualisation apparatus serves to visualise parallel flow lines around ob-
stacles.
The apparatus operates with water as the flowing medium. A means of contrast,
ink, is injected into the flow chamber by means of fine nozzles.
Various supplied obstacles can be placed in the flow chamber.
Moreover, sources of flow and negative sources of flow can be simulated and
visualised in the swirl chamber via four additional bore holes.

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• To visualise streamlines in flow around drag bodies

• To observe the influence of sources and sinks

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The flow of a fluid, such as water, around a body, can be observed by making the
streamlines visible.

����������� A streamline is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous lo-

cal velocity vector. Streamlines are useful as indicators of the instantaneous direction
of fluid motion throughout the flow field. For example, regions of recirculating flow

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and separation of a fluid off of a solid wall are easily identified by the streamline
pattern.

��������� A pathline is the actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over
some time period. A pathline is generated by simply following the path of an individ-
ual fluid particle as it moves around in the flow field.
A streamline represents an instantaneous flow pattern at a given instant in time,
while a pathline is a flow pattern that has some age and thus a time history asso-
ciated with it. A pathline is the time-exposed flow path of an individual particle
over some time period. In the case of steady flows, the streamlines coincide with
the pathlines.
The closer the flow lines are situated to each other, the faster the flow speed is.

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Details and components of the flow visualisation apparatus are shown in Fig. 4.1.

1. Base plate 8. Knurled-head screws

2. Grips 9. Supply valves for flow

chamber
3. Connection for water supply
10. Discharge valves
4. Connection for water discharge
11. Injection bore holes for
5. Adjustable reservoir tank for contrast dye
contrast dye
12. flat rubber obstacle
6. Flow chamber
13. A short ascending pipe
7. Glass pane

Figure 4.1: Details and components of flow visualisation apparatus

 �.� ������������ ��������� 17

(a) (b)

Figure 4.2: (a) Layout of the valves and (b) location of flow sources and negative flow sources

Water flows through the flow chamber. The direction of flow is from left to right
as shown in Fig. 4.2a.
The water flowing through the flow chamber can be regulated by means of the
supply valve (9a). An ascending pipe (13) is installed to prevent applying the full
water pressure of the pump.
The flow chamber has 15 injection bore holes on the left side that are connected
with each other, through which the means of contrast can be injected. Valve B
regulates the ink supply. The ink can be evenly distributed over the entire width of
the swirl chamber by means of valve C.
By moving the hose from valve B to valve A, the injection bore holes can be rinsed
out.
Valves 9b – e regulate the supply of the additional bore holes (sources of flow),
whereas valves 10b – e regulate the discharge (negative sources of flow), as shown
in Fig. 4.2b.

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�.�.� Initial Operation

• Place the flow visualisation apparatus on the edge of the hydraulics bench.
• Supply water by connecting the hose of the hydraulics bench to the supply
connection.
• Install a hose to the discharge connection and guide it into the trough.
• Install the provided ascending pipe as shown in Fig. 4.3a.
• Open the discharge of the hydraulics bench.

�.�.� Venting the Apparatus

Before tests or experiments can be performed, all the hoses and valves must be
vented:

• Install and position the flat gasket.

18 ������������� �� �����������

• Install the glass pane and fasten it using 10 knurled-head screws.

• Connect the reservoir tank to the flow chamber via the hose.
• Fill water into the reservoir tank. Supply water and open all the valves of the
apparatus. The hoses and valves will be rinsed out by a strong water flow.
• When no more air bubbles can be seen, close all the valves again and maintain
the water supply!
• Carefully remove the glass pane. If necessary, push it out to the side in order
to prevent adhesion.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3: Assembly of the (a) ascending pipe and (b) glass pane

�.�.� Assembly of the glass pane

• Position the flat gasket exactly onto the bore holes of the flow chamber.
• If desired, install obstacle models and press firmly onto the plastic plate.
• Lay the glass pane onto the gasket on one side at the supply side. Ensure the
water supply via the supply valve and slowly lower the glass pane down on
the other side as shown in Fig. 4.3b. Make sure that there are no air bubbles.
If necessary, repeat this procedure.
• In order to avoid the formation of air bubbles, a drop of detergent liquid may
help.
• Install all of the knurled-head screws and tighten them by hand.

�.�.� Filling and injecting the ink

• Make sure that valve (B) is closed and that the pump of the hydraulics bench
is switched on.
• Slightly open valve (9a). Water will flow through the flow chamber.
• Fill the reservoir tank to the 2/3 with diluted ink.
• Open valve (C) and slightly open valve (B). Ink will now flow through the thin
hose to the injection bore holes.
• When the water at valve (C) has a bluish colour, close valves (B) and (C).
• The apparatus is now ready to perform experiments.
• In order to avoid the formation of air bubbles, make sure that there is always
enough ink in the reservoir tank!
 �.� ������������ 19

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�.�.� Flow diagram of a triangular profile

The flow chamber diagram of the flow around a triangular profile is shown in
Fig. 4.4a. It can be seen that the fow around the upper part of the body is clean.
After passing the edge, however, the flow lines detach from the body and eddies
are formed.

�.�.� Flow diagram of a wing profile

In the case of the flow around a wing profile (Fig. 4.4b), it can be seen that the flow
detachment is not at all as strong. However, the eddy increases when the Reynolds
number decreases:

w·l·⇢
Re =
⌘

Where,
w : flow speed
l : length of the wing profile
⇢ : density of water (at 20o C, ⇢ = 890 kg/m3 )
⌘ : dynamic viscosity (⌘ = 1.002 ⇥ 10-3 kg/m·s)

An adjustment of the wing leads to an increased detachment of the flow.

Also pay close attention to the distance between the flow lines. This is a measure-
ment for the flow speed.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.4: Flow diagram of (a) triangular profile and (b) a wing profile

�.�.� Sources and negative sources

Interesting flow diagrams can be achieved by the additional supply of water (source)
and/or by additional suction of water (negative source).
Fig. 4.5 shows an example diagram with two negative sources of flow.
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In real life, for example, the flow properties of an airplane wing can be improved
by sucking air at the rear part of the wing (negative source) so that the flow is
maintained for a longer distance.

Figure 4.5: Flow diagram with two negative sources

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• Do not work with glass panes that have been damaged on the edges. This
could cause considerable injury.
• The knurled-head screws must not enter into the tank. There is the danger
that they could be sucked in and may destroy the pump of the hydraulics
bench.
• Do not operate the apparatus without an ascending pipe. Flooding could
occur due to exiting water.
• The tank of the hydraulics bench unit has a capacity of approximately 170
liters. In order to ensure proper observations, the water should be renewed
after 6 – 7 ink cartridges.
• Ink can be washed out of textiles, however, it adheres to aluminium and plas-
tics. For this reason, wash away any splashed ink that comes onto the appara-
tus immediately.
• The white flow channel surface and the glass pane must be kept absolutely
clean in order to ensure proper function. Please use a lint-free cloth.
• Clogged injection nozzles can be rinsed out or can be carefully freed of dirt
by using a thin drill bit, 0.7 mm.
5 BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
D E M O N S T R AT I O N

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Bernoulli’s principle describes the relationship between the flow velocity of a fluid
and its pressure. An increase in velocity leads to a reduction in static pressure in
a flowing fluid, and vice versa. The total pressure of the fluid remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation is also known as the principle of conservation of mechanical
energy of the flow.
The Bernoulli’s principle experimental unit is used to demonstrate Bernoulli’s
principle by determining the pressures in a Venturi nozzle.

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• Demonstration of Bernoulli’s equation

• Pressure measurements along a venturi tube

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The measurement object is a venturi tube with six pressure measurement points.
The six static pressures are displayed on a board with six water pressure gauges as
shown in Fig. 5.1.
The overall pressure can also be measured at various locations in the venturi tube
and indicated on a second water pressure gauge. Measurement is by way of a probe
which can be moved axially with respect to the venturi tube. The probe is sealed by
way of a compression gland. Water is supplied either from the hydraulics bench or
from the laboratory mains.

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1. Assembly board 7. Probe for measuring overall

pressure (can be moved axi-
2. Single water pressure gauge ally)
3. Discharge pipe 8. Hose connection, water sup-
4. Outlet valve ply

5. Venturi tube with 6 measurement 9. Valve at water inlet

points 10. 6-fold water pressure gauge
6. Compression gland (pressure distribution in ven-
turi tube)

Figure 5.1: Details and components of a Bernoulli’s principle demonstration unit

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The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and

elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible.
In the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation, viscous effects are assumed to be neg-
ligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. This approx-
imation is reasonable in certain regions of many practical flows. Such regions are
referred to as inviscid regions of flow. They are not regions where the fluid itself
is inviscid or frictionless, but rather they are regions where net viscous or frictional
forces are negligibly small compared to other forces acting on fluid particles.
Frictional effects are always important very close to solid walls (boundary layers)
and directly downstream of bodies (wakes).
 �.� ������ 23

The velocity of the flowing fluid is at its greatest at the narrowest cross-section
(continuity equation A·v = const). Bernoulli discovered that a part of the pres-
sure energy is converted into kinetic energy. When velocity increases it therefore
results in a drop in pressure, so that the lowest pressure occurs in the narrowest
cross-section. Bernoulli’s equation states that the energy of a frictionlessly flowing,
incompressible fluid is constant.

Bernoulli’s equation for constant head h:

p1 w21 p w2
+ = 2 + 2 = constant
⇢ 2 ⇢ 2

Allowing for friction losses and conversion of the pressures p1 and p2 into static
pressure heads h1 and h2 yields:

w21 w2
h1 + = h2 + 2 + hv
2g 2g

p1 : Pressure at cross-section A1
h1 : Pressure head at cross-section A1
w1 : Flow velocity at cross-section A1
p2 : Pressure at cross-section A2
h2 : Pressure head at cross-section A2
w2 : Flow velocity at cross-section A2
⇢ : Density of medium (constant for incompressible fluids such as water)
hv : Pressure loss head

The mass flow is constant in closed systems:

ṁ1 = ṁ2

V̇1 · ⇢ = V̇2 · ⇢ (since ṁ = V̇ · ⇢)

V̇1 = V̇2

Ȧ1 · w1 = V̇2 · w2 = V̇ = constant

The venturi tube used has 6 measurement points. The table below shows the
standardised reference velocity w. This parameter is derived from the geometry of
the venturi tube:

A1
wi =
Ai
24 ���������’� ��������� �������������

Point A Reference velocity

i m2 ⇥ 10-4 w

1 3.38 1.0
2 2.33 1.45
3 0.846 4.0
4 1.70 2.0
5 2.55 1.33
6 3.38 1.00

Multiplying the reference velocity values with a starting value, the theoretical
velocity values wcalc can be calculated at the 6 measuring points of the venturi
tube.
At constant flow rate, the starting value for calculating the theoretical velocity is
found as:

V̇
wi =
A1

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• Arrange the experimentation set-up on the hydraulics bench such that the
discharge routes the water into the channel.
• Make hose connection between the hydraulics bench and unit.
• Open discharge of the hydraulics bench.
• Set cap nut [1] of probe compression gland such that slight resistance is felt
on moving probe.

• Open inlet and outlet valves.

• Switch on pump and slowly open main cock of the hydraulics bench.
• Open vent valves [2] on water pressure gauges.
• Carefully close outlet cock until pressure gauges are flushed.
• By simultaneously setting inlet and outlet cock, regulate water level in pres-
sure gauges such that neither upper nor lower range limit [UL, LL] is overshot
or undershot.
• Record pressures at all measurement points. Then move overall pressure
probe to corresponding measurement level and note down overall pressure.
 �.� ����������� ����� 25

• Determine volumetric flow rate. To do so, use stopwatch to establish time t

required for raising the level in the volumetric tank of the hydraulics bench
from 20 to 30 litres

�.� ����������� �����

The following table can be used to record the observations.

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 t for 10 L V̇
mm mm mm mm mm mm s L/s
hstat.
htotal
hdyn.
wmeas.
wcalc.

In the table above,

hdyn. = htot. - hstat.

and
q
wmeas. = 2 · g · hdyn.

�.� �����������

• The experimental set-up should be arranged absolutely plane to avoid falsifi-

cation of measurement results (use of spirit level is recommended).
• For taking pressure measurements, the volumetric tank of the hydraulics
bench must be empty and the outlet cock open, as otherwise the delivery
head of the pump will change as the water level in the volumetric tank in-
creases. This results in fluctuating pressure conditions. A constant pump
26 ���������’� ��������� �������������

delivery pressure is important with low flow rates to prevent biasing of the
measurement results.
• Both valves must be reset whenever the flow changes to ensure that the mea-
sured pressures are within the display ranges.

�.� ������� ��� ����������

The graph in Fig. 5.2 illustrates the measured and calculated velocity profile along
the venturi tube at a flow rate of 0.15 L/s.
The deviations can be attributed to inexact measurements.

Figure 5.2: Velocity variation along the venturi tube

The pressure changes in the venturi tube can be represented in a graph directly
as shown in Fig. 5.3. The graph shows that the equation hdyn. = htot. - hstat. is
fulfilled at every point in the venturi tube. Furthermore, it becomes clear, that there
is a slight overall pressure loss in the venturi tube.

Figure 5.3: Pressure distribution along the venturi tube

6 ORIFICE AND JET VELOCITY
MEASUREMENT

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Hydrodynamics considers the relationship between the trajectory, the outlet contour
and the outlet velocity during flow from tanks. These considerations have practical
applications in hydraulic engineering or in the design of bottom outlets in dams,
for example.
The orifice and jet velocity apparatus allows a user to study and visualise the
profile of a water jet. Additionally, the contraction coefficient can be determined
as a characteristic for different contours. The orifice and jet velocity apparatus can
also be used for the calibration of orifices with different diameters.

�.� ����������

• Comparison of different orifices

• Visual appreciation of the change of jet shape with flow rate
• The influence of varying head

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The experimental unit includes a transparent tank, a point gauge and a panel for
visualising the jet paths. A clear perspex column serves as a constant head tank. The
head is maintained at a constant value by an adjustable overflow and is indicated
by a level scale. In this way, a precise adjustment and accurate reading of the fill
level is possible.

27
28 ������� ��� ��� �������� �����������

1. Tank with adjustable overflow 5. Water outlet

2. Water supply 6. Point gauge for the water jet

3. Water overflow

Figure 6.1: Details and components of the orifice and jet velocity apparatus

An interchangeable insert is installed in the tank’s water outlet to facilitate the in-
vestigation of various openings. Four inserts with different diameters and contours
are provided along with the unit. The orifices are installed at the base of the column
with the help of a special wall fitting. The orifices can be easily interchanged.
A jet trajectory device allows the path followed by the jet to be ascertained. The
issued water jet is measured via a point gauge that consists of movable rods. The
rods are positioned depending on the profile of the water jet. This results in a
trajectory that is transferred to the graph paper attached to the panel.
The experimental unit is positioned easily and securely on the work surface of the
hydraulic bench, which supplies the water and allows the flow rate to be measured.

�.� ������

When a water-filled tank is discharged

through an orifice, the potential energy
of the water head is transformed into
kinetic energy of the water jet performed
by the orifice.

Without losses the kinetic energy is equal

to the potential energy.

1
mv2 = mgh
2
 �.� ������������ ��������� 29

where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h the height of the water. This
equation can be rearranged to give an equation for the velocity v:

p
v= 2gh

For description of the jet trajectory it is

advantageous to introduce cartesian coordi-
nates. The horizontal part of the velocity v
is ẋ and the vertical ẏ. The horizontal part
of the velocity is constant and equal to the
velocity in the orifice. The vertical part de-
pends on the acceleration due to gravity.

p
ẋ = 2gh

ẏ = g · t

Integration over the time gives the position function of the jet trajectory.

x = ẋ · t

1
y= · g · t2
2
Elimination of time gives the y-position dependence on of the width x and the
water head h.

1 x2 1 x2
y(x) = ·g· 2 = ·
2 ẋ 4 h

�.� ������������ ���������

• Insert orifice number 1 (4 mm diameter,

smooth entry) into the fitting device.

• Connect apparatus to the water supply

of the Basic Hydraulic Bench and start
the pump.

• Adjust the water head to 400 mm by

means of the adjustable overflow. If
necessary the overflow to be lubricated.

• Beginning at the right side, adjust the

trajectory probes until they get in con-
tact with the jet.

• Read off the measured y-positions of the jet and note them down in tabular
form.
30 ������� ��� ��� �������� �����������

• Repeat the procedure with orifice number 2 (4 mm diameter, sharp entry)

orifice.
• Repeat the procedure with 8 mm diameter orifices.

�.� ����������� �����

The following table can be used to record the observations and calculated values,
for different orifices.

x-position in m y-position in m y-position in m

(measured) (calculated)
0.00
0.07
0.14
0.21
0.28
0.35
0.42
0.49

�.� ������� ��� ����������

For comparison, both results are plotted in Fig. 6.2.

The measured trajectory is below the calculated one. This is due to friction losses
in the orifice and air resistance to the free jet.
 �.� ������� ��� ���������� 31

Figure 6.2: Measured and calculated jet trajectory

7 FRICTION IN PIPES IN LAMINAR
AND TURBULENT FLOW

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During flow through pipes, pressure losses occur due to internal friction and fric-
tion between the fluid and the wall. When calculating pressure losses, we need to
know the friction factor, a dimensionless number. The friction factor is determined
with the aid of the Reynolds number, which describes the ratio of inertia forces to
friction forces.
This setup enables the study of the relationship between pressure loss due to
fluid friction and velocity in the pipe flow. Additionally, the pipe friction factor is
determined.

�.� ����������

• Measurements of the pressure loss in laminar and turbulent flows

• Determining the pipe friction factor
• Comparing the actual pipe friction factor with the theoretical friction factor

�.� ���������

The experimental unit includes a small diameter pipe section in which the laminar
and turbulent flow is generated. The Reynolds number and the pipe friction factor
are determined from the flow rate and pressure loss. In turbulent flow, the pipe is
supplied directly from the water supply. The constant pressure at the water supply
required for laminar flow is provided by a standpipe on the overflow. Valves can be
used to adjust the flow rate.

33
34 �������� �� ����� �� ������� ��� ��������� ����

The pipe section is a brass pipe with an internal diameter of 3 mm. The distance
between the pressure measuring fittings and thus the length of the experimental
pipe section is 400 mm.
The pressure losses for laminar flow are measured using a twin tube water
manometer. The static pressure difference is displayed.
A head tank is available to create a laminar flow and ensures a constant water
inlet pressure in the pipe section at a constant water level.
For turbulent flow, the pressure difference is measured using a dial manometer.
The head tank is not used to create a turbulent flow. The water is fed directly into
the pipe section from the water supply via a bypass.
The flow is adjusted using shut-off valves at the beginning and end of the pipe.
The water supply is provided either by the hydraulics bench or from the mains
supply in the laboratory. The hydraulics bench can be used to set up a closed water
circuit.

1. Instrument panel 8. Bypass

2. Drain valve 9. Hose connection for water inlet

3. Pressure measuring fitting 10. Shut-off valve for water inlet on

head tank
4. Water manometer
11. Shut-off valve for water outlet on
5. Dial manometer head tank
6. Head tank 12. Pressure measuring fitting
7. Shut-off valve for water feed at 13. Pipe section
bypass

Figure 7.1: Details and components of the pipe friction apparatus

 �.� ������ 35

�.� ������

�.�.� Determining the volumetric flow

The volumetric flow is determined using a measuring tank and a stopwatch.

