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Revision Notes
Chap 3 Current Electricity
Topic 1
Electric Current, Resistance and Cells
Electric Current

 Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge , across the cross
section conductor i.e., I=
 When charge flows at a constant rate , the corresponding electric current
can be written as :
 Conventional current in an external circuit flows from positive terminal
to negative terminal
 Free electrons flow from the negative terminal to positive terminal in
external circuit
 1 Ampere current = 6.25 electrons flow per second
 Direct current is unidirectional flow of electric charge

Flow of electric charges in metallic conductor

 When an electric field is applied to a metal at certain points , free

electrons experience force and start moving

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  Without external applied emf , free electrons experience force and
start moving .
 Motion of conducting electrons in electric field is a combination of
motion due to random collision .

Drift Velocity , mobility and their relation with electric current

 Drift velocity is an average velocity which is obtained by certain particle

like electron due to presence of electric field.
 Drift velocity is written as : ⃗ ⃗⃗

Where, relaxation time ,

 When electric current is set up in a conductor , electrons drift through

the conductor with velocity , is given as
or neA
Where I = electric current through conductor , n= number of free
electrons per unit volume . A= area of cross section , e= charge of
electron
 Drift velocity of electrons under ordinary conditions is of the order of
0.1 mm/s
 Mobility is the drift velocity of an electron when applied electric field is
unity .
Mobility ,

Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity

 Resistivity is the specific resistance that is given by the conductor having

unit length and unit area of cross section

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  Conductivity is the reciprocal of reciprocal of resistivity shown as

Ohm’s Law

 Flow Of current through conductor is directly proportional to the

potential difference established across , provided physical conditions
remain the same
Or ,
I=GV
Here ,
Or I=
V= IR
Where R= Resistance of Conductor

Electrical resistance

 It is the obstacle that is shown by the conductor during the flow of

current as

 The resistance of the conductor is given as

Where , is specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the
conductor .
 In the series combination of resistance , the current is same through
each resistor .
 In the parallel combination of resistances, the potential difference is
same across each resistor .

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V-I characteristics (Linear and non- linear )

 V-I characteristic curve show the relationship between the current

flowing through the electronic device and applied voltage across its
terminal .

Linear V-I characteristics

A linear V-I curve has a constant slope and hence a constant

resistance . carbon resistors and metal obey the Ohm’s law and
have a constant resistance . This means the V-I curve is a straight
line passing through the origin

An electronic component may exhibit linear characteristics only in a

particular region . For example a diode shows linear behaviour
mostly in its operating region.

Nonlinear V-I Characteristics

 A circuit component has non- linear characteristics if the resistance is

not constant throughout and is some function of voltage or current . The
diode , for example , has varying resistance for different values of
voltage .

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 However , it has linear characteristics for a narrow operating region .
Note that in the graph above we can also see the maximum forward and
reverse voltage in which the diode can be operated without causing
breakdown and burning up of the diode .

Electrical energy and power

 Electrical energy is that which is stored in the charged particles in an

electric field

Where, E= Electrical energy , V= potential difference , t= time taken ,i=

current , R = resistance
 Power is the work done per unit time which is the rate of energy
consumed in a circuit

Since Voltage ,
S0, [ ]

Or,
The unit of power is J/s or W(watt)
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Carbon Resistors and their colour code

 Components and wires are coded with colours to identify their value and
function

 The carbon resistors value of resistance is indicated by four coloured

bands marked on its surface .
 In the carbon resistor shown , first two band a , b determine the digit
values of resistance , third c indicate the multiple while fourth d shows
tolerance of resistance
 Colour bands are marked on body of a carbon resistor to mark its
resistance and tolerance in accordance with the following codes

Multiplier Colour Tolerance

0 Gold 5%
1 Silver 10%
2 No colour 20%
3
4
5
6
7

Series and Parallel combination of resistors

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  If n resistors of Resistance R1, R2 , R3 ,….. Rn are connected in series ,
then their equivalent resistance is given as

 Each resistor in a series circuit has same amount of current flowing

through it .
 Voltage drop across each individual resistor in a series is different , and
they add upto the applied voltage
 The n resistors of resistance are connected in parallel ,
then their equivalent resistance is given as :

 Each resistor in parallel circuit has the same full voltage of the source
applied to it .
 The current flowing through each resistor in parallel circuit is different .
It depends upon resistance value .

Temperature dependence of resistivity

 With small change in temperature , resistivity varies with temperature as

:

Where temperature coefficient of resistivity .

Internal Resistance of Cell

 Cell is a device that maintains the potential difference that is present in

between the two electrodes as a result of chemical reaction
 Internal resistance is the resistance of electrolyte that is present in a
battery which resists the flow of current whwn connected to a circuit

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  Emf E is the potential difference between the electrodes of cell , when no
current flows through it .

Potential difference and emf of a cell

 The emf and terminal potential difference of a cell : Let the emf of a
cell be E and its internal resistance ,r . If an external resistance R be
connected across the cell through a key , Then IR=V= potential
difference across the external resistance R . This is equal to the
terminal potential difference across the cell .
E = V + IR
I=
V=E-Ir
V<E ( if there is flow of current )
When current is drawn from a cell , its terminal potential difference is

less than the emf .

Combination of Cells in series and parallel

 (i) Series Combination of cells : This combination is used when the

external resistance (R) of the circuit is much larger as compared to
internal resistance (r) of the cell i.e.,
R>>r
Let n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in
series across an external resistance R, then the current in the circuit
will be

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  (ii) Parallel combination of cells : The combination is used when the
external resistance R is much smaller as compared to the internal
resistance (r) of the cell , i.e.,
R<<r
When m cells are connected in parallel across a resistance R , then
current through a resistor is given by

If m cells of emfs are connected in parallel across an

external resistance R , then the current through the external
resistance is given by

( )

Know The terms

 Conductors : These are metals which develop electric current in them

, when an electric field is applied to them
 Conventional Current : The current that flows from a point at higher (
positive ) potential to point at lower ( negative ) potential .
 Relaxation Time : The short time for which the free electron
accelerates before it undergoes a collision with the positive ion in the
conductor
 Conductance : It is the reciprocal of resistance of a conductor

G=

Unit -

 Conductivity : It is the reciprocal of the resistivity of a conductor

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  Super conductivity :The phenomenon due to which the substance
looses all signs of its resistance , when cooled to its critical
temperature
 Temperature coefficient of resistance : It is defined as the change in
the resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in temperature .

Revision Notes
Topic 2
Kirchhoff’s Laws, Wheatstone bridge and their
Application
Kirchhoff’s Law

 Kirchhoff’s laws tell about the relationship between voltages and

currents in the circuits.

First Law

 Kirchhoff’s first law is known as junction law which states that for a given
junction or node in a circuit , sum of currents entering in a junction will
be equal to sum of currents leaving that junction

 The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in a closed circuit

is zero ., i.e.,
 This is called the law of conservation of charge .

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 Second Law

 Kirchhoff’s Second law is also known as loop law which shows that
around any closed loop in a circuit , sum of the potential difference
across all elements will be zero
i.e.,
 This is called the law of conservation of Energy

For Example : Applying Junction law in loop AFEBA

Wheatstone Bridge

 It is a circuit having four resistances P,Q,R and S , a galvanometer and a

battery as shown

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  It is a balanced bridge when there is no current through the
galvanometer and potential at node B will be equal to potential at node
D resulting as :
=0 or

 Conductance : The reciprocal of resistance with unit as siemens. “s”

 Node : An end point to any branch of a network or a junction common
to two or more branches
 Permittivity : The ratio of capacitance between two electrodes with
dielectric to capacitance with air between the electrodes

Galvanometer : An instrument for detecting and measuring small electric

currents .

Revision Notes
Topic 3
Metre Bridge , Potentiometer and their Applications
Metre Bridge
 It is an instrument which is used to find the unknown resistance
of a coil or a material connected in a circuit .
 It is also known as slide wire bridge which is an instrument that
works on the principle of Wheatstone Bridge
 Metre bridge has two metallic strips which acts as holder for the
wire that are made of metals like copper .
 In metre bridge
-Resistance box and unknown resistance R are connected
across the two gaps of metallic strips

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 - one end of galvanometer is connected to the middle lead of
metallic strip placed between L shaped strips while other end is
connected to a jockey
- Jockey which is a metal wire having one end as knife edge is
used for sliding on the bridge wire

Measurement from the Metre bridge :

 At negative terminal of galvanometer , there appears zero
deflections that makes jockey to connect to negative point on
the wire .
 The distance from point X to Y is taken as cm while the
distance from point Y to point Z is taken as cm which can be
(100- cm
 Metre bridge can be drawn similar to wheat stone bridge as :

From the above arrangement :

Now , { as , R = }

Further , {

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 Hence ,

Potentiometer
 Potentiometer is a device which measures the emf of particular
cell and helps in comparing the emfs of different cells .
 Potentiometer depends in deflection method where zero
deflection results in non drawn of current from the cell or circuit
.
 It serves as an ideal instrument of infinite resistance for
measuring the potential difference
 Potentiometer comprises of long resistive wire AB of length L
(about 6m to 10 m long ) made up of a manganin or constantan .
 In this , a battery of known voltage E and internal resistance r
forms a primary circuit .
 In the potentiometer circuit , one terminal of other cells is
connected at one end of main circuit while other terminal is
connected at any point on the resistive wire through
galvanometer G which forms the secondary circuit

Where , J= Jockey , K=Key , Rh= Variable resistance which

controls the current through the wire AB
In the circuit

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 Specific resistance ( ) of wire is high while its temperature
coefficient of resistance is low
 At point A , all high potential points of primary and secondary
circuits are connected together , while all low potential points
are connected to point B or Jockey
 Value of known potential difference is more than the value of
unknown potential difference that is to be measured
 The current in primary circuit should remain constant and jockey
should not slide with the wire
Principle of potentiometer
 Potentiometer are displacement sensors that produce
electrical output in proportion to the mechanical displacement
 It can be used to measure the internal resistance and emf of a
cell which cannot be measured by the voltmeter
 The basic principle of potentiometer is that the potential drop
along any length of the wire is directly proportional to its
length . So when a constant current flows through a wire of
uniform cross – section and composition then .
V l
 When there is zero potential difference between two points ,
there will be no flow of electric current
 Application of Potentiometer : in measuring potential
difference and comparing emf of cells potentiometer in
measuring potential difference
 In a potentiometer auxiliary circuit comprises of battery of
emf E connected across terminals A and B with rheostat Rh
resistance box and key K1 is closed , current will flow through
resistance R1 where a potential difference is developed

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  If J is the position of jockey in potentiometer wire which gets
adjusted in such a way that galvanometer shows no deflection
, then AJ will be the balancing length l on potentiometer wire
.\
 Here, the galvanometer will show no deflection as potential is
same if key K is potential gradient of potentiometer wire ,
then potential difference across resistance R1 will result as :
V=KI
 If r is the resistance of potentiometer of length L , then current
through the potentiometer will be :

 Potential drop across potentiometer wire will be :

( )
 Now potential gradient of potentiometer wire which is
potential per unit length is :

( )

( )

Application of Potentiometer in comparing emf of cells

 If a positive terminal of cell of emf E1 is connected to terminal
A while negative terminal is connected to Jockey by
galvanometer , then by closing the key, jockey will move along
the wire AB and Null point is obtained where galvanometer
shows no deflection .

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  When the length of wire AP as is measured , then potential
difference across it , will balance the emf , So, =K ,
where K is potential gradient of the wire .
 When cell of emf E1 is disconnected while cell of emf E2 is
connected then
 On comparing and dividing we get the expression :

 By knowing the values of , the emf of two cells can

be compared .
Applications of potentiometer in measurement of internal resistance
of cell
(i) Initially in secondary circuit Key K’ remains open and the balancing
length ( is obtained is obtained . Since cell E is in open circuit so its
emf balances on length , i.e., E= K

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(ii) Now key K’ is closed so cell E comes in closed circuit . if the
process is repeated again then the potential difference V balances on
length

(iii) By using formulae, internal resistance , r = ( )

( ) [ using equations (a) and (b) ]

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