CHART-NOTE COMPLETION 4

Reading Passage 1
The giraffe towers above all other mammals in the world.
Roaming the African grasslands on long, thin legs, an adult male can reach a maximum height of six
metres. But only about half of that height comes from its lower body - the rest is accounted for by the
neck The giraffe uses its height to feed on leaves and buds in treetops that few other animals can reach.
The leaves of acacia trees are a favourite; these trees typically grow to be six or seven metres tall. And
the giraffe has yet another tool to expand its reach - its tongue can stretch as far as forty-six centimetres.
A giraffe spends most of its time eating, consuming hundreds of kilograms of leaves per week and
travelling long distances in search of food. The animal’s height also helps it to keep a sharp lookout for
predators across the wide expanse of the African savannas, and it can move its head through 180 degrees
in order to see what is behind it
But it is the giraffe's neck that is its most noticeable feature. The neck has seven bones called the
cervical vertebrae, and these are joined together by what are known as ball-and-socket joints - of the sort
that join human arms and shoulders. These joints allow movements through 360 degrees. Another key
anatomical feature is the giraffe's thoracic vertebrae - the ones that join the neck to the back. These have
the same type of joints as the cervical vertebrae, which gives the giraffe great flexibility, as well as
explaining why it has its characteristic hump. These bones support muscles that hold the neck upright, in
the same way that cables hold up a crane on a construction site.
The giraffe has the highest known blood pressure among animals because it must pump blood, against
gravity, all the way up its long neck to the brain. To pump blood on that long journey to their heads,
giraffes have enormous hearts, weighing up to twelve kilograms. Their enlarged lungs compensate for
the length of their tracheas. The giraffe also has a high concentration of red blood cells and tight skin,
especially around the legs, which prevents blood from pooling in the limbs. It serves the same purpose
as the G-suit worn by astronauts who are subjected to excessive G forces, or tight elastic stockings worn
by people with leg circulation problems.
While giraffes don't need to drink very often - they mostly get water from the leaves that they eat - they
do need to do so every few days to do this, giraffes must splay out their legs and lower their heads The
extremely high blood pressure, coupled with gravity, could cause a potentially lethal rush of blood to
giraffes' brains when they bend their heads. This doesn't happen because of one-way valves that stop
excess blood from flowing too quickly down their necks to their heads
The giraffe's neck is also integral to the animal's movement and moves back and forth with its stride.
That’s because the weight and motion of the neck guides the animal's centre of gravity. The giraffe also
tosses its neck to and fro to help it rise to a standing position on its spindly legs. This is comparable to
the way people swing their arms up over their heads to pull themselves out of bed in the morning.
Questions 1-7. Label the diagram below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS
AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each answer.
Reading Passage 2
Extinct birds of New Zealand
Many species of birds that once lived in this South Pacific country aren't found today.
Today, New Zealand is a typical, modern country with cities, towns and roads. But for many thousands
of years, and until relatively recently, the more than 3,000 islands that make up the country had no
human inhabitants at all. Instead, a vast number of birds lived in its forests, mountains and along the
thousands of kilometres of beaches. In fact, New Zealand probably had more species of birds than any
other country in the world. One reason for this was that the natural environment was a perfect source of
food to support the bird population, particularly from the enormous oceans that surround the country.
With so much food readily available, it's not surprising that the bird population grew. Another important
factor was that the birds had no predators on land because, with the exception of a single species of bat,
there weren't any mammals at all in the country that would otherwise have killed birds and kept their
numbers down. Because of this, over many, many years, New Zealand's birds developed characteristics
not associated with bird populations in other countries. For example, they didn't have to defend
themselves from predators, so many birds lived on the ground and didn't have wings because they didn't
need to fly, such as the iconic kiwi bird and also the much larger, ostrich-like bird called the moa. This
characteristic allowed the birds to save huge amounts of energy and provided them with numerous other
advantages - so long as they didn't need to defend themselves against attacks by predators! One final
development was that many of these birds now made their nests on the ground rather than in tress and
the eggs that they laid became much bigger over time. This was just one more factor that made these
populations of birds very vulnerable when humans eventually reached New Zealand.
The first human migrants to New Zealand were the Maori people, who arrived approximately 800 years
ago. The Maori sailed from their original homes in the tropical Pacific to New Zealand in canoes,
bringing food supplies and many of the things they needed to set up new homes. Unfortunately,
however, they unintentionally brought Pacific rats with them as well, a species previously unknown in
New Zealand, and these killed many birds that were unable to fly away. The Maori themselves also
hunted birds for food, and their loud calls in the forest at night time made them particularly easy to find.
Birds were useful in other ways, too. Fish hooks were frequently manufