1.

INTRODUCTION
India has a road network of over 5,472,144 kilometres (3,400,233 mi) as on 31 March 2015,
the second largest road network in the world. At 1.66 km of roads per square kilometre of
land, the quantitative density of India's road network is higher than that of Japan (0.91) and
the United States (0.67), and far higher than that of China (0.46), Brazil (0.18) or Russia
(0.08). However, qualitatively India's roads are a mix of modern highways and narrow,
unpaved roads, and are being improved.

Most of the Indian roads are unsurfaced (42.65%) and are not suitable for use of vehicular
traffic. The poor maintenance of the roads aggravates the problem especially in the rainy
season. According to one estimate there is about per year loss of Rs. 200 crores on the wear
and tear of the vehicles due to poor quality of roads. Even the National Highways suffer from
the deficiencies of inadequate capacity, weak pavement, poor riding quality, distressed
bridges, unabridged level crossings, congested cities (lack of by-pass roads), lack of wayside
amenities and safety measures. Another major problem on the Indian roads is the mixing of
traffic. Same road is used by high speed cars, trucks, two wheelers, tractors, animal driven
carts, cyclists and even by animals. Even highways are not free from this malady. This in-
creases traffic time, congestion and pollution and road accidents. Above all the existing road
construction techniques are very much affected by climatic factors like rain, rock slide etc.
This traditional methods should be substituted by modern technologies like Geosynthetically
reinforced pavements.

The use of geo-synthetic reinforcements in regions of an earth structure under tensile stresses
helps inhibiting extension strains within the soil, thereby increasing the overall strength of the
composite material. Common uses of soil- geo-synthetic reinforcement include the
construction of roads, retaining walls, foundations and embankments.

2. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavements can be defined as layered systems that include materials on top (where
the contact stresses are high) that have improved qualities than those towards the bottom
(where the contact stresses are smaller). Adherence to this principle makes possible the use of
local materials and usually results in an economical design. A typical flexible pavement

1
system includes four distinct layers: asphalt concrete, base course, sub base, and sub grade.
The surface layer is typically asphalt concrete, which is a bituminous hot-mix aggregate
(HMA) obtained from distillation of crude petroleum. The asphalt concrete is underlain by a
layer of base course, typically consisting of 0.2 m to 0.3 m of unbound coarse aggregate. An
optional sub base layer, which generally involves lower quality crushed aggregate, can be
placed under the base course in order to reduce costs or to minimize capillary action under
the pavement. The constructed layers are placed directly onto a prepared sub grade, which is
generally graded and compacted natural in-situ soil.

Fig.1: Cross-section of flexible pavement system

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

3. GEOSYNTHETICS

Geosynthetics are an established family of geomaterials used in a wide variety of civil

engineering applications. Many polymers (plastics) common to everyday life are found in
geosynthetics. The most common are polyolefins and polyester; although rubber, fiberglass,
and natural materials are sometimes used. Geosynthetics may be used to function as a
separator, filter, planar drain, reinforcement, cushion/protection, and/or as a liquid and gas
barrier. The various types of geosynthetics available, along with their specific applications,
are discussed in subsequent sections.

2
3.1 GEOTEXTILES

Almost all geotextiles available are manufactured from either polyester or polypropylene.
Polypropylene is lighter than water (specific gravity of 0.9), strong and very durable.
Polypropylene filaments and staple fibers are used in manufacturing woven yarns and
nonwoven geotextiles. High tenacity polyester fibers and yarns are also used in the
manufacturing of geotextiles. Polyester is heavier than water, has excellent strength and creep
properties, and is compatible with most common soil environments. There are two principal
geotextile types, or structures: woven and nonwoven. Other manufacturing techniques, for
example knitting and stitch bonding are occasionally used in the manufacture of specialty
products.

Fig.2: Types of Geo-textiles

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

3.2. GEOGRIDS

Geogrids are single or multi-layer materials usually made from extruding and stretching high-
density polyethylene or polypropylene or by weaving or knitting and coating high tenacity
polyester yarns. The resulting grid structure possesses large openings (called apertures) that
enhance interaction with the soil or aggregate. The high tensile strength and stiffness of
geogrids make them especially effective as soil and aggregate reinforcement.

Currently there are three categories of geogrids. The first, and original, geogrids called
unitized or homogeneous types, or more commonly referred to as punched and drawn
geogrids. The second category of geogrids are more flexible, textile-like geogrids using
bundles of polyethylene-coated polyester fibers as the reinforcing component. The third

3
category of geogrids are made by laser or ultrasonically bonding together polyester or
polypropylene rods or straps in a grid like pattern.

Fig.3: Types of Geogrids

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

3.3 GEONETS

Geonets are made of stacked, criss-crossing polymer strands that provide in-plane drainage.
Nearly all geonets are made of polyethylene. The molten polymer is extruded through slits in
counter-rotating dies, forming a matrix, or “net” of closely spaced “stacked” strands. Two
layers of strands are called “bi-planar”. Three layers are called “tri-planar”.

Fig.4: Geonet
[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

4
3.4. GEOFOAM

A newer category of geosynthetic product is geofoam, which is the generic name for any
foam material utilized for geotechnical applications. Geofoam is manufactured into large
blocks which are stacked to form a lightweight, thermally insulating mass buried within a soil
or pavement structure. The most common type of polymer used in manufacturing of geofoam
materials is polystyrene. Typical applications of geofoams include: within soil embankments
built over soft, weak soils; under roads, airfield pavements and railway track systems subject
to excessive freeze-thaw conditions; and beneath on-grade storage tanks containing cold
liquids.

Fig.5: Geofoams

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

3.5 GEOCOMPOSITES

The possibility of combining the superior features of various geosynthetics has rendered a
host of so called "geocomposite" materials. There is a large number of possibilities in
assembling different materials, only limited by one's ingenuity and imagination.
The most common geocomposite configuration is known as a drainage geocomposite.
Drainage geocomposites are composed of a geotextile filter surrounding either a geonet
(blanket drain), a thick preformed core (panel or edge drain), or a thin preformed core (wick
drain). Some applications of drainage geocomposites are blanket drains, panel drains, edge
drains and wick drains. Many other geocomposite products have been developed. For
example, high strength yarns have been knitted into a nonwoven to produce a product that is
both strong (via the yarns) and which has controlled permeability characteristics.

5
 Fig.6: Geocomposites

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

3.6 GEOMEMBRANES

Geomembranes are relatively impermeable sheets of plastic. There are two general categories
of geomembranes: calendered and extruded.

 Calendered Geomembranes

Calendered geomembranes are formed by working and flattening a molten viscous

formulation between counterrotating rollers. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorosulfonated
polyethylene (CSPE), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), and, more recently, polypropylene
(PP) are the most common calendered geomembranes. Specialty ethylene interpolymer alloy
(EIA) geomembranes are used for unique applications.

 Extruded Geomembranes

Extruded geomembranes are manufactured by melting polymer resin, or chips, and forcing
the molten polymer through a die using a screw extruder. Common extruded geomembranes
include high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and various lower density, or very flexible,
polyethylenes (VFPE). Polypropylene (PP) is a relatively new type of extruded (as well as
calendered) geomembrane.

6
 Fig.7 Calendered Geomembranes Fig.8 Extruded Geomembranes
[Source :(Handbook of Geosynthetics)]
3.7 GEOPIPES

Another significant product which has been “adopted” as a geosynthetic is plastic pipe. The
specific polymer resins used in the manufacturing of plastic pipes are: high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP), polybutylene (PB),
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB). There is a wide
variety of civil engineering applications for these products, including: highway and railway
edge drains, interceptor drains, and leachate removal systems.

Fig 9: Geopipe
[Source :(Handbook of Geosynthetics)]

7
4. GEOSYNTHETICS IN PAVEMENT DESIGN

Geosynthetics have been used in pavement design to address the functions of separation,
filtration, lateral drainage, sealing, and reinforcement. Specifically, geosynthetics have been
used for separation in pavement projects to minimize intrusion of subgrade soil into the
aggregate base or sub-base. Also, geosynthetics can perform a filtration function by
restricting the movement of soil particles from the subgrade while allowing water to move to
the coarser adjacent base material. In-plane drainage function of a geosynthetic can provide
lateral drainage within its plane. In addition, geosynthetics have been used to mitigate the
propagation of cracks by sealing the asphalt layer when used in pavement overlays. Finally,
geosynthetics can be used in flexible pavements for a reinforcement function. While the
reinforcement function has often been accomplished using geogrids, geotextiles have also
been used as reinforcement inclusions in transportation applications. The stresses over the
subgrade are higher in unreinforced flexible pavements than in geosynthetic-reinforced
pavement (Fig.4.1). The geosynthetic reinforcement is often placed at the interface between
the base and sub-base layers or the interface between the sub-base and subgrade layers or
within the base course layer of the flexible pavement.

Fig.10 Relative load magnitudes at sub grade layer level for (a) unreinforced flexible
pavement and (b) geosynthetic-reinforced flexible pavement

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

8
The improved performance of the pavement due to geo-synthetic reinforcement has been
attributed to three mechanisms: (1) lateral restraint, (2) increased bearing capacity, and (3)
tensioned membrane effect. These three mechanisms are illustrated in Fig. 4.2 .

Fig.11: Reinforcement mechanisms induced by geosynthetics: (a) Lateral restraint;

(b) Increased bearing capacity; and (c) Membrane support
[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

9
The primary mechanism associated with the reinforcement function for flexible pavements
(Fig. 4.2.(a)) is lateral restraint or confinement. The name may be misleading as lateral
restraint develops through interfacial friction between the geo-synthetic and the aggregate,
thus the mechanism is one of a shear-resisting interface (Perkins 1999). When an aggregate
layer is subjected to traffic loading, the aggregate tends to move laterally unless it is
restrained by the subgrade or by geosynthetic reinforcement. Interaction between the base
aggregate and the geosynthetic allows transfer of the shearing load from the base layer to a
tensile load in the geosynthetic. The tensile stiffness of the geosynthetic limits the lateral
strains in the base layer. Furthermore, a geosynthetic layer confines the base course layer
thereby increasing its mean stress and leading to an increase in shear strength.
Both frictional and interlocking characteristics at the interface between the soil and the
geosynthetic contribute to this mechanism. For a geogrid, this implies that the geogrid
apertures and base soil particles must be properly sized. A geotextile with good frictional
capabilities can also provide tensile resistance to lateral aggregate movement. As illustrated in
Fig. 4.2.b, the increased bearing capacity mechanism leads to soil reinforcement when the
presence of a geosynthetic imposes the development of an alternate failure surface. This new
alternate plane provides a higher bearing capacity. The geosynthetic reinforcement can
decrease the shear stresses transferred to the subgrade and provide vertical confinement
outside the loaded area. The bearing failure mode of the subgrade is expected to change from
punching failure without reinforcement to general failure with reinforcement. The
geosynthetic can also be assumed to act as a tensioned membrane, which supports the wheel
loads (Fig. 4.2.c). In this case, the reinforcement provides a vertical reaction component to the
applied wheel load. This tensioned membrane effect is induced by vertical deformations,
leading to a concave shape in the geosynthetic. The tension developed in the geosynthetic
contributes to support the wheel load and reduces the vertical stress on the subgrade.
However, significant rutting depths are necessary to realize this effect. Higher deformations
are required to mobilize the. This reinforcement mechanism has been reported to develop
only in cases with subgrade CBR values below 3.
The after mentioned mechanisms require different magnitudes of deformation in the
pavement system to be mobilized. In the case of unpaved roads, significant rutting depths (in
excess of 25 mm) may be tolerable. The increased bearing capacity and tensioned membrane
support mechanisms have been considered for paved roads. However, the deformation
needed to mobilize these mechanisms generally exceeds the serviceability requirements of

10
flexible pavements. Thus, for the case of flexible pavements, lateral restraint is considered to
contribute the most for the improved performance of geosynthetic reinforced pavements.

5. SEPARATION AND STABILIZATION FUNCTION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Temporary roads used for hauling and access roads that are subject to low volumes of traffic
are often constructed without asphalt or cement concrete surfacing. In these cases, a layer of
aggregate is placed on the prepared sub grade of these roads to improve their load carrying
capacity. Problems are usually encountered when the sub grade consists of soft clays, silts
and organic soils. This type of sub grade is often unable to adequately support traffic loads
and must be improved.

5.2 TYPICAL SOLUTIONS

Temporary roads used for hauling and access roads that are subject to low volumes of traffic
are often constructed without asphalt or cement concrete surfacing. In these cases, a layer of
aggregate is placed on the prepared subgrade of these roads to improve their load carrying
capacity. Problems are usually encountered when the subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and
organic soils. This type of subgrade is often unable to adequately support traffic loads and
must be improved.

5.3 THE GEOSYNTHETIC SOLUTION

Geosynthetics are proving to be a cost effective alternative to traditional road construction

methods. As a result, the application of geosynthetics to the construction of unpaved roads
over soft subsoils has become quite popular. Design has focused on the stabilization of the
subgrade and the reinforcement of the aggregate, leading to the identification of two
important functions: membrane action and lateral restraint. Membrane action is the ability of
a geosynthetic material to reduce and spread stress arising from the weak subgrade.
Lateral restraint, sometimes called confinement, is the lateral interaction between the
aggregate and the subgrade with the geosynthetic. The presence of the geosynthetic restrains
lateral movement of both the aggregate and the sub grade, improving the strength and
stiffness of the road structure.

11
5.4 SEPARATION

At small rut depth, the strain in the geosynthetic is also small. In this case, the geosynthetic
acts primarily as a separator between the soft subgrade and the aggregate. Any geosynthetic
that survives construction will work as a separator.

5.5 STABILIZATION

For larger rut depths, more strain is induced in the geosynthetic. Thus the stiffness properties
of the geosynthetic are essential. A considerable reduction in aggregate thickness is possible
by the use of a geosynthetic having a high modulus in the direction perpendicular to the road
centerline; however, the benefits of the geosynthetic are not wholly dependent on the
membrane action achieved with a stiff geosynthetic. Lateral restraint produced by the
interaction between the geosynthetic and the aggregate is equally important. The following
general conclusions can be drawn relating to a typical road base.

 A geosynthetic element that functions primarily as a separator (typically when the
subgrade CBR 3) will increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade by 40
to 50 percent. (Separation geotextiles)
 A geosynthetic element that functions primarily to provide confinement of the
aggregate and lateral restraint to the subgrade (typically when the subgrade CBR < 3)
will both increase the allowable bearing capacity of the subgrade and provide an
improved load distribution ratio in the aggregate.

Fig.12: Seperation Function

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

12
6. BASE REINFORCEMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

Permanent roads carry larger traffic volumes and typically have asphalt or Portland cement
concrete surfacing over a base layer of aggregate. The combined surface and base layers act
together to support and distribute traffic loading to the subgrade. Problems are usually
encountered when the subgrade consists of soft clays, silts and organic soils. This type of
subgrade is often water sensitive and, when wet, unable to adequately support traffic loads. If
unimproved, the subgrade will mix with the road base aggregate – degrading the road
structure - whenever the subgrade gets wet.

6.2 TYPICAL SOLUTIONS

As with unpaved roads, a problematic subgrade is typically excavated and replaced, or it is

improved by the addition of cement, lime, or excess aggregate. In any case, the traditional
solution is often costly and always time consuming.
6.3 THE GEOSYNTHETIC SOLUTION

As was noted earlier, geosynthetics are proving to be a cost effective alternative to traditional
road construction methods. In paved roads, lateral restraint also called confinement is
considered to be the primary function of the geosynthetic. With the addition of an appropriate
geosynthetic, the Soil-Geosynthetic-Aggregate (SGA) system gains stiffness. The stiffened
SGA system is better able to provide the following structural benefits:
 Preventing lateral spreading of the base
 Increasing confinement and thus stiffness of the base
 Improving vertical stress distribution on the subgrade
 Reducing shear stress in the subgrade
6.4 GEOSYNTHETIC BENEFITS

A Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) review of geosynthetic base reinforcement

identified the most common method for quantifying geosynthetic benefits as the
determination of a Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR). The TBR relates the ratio of reinforced load
cycles to failure (excessive rutting) to the number of cycles that cause failure of an
unreinforced road section. In general, geosynthetics have been found to provide a TBR in the
range of 1.5 to 70, depending on the type of geosynthetic, its location in the road, and the
testing scenario.

13
 Fig.13: Laying of geogrid base reinforcement
[Source :(Handbook of Geosynthetics)]
7. ROAD BASE DRAINAGE

7.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

Designing without positive rapid subsurface drainage costs billions of dollars a year
due to increased rates of pavement damage caused by poor drainage. Most road builders
recognize the role of water in pavement deterioration. Yet, most emphasize strength and
quality of pavement improvement, neglecting improved drainage techniques.

7.2 TYPICAL SOLUTIONS

Most traditional drainage systems use an open graded drainage layer under the full
width of a roadbed with adequate collector pipes and outlet pipe. Additionally, pavement
edge drains can be retrofitted to greatly reduce the rate of water related damage to existing
pavements if the road base is reasonably free draining.

7.3 THE GEOSYNTHETIC SOLUTION

Recent moves toward greater use of subsurface pavement drainage stem from the
development of improved and economical drainage materials, along with greater awareness

14
of the nature and extent of the problem. The introduction of geotextiles into drainage
applications has enhanced the economical application of blanket and trench drains under and
adjacent to the pavement structure, respectively. The excellent filtration and separation
characteristics associated with filtration geotextiles permits the use of a single layer of open-
graded base or trench aggregate enveloped in a geotextile. The thin filtration geotextile
reduces the required excavation as well as the cost of the drained structural section.

Fig.14: Drainage function of geo-synthetics

[Source (Zornberg, J.G. & Gupta, R. The University of Texas at Austin, USA)]

8. LAYING OF GEOSYNTHTICS
8.1 SITE PREPARATION
Clear and grade the installation area. Remove all sharp objects and large stones. Cut trees and
shrubs flush with the subgrade. Removal of topsoil and vegetation mat is not necessary, but is
recommended where practical. Excessively soft spots or voids may be unsuitable for
geosynthetic installation. Fill these areas with select material and compact prior to
geosynthetic installation. The problem area may be enhanced by using a geosynthetic at the
bottom of the excavation prior to backfilling.

15
 Fig.15 Site Preparation
[Source :(Handbook of Geosynthetics)]
8.2 DEPLOYMENT OF THE GEOSYNTHETICS
Unroll the geosynthetic on the prepared subgrade in the direction of construction traffic.
Hold the geosynthetic in place with pins, staples, fill material or rocks. Adjacent rolls
should overlap in the direction of the construction. Depending on the strength of the
subgrade, the overlaps may have to be sewn.

8.3 PLACEMENT OF THE AGGREGATE

Place the aggregate over firm subgrades by back dumping aggregate onto the
geosynthetic and then spreading it with a motor grader. For weaker subgrades, dump onto
previously placed aggregate and then spread the aggregate onto the geosynthetic with a
bulldozer. On weaker subgrades, a sufficient layer of aggregate must be maintained beneath
all equipment while dumping and spreading to minimize the potential of localized subgrade
failure. Avoid traffic directly on the geosynthetic. When using construction equipment on the
aggregate, try to avoid any sudden stops, starts or sharp turns. Maintain a minimum lift

16
thickness of 6-inches (15 cm) except in cases of low volume roads. Compact the aggregate to
the specified density using a drum roller. Fill any ruts with additional aggregate and compact
as specified.

Fig.16: Aggregate Spreading

[Source :(Handbook of Geosynthetics)]
DAMAGE REPAIR

Repair damaged geosynthetics immediately. Clear the damaged area and an additional
three feet around it of all fill material. Cover the cleared area with a piece of the geosynthetic.
The patch should extend at least three feet beyond the perimeter of damage. Replace the
aggregate and compact to the specified density.

9. ADVANTAGES OF GEO-SYNTHETICS

• Cheaper in product cost, transport and installation.

• Can be designed
• Can be installed quickly with flexibility to construct during short period.
• Consistent over a wide range of soils
• Material quality control - more homogeneous than soil and aggregates.
• Better construction quality control at site

17
• Easy material deployment
• Less environmentally sensitive
• Improved performance and extended life
• Increased safety factor
• Compatible with field conditions
• Increased service life of flexible pavement section by a factor of 2.5 to 3.0 for weak
sub-grades (CBR 2%) and by 2.0 to 3.3 for moderate sub-grades (CBR 4.2 to 4.5%)
• Increase in allowable load bearing capacity by 40 to 50% for sub-grade CBR>3 and
well over 50% for sub-grade CBR<3
• Increase in Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR) from 1.5 to 70.
• The cost of geo-synthetics applied usually between 3 to 5 per cent of the total cost of
projects.
• For a number of projects, savings of 30 per cent in total project costs have been
reported.
• Minimizes the regular repair and maintenance costs directly.
• Prevent accidents, increase efficiency of structures, minimize pollution and leads to
efficient use of natural resources.
• Geo-synthetics provide sealing and capping of pollution due to chemicals released
after road and rail accidents into groundwater areas.
• Geo-synthetics assist the environment by acting as a containing barrier for toxic
materials.

18
10. CONCLUSIONS

Geo-synthetics reinforce the structural section through: lateral restraint, tensile membrane
support & increased bearing capacity. The addition of a geo-synthetic to a structural section
increases the friction between the aggregate layer and the geo-synthetic. The filtration-
drainage function is vital to the performance of geo-synthetics in road construction as any
pore water pressure developed in the sub-grade must be dissipated. Geo-synthetics increase
the overall bearing capacity of the pavement. As a developing country, India should take
maximum utilization of geo synthetics as they bring economy & efficiency to projects.

19
REFERENCES

[1] Zornberg, J.G, Gupta, Geo-synthetics in pavements: North American contributions,

The University of Texas at Austin, USA.

[2] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1993.

AASHTO Guide for design of pavement structures. Washington, DC, USA.

[3] Huang, Y.H. Pavement analysis and design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliff,
NJ, 2004.

[4] Giroud, J.P. and Han, J. Design method for geo-grid reinforced unpaved roads–I.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering, Volume 130, Issue 8,
2004.

[5] Koerner, R.M, Designing With Geo-synthetics, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2005.
[6] www.google.com

20
APPENDIX I

A-1
Question 1: How can we say that use of geosythetics in road pavements is
economical?

Answer: Use of geosynthetics stops extra expenses for regular repair and maintenance
costs directly .More over it is cheaper in production and thereby reducing the
total project cost. In certain cases savings up to 30% is reported.

Question 2: What will be the effect of temperature on such pavements?

Answer: The effect of rutting is reduced to a great extent but as temperature has greater
influence on flexible pavements geosynthetically pavements is also vulnerable
to high temperature.

Question 3: Expected life time of this pavement?

Answer: It is about 100years

Question 4: What is called Traffic Benefit Ratio?

Answer: The traffic benefit ratio (TBR) is defined as the ratio of the number of load

cycles of a stiff geogrid reinforced section, to the number of load cycles of an
unreinforced section for a given level of performance. Extension of life
is defined in terms of a Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR). Minimizing maintenance
and extending the life of the pavement, benefit, or value-added, is expressed in
terms of life extension.

Question 5: Is this is applicable in Kerala roads?

Answer: Yes it is now used in the National Highway Work in Calicut. It is also used in
many flyover constructions.

A-2
APPENDIX II

A-3