Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change 1

(A Study of Dalit’s language in Agra )

By

Dr. Bhoopal Singh

Assistant Professor,

Hindi Department, Agra College, Agra

Dalit : myth and realties

Agra a known as city of Taj mahal worldwide situated in the plan of the Ganga
and the Yamuna. Demographic formation of Agra has constituted by more than thirteen
lack people (data census of india 2001) came from all stairs of caste system. Dalits are in
majority. Dalits have been classified under many names by dominant Hindu society over
the years, including „A-varna‟ (casteless), „Dasas‟ (slaves), „Chandalas‟ (cursed ones),
„Panchamas‟ (the fifth ones), Gandhi‟s word „Harijans‟ (people of God), „Untouchables‟
and the current legalese „Scheduled Castes‟ (SCs). One mythical context comes in later
vedic literature- in a undecided war between sura and asura decision of the war takes
place by a vocal war( vak yuddha), in which the deciding factor was correct use of
gender in language. Correct use of gender decided in reference to Sanskrit grammar and
asuras defeated. Modern dialects of hindi language followed this pattern with a little
moderation but we do not find irregularities in use of gender either in upper caste people
or in dalits, so we can firmly say that dalits are not from other socio- historic community.
They are part of one community of same language and culture historically but they
treated and constructed as different (others) in cultural and religious discourses of
medieval history and this truth created in time of dharmashashtra and manipulations
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

regarding this made in later period in vedic and later vedic literature , although thinkers
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of dalit stream also called themselves „other‟ till now.
After independence dalits faced two dimensional framework of adjustment with
Indian social system and newly born Indian republic. Due to conception of a-varna
(untouchable) they felt a disassociation from a brahmenic dominant and brahmenic
favorable Indian system and due to reservation policies of Indian government they felt
association with system. First we called harijan or shudra experience filled with
resentment and revolt to brahmenic pseudo religious hierarchic conceptions and second
we called dalit experience filled with a reserved place in civil society. We have a
subaltern historic fact found in dalit consciousness of dalits of Agra region. The Jatavs of
Agra wanted to sanskritize in the 1940s. Shoe wenter‟s of Agra became economically
well in British period. They claimed kshatriya(Upper caste) status by propagating a myth
in Lomesh Ramayan by swami Atma Ram. But the local kshatriyas refused to accede to
their claim. Later they adapted politicization and gradually became dominant vote bank
and get upward mobilization. This politicization is correlated with adaptation to Indian
republican system with reservation policies for dalits. After 1957 their real impact has
been felt when the caste became major force behind formation of RPI(Republican party
of India- A dalit based political party) in Agra. RPI raise ten demands those mobilized
dalit on the issues of identity, self esteem, social prestige, wellness of that group. This
political wave attracted rural dalits adjoining agra to migrate for a better social life and to
liberate from agricultural serfdom.

Urbanization in search of identity

In context to analyze modernization of Indian tradition three concepts developed

sanskritization, westernization and urbanization. (M.N.shrinivas 1962; 45-67, Y. Singh
1972; 5-9) our concern is Urbanization, a factor of modernization of Indian tradition. Dr.
B.R. Ambedkar advocated for greater urbanization and said “What is the village but a
sink of localism, a den of ignorance, narrow- mindedness and communalism? I am glad
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

that the Draft Constitution has discarded the village and adopted the individual as a unit”
3
(Hay,1988). Louis Wirth pointed out „urbanization as a way of life‟ (Louis Wirth, A.J.S.
1938). In „urban community‟ Nels Anderson said “(urbanization) although it emerges
from the great metropolitan centers. It is a way of behaving, and means one can be very
urban in his thinking and conduct although he may live in a village.” (Nels Anderson
1959;1) Dalits migrated from rural areas of Agra in search of „the way of life‟ free from
ignorance, caste oppressions, poverty and uncivilized actions. The way of life in rural
India has dominated by socio-cultural values of brahmanic rulings of daily life, any one
can‟t live a „urban life‟ (as Anderson said) in rural India. Urbanization led by the
industrialization in third world country might be relatively a new phenomenon, though
India has experienced trade and urbanization during Harappa and Buddhist period before
fifth century B.C (Mears, 2001). Moreland pointed out with reference of Barnier that
migration of rural lower caste people was common that time and factors of migration
were economic, natural calamities and cruelties of local feuds. (Moreland, hindi tran.
Sinha 1976; 152-153) Even after these urbanization process the population size of dalits
in Agra was not a deciding factor in context of political power before independence. In
the time of freedom movement „mahars‟ of Poona and „jatavas‟ of Agra were major
followers of Ambedkar‟s philosophy of social suppression. Urbanization due to
conception of Ambedkar‟s politics was different in approach and mindset of dalits. They
came to cities not only for economic causes but also for political causes, in search of
identity.
In the west of Agra city a new settlement of dalits formed after independence.
Cluster of dalits residential colony Rahul vihar, Sharda vihar, soniya vihar is my target
group of research sampling. Jatavas, a dalit caste are in majority in these colonies. Most
of them are migrated from rural remotes of Agra region. People are engaged in
occupation of daily basis unorganized laborer i.e.; mason (raj mistry), coolie(beldar),
carpentry(badhaigiri), painter(putai wale), casual labor(beldar, palledar) etc. Rosenthal
pointed out that “originally agricultural serfs and leather- workers in villages, they have
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

moved to relatively independent economic activities- shoe manufacturing- and are

4
presently highly active in politics.”(David Rosenthal, ed. Rajani Kothari 1986; 347)
These people are highly politicized. There is a statue of Dr.Ambedkar in every dalit
colony symbolize their political appearance. They participate actively in political
activities like elections, meetings, follow calls of political parties. Now they know they
are dalits, a counterpart (other) of savarna(high caste) socially, culturally and politically.

A meaningful migration
Y.B. Damle in „The nature of urbanization in India‟ pointed out the realities of
urbanization and caste. He said “ In regard to caste, there is no doubt that there has been a
great deal of reduction in caste taboos regarding commensality, the type of food one eats,
the social intercourse etc. yet it would be hazardous to state that caste as a system of
inter-relationship has broken down in urban areas.” Dalits migrated from rural to urban
direction for getting freedom from caste system but they had not got rid of from that as
they dreamed. There are many reasons -urban-rural continuum (R.K.Mukherjee),
reservation based on caste label, lower living economics, way of life (levis), political role
etc. Migration to urban areas, in India as elsewhere, is associational; migrants come to the
city with kin or, more commonly, seek out kin for practical and emotional assistance
upon arriving there. (Sylvia Vatuk 1972; 194) This kinship bonded associations forced
them to live nearby or within one residential colony or cluster. These colonies or clusters
identified as dalits localities different from other colony. As in rural india their residential
localities became cut off part of general structure of city. High caste people do not want
to live there. As for social interactional part their interaction to other caste is professional
not personal and familial. They live a semi-separated life. They are free from
brahmenical attitudes within their boundary walls and within political activities but are
not free after them.
Dalits associations with traditional professional activities, traditional community
life style and rural ancestors psychologically forced them to maintain their language as it
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

was but their political awareness and activeness, urban life style penetration,
5
improvement in educational and economic life and impact of sansakritisation process
forced them to change their language. Language is a reliable factor for research in social
and historic constructions that cannot tell a lie.

Language represents realties

Aspect of Language change is directly related to social realities and historic
developments. A language may become greatly altered by the excessive prevalence of the
wearing out processes, abandoning much which in other languages is retained and valued.
It is necessary that we take notice of the disorganizing and destructive workings of this
tendency … (W D Whitney 1904: 75) My discussion is based on the conception that a
language never leaves the truth behind the curtains. In historical development process of
a language many turning points come, affect structure of language, these are historic
necessities but total shifting of a language may be possible in long time. Fishman
emphasizes ‘Language shift to refer to the intergenerational shift in mother tongues in
favor of more widely-spoken languages that underlies language consolidation‟ (Fishman
1964; Gal 1978). This has been seen that the change in phonetic structure of a language
make deep effect on it. „It helps to loosen the grammatical bonds between words; the total
number of forms is uselessly increased, the linguistic mechanism is obscured and
complicated to the extent that the irregularities born of phonetic change win out over the
forms grouped under general patterns.‟(Ferdinand de Saussure 1949: 161)
Many causes have seen as a key factor of language change, some of them are
elaborated here. 1. Change and identity- sometimes sense of identity makes change in
language it may be of some individuals or some communities. Their linguistic style might
some sort of attractive pull to change. We can find this type of change in process of
sansakritisation in vocal tradition and process of language standardisation in official or
literary tradition. In British time a nationalised identity in northern India have been accept
and propose change in language, from Sanskrit and Brijbhasha to Khariboli hindi
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

(modern hindi). „nij bhasha unnati ahai sab unnati kou mool‟(development of own
6
language follows by all developments) was the basic theme of that identity movement.
2. Language and thought (reality)- Language represent the realities of particular
socio-historical condition. Thoughts of any time expressed in a language. When we feel
uncomfortable in our expression with a existing language, we made change in that
language. Language of literature, language of philosophical writings, language of court
and law, language of discussions and scientific statements have been changed time to
time in history due to this cause. Indian poetics had been taught in medival time in
Sanskrit, but it have changed later and taught in Brijbhasha and now in hindi. In ancient
India Language of economics was Sanskrit, it became English now. After independence
hindi poets felt a tension raised between emotion and language boundations. Agyeya said
„I do not communicate with you in old metaphors of language, it would not treat as my
emotional deviance, and it should be count as old language failed to my expressions.‟
Raghuveer Sahay said „we want such a language that could not represent double
meaning, we are saying other intentions and it is expressing totally different meaning.
Thought of labour will be in labour‟s language filled with words of his work, while a
advocate will use language of law.
3. Language contact, creolisation and pidginisation- A pidgin is a temporary
language that arises out different linguistic communities needing to communicate. „only
in a multilingual situation with one or more third parties, will a true pidgin
emerge.‟(Whinnom, k. 1971) A pidgin that is learnt as a mother tongue is called a
„creole‟. Sometimes, these creoles become languages in their own right. New languages
or new varieties of languages can therefore arise out of these situations of language
contact. In India like multilingual country part of language change through contact with
process of pidginisation and creolisation is common. Migrated Hindi speaking people go
in contact with Marathi, Guajarati, Tamil, Bengali languages within India and Fijian,
Caribbean etc. Out of India create pidgins and creoles.
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

Main factor of language change in dalits of agra is Identity factor. They had
7
migrated to city in search of their Identity. First step of a person‟s identity is his/her
name. Names of dalits at emigration places are different from those of upper caste people.
Not only in social exercise but also In records of governmental documents like voter lists
and rasan cards names of dalit people found Chinta(ant), Parabhu, Mangatoo(beggar),
langda(handicapped), Hukama, Fatte, Netram, Karua(black), Ghantoli(bell), Nekasa(short
one), these harshly destroying identity of a person by reducing him in such type of name.
A novel „Neem ka ped ( the tree of neem) by Rahi masoom raja, he pointed out this
naming tradition in dalit. In a dialogue novelist said please do not reduce Shukh Ram in
Sukhiya, after becoming Sukhiya he could not became a known person. He will lose his
Identity. Trim down in general names reduce personality.
At present time in language of dalits we do not find such type of names but the
shifting of naming culture go on the way of brahmenic tradition. In girls we find name
like Upasana, Vandana, Pooja, Archana, Aradhana, Radha, Sita, ( Meaning of all are
related to religious metaphors), in boys we find Mukes, Mahes, Devendara, Mahendara,
Sib Kumar, Hari Mohan(meanings of all are related to Hindoo Devatas). We want to
point out the contradiction between dalit politicalisation agendas of negating brahmenical
cultural tradition and this process of identity followed by sanskritization but linguistically
they had changed the accent mukesh to mukes, Mahesh to mahes, devendra to devendar,
mahendra to mahendar. This sound change has also seen in dalits writings. They had not
followed the accent of sansakritic tradition. This is common characteristic of dalits accent
due to which they could identified as dalit.
Change in sounds has found in language of dalits in rural areas in reference to
upper caste people language and Brijbhasha. They change sound „la‟ with sound „n‟
almost every time. We can see it in acting words. Some of acting words have given in
table blow.
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

8
Non dalit language Dalit language
Chalata (to walk) Chanta Sound ‘la’ in rural area sometimes accents
Tolata (to balance) Tonta like sound ‘l’ in non dalit language, but in
Bolata(to talk) Bonta dalit language this change in sound ‘n’.
Kholata(to unlock) Khonta
Belata( to roll) Benta
Khoulata(to boil) Khounta
Dolata (to move) Donta

In urban areas language of dalits in context of change in sound has been

moderated. Dalit in urban area are trying to maintain „la‟ sound as it is in non dalits
language, but in flow they use „n‟. Use of „n‟ is 30 per cent now. It has been seen in same
person and language of public. In a public meeting with a grace they do not use sound „n‟
in place of sound „la‟.
This change also takes place in non acting words.
Non dalit language Dalit language
Balti (bucket) Banti In other than acting words
Palata (frying spoon) Panta sound „la‟ changes with
Palati(party) Panti sound „n‟.
Bilti(parcel) Binti
Haldi (turmeric) Handi
Galati( mistake) Ganti
Ulat palat(change over) Unt pant
Sound „l‟ is dental in hindi and pronounces as lateral, while sound „n‟ is nasal and
pronounces as plosive. A sound of murmuring created by „n‟ at place of „la‟ is represents
psychological suppression in speaking. Length of sound „l‟ is more than that of sound „n‟.
Dalits language takes less time and space.
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

Interchange in sounds is other characteristic of dalits language. They change

9
Non dalit language Dalit language
Matalab (means) matabal
Gajalat(worst condition) galajat
Alag (separate) Agal
Lejuri ( rope) Rejuli
Lakhanau(Lucknow) nakhalau
Interchange in sounds is specified with sound „l‟. It has been found that Dalits
interchange only with sound „l‟. This characteristic makes their language differ from non
dalits language. Negation word of brijbhasha nahe(no or not) became nanhe, chahe(
want) became chanhe, jahe(go) became janhe. „n‟ has added here. This does not find in
rural language. This has developed in urban language of dalits.
One important characteristic of dalits language is use of „calling word‟ frequently.
The use of calling word had seen in conversation „between them‟ not in conversation
with „other‟ non dalit people. They do not care for sanctions applied for use calling
words. In non dalits language a father will not use „calling words‟ in presence of a
daughter usually, but in dalits language this rule did not followed. In presence of any
relative male or female and vice-versa calling words might used frequently. Types of
„calling words‟ is also different from that of non dalits language. „Calling words‟ they use
are related to body parts name, prohibited sexual relationship and unnatural sexual
activities (I cannot write these words due of protocol of writing). In non dalits language
frequently use calling name are „sara‟(brother of wife), sasura(father of wife), harami
(illegally born), kamin(worker), kutta( dog) and some other (I cannot write them due of
protocol of writing) . These calling words have not find in dalits language. The difference
in use of „calling name‟ show the difference of social status in rural area and mental
tension expressed in language. Sexually use of dalit women and vulnerability of dalit
people to protest these acts have articulated in these calling names.
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

Education, urban life style and metro culture affected their language by adaptation
10
of English words, but pronunciation of these words is different. They speak course as
coras, class as cilas, operation as aperation. Not only orally but also in writing they use
words with sound change. I collected a list of words from writings of dalit writers in
which they change sounds. Some of them are here.
Standard lang. Dalit lang. Standard lang. Dalit lang. They try to
Prakash prakas rishtedar ristedar avoid „h‟.
Khunti ghunti pariksha parichha change „u‟ to
Bichkana pichkana itwar etwar „oo‟, „i‟ to „ee‟,
Luhar loohar maruti marutee „yo‟ to „au‟, „ai‟
Berdasht berdas sushma susma to „e‟, „i‟ to „e‟.
Hausala haunsala vipreet viprit there is no rule

Mashhoor mashoor nyota nauta identified bur

these are here.

Agra is a city of composite culture made by muslims from mughal period and
hindus. Dalits come in contact with muslims in Agra. Muslims are also engaged in labour
works (shoe wenting, carpentry, painter etc.) as like dalits. Urdu is language of muslims.
With the contact to this language dalits language changed. Some of urdu words adopted
in dalit style.
Dalits language is in process of change. This is going on the way of
sanskritisation, but their attachment with dalit status pull them to make their language as
it was. Recently they are going to adopt a new dimension of language change with a
political way- D for Dalit, E for English. This is not a common man approach but some
of dalit thinkers are demanding for that.

#
 Dalit migration, Urbanization and language change

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