V
V̇ = (7.1)
t

V : Volume of the medium [L]

t : Time [s]

The flow velocity is given by:

V̇
w= (7.2)
A

V̇ : Volumetric flow [L/s]

⇡ · d2
A : Cross-sectional area of pipe =
4
d : Internal diameter of the pipe section = 3 mm

�.�.� Changing from laminar to turbulent flow

You can also investigate whether laminar or turbulent flow is present. The change
from laminar flow to turbulent flow occurs at:
Recr ⇡ 2300
Relam. 6 2300 means laminar flow
Retur. > 2300 means turbulent flow

The Reynolds number is calculated from:

w·d
Re = (7.3)
⌫

d : Internal diameter of pipe section [mm]

w : Flow velocity [m/s]
⌫ : Viscosity of medium [m2 /s]

�.�.� Determining the pipe friction factor

The pipe friction factor is calculated as follows:

2 · hv · d
= (7.4)
⇢H2 O · l · w2

l : Length of pipe measuring section (400 mm)

⇢ : Density of medium (⇢H2 O = 998 kg/m3 )
hv : Head loss
36 �������� �� ����� �� ������� ��� ��������� ����

The head loss hv is adjusted using the drain valve

(2) and measured on the water manometer (4) as
shown in Fig. 7.2.

hv = h1 - h2 (7.5)

h1 : Static pressure head at pipe inlet [mm]

h2 : Static pressure head at outlet [mm] Figure 7.2: Measuring head loss
at water manometer
When calculating the pipe friction factor m us-
ing equation (7.4), the measured head loss must be
converted into a differential pressure and inserted
into the formula with the unit Pa.

�.�.� Determination of theoretical pipe friction coefficient

The theoretical pipe friction coefficient th can be compared with the pipe friction
factor.
For laminar flow:
64
= (7.6)
Re

For turbulent flow:

0.3164
= p4
(7.7)
Re

�.� ������������ ���������

Performing the experiment for laminar flow

• Connect the water manometer (4) to the two pressure measuring fittings (3
and 12).
• Open the shut-off valve at the drain (2) and close the valve (7) on the bypass.
• Open the valves (10) and (11) on the head tank.

(a) (b)

Figure 7.3: (a) Connecting the water manometer (b) Shut-off valves on head tank
 �.� ������������ ��������� 37

• Turn on the pump on the hydraulics bench and adjust the valve controlling the
flow such that a constant water level is established at the head tank overflow
(6). Fine adjustment can then be carried out using the shut-off valve (10).
• Regulate the flow using the shut-off valve at the drain until the water manome-
ter shows a constant pressure difference of 2 cm WS. This corresponds to the
head loss hv .
• Then measure the volumetric flow using a measuring tank and a stopwatch.
• Continue the experiment by increasing the flow in increments (hv rises) and
repeating the head difference and volumetric flow measurements.
• Note the measured values.

Performing the experiment for turbulent flow

The head tank is not used for this experiment. A higher flow velocity is required
for turbulent flow. The water is fed directly from the laboratory water supply con-
nection into the pipe section (13) via a bypass (8).

Figure 7.4: Bypass and shut-off valves on head tank

• Connect the dial manometer (5) to the two pressure measuring fittings (3 and
12).
• Open the shut-off valve at the drain (2).
• Open the valve (7) on the bypass.
• Close the valves (10) and (11) on the head tank.
• Turn on the laboratory mains water supply and adjust the valve controlling
the flow such that a constant flow is established.
• Regulate the flow using the shut-off valve (2) at the drain until the dial manome-
ter shows a constant pressure difference, e.g. 50 mbar.
• Then measure the volumetric flow using a measuring tank and a stopwatch.
• Continue the experiment by increasing the flow in increments ( p rises) and
repeating the pressure difference and volumetric flow measurements.
• Note the measured values.
38 �������� �� ����� �� ������� ��� ��������� ����

�.� ����������� ������

The following table can be used for recording the measured values obtained for
laminar flow.

hv t V V̇ w Re th

[cm] [s] [L] [L/s] [m/s] [cm]

The following table can be used for recording the measured values obtained for
turbulent flow.

p t V V̇ w Re th

[mbar] [s] [L] [L/s] [m/s] [cm]

�.� �����������

• Place the unit on a flat surface.

• While performing the experiment, make sure that the water level in the head
tank remains constant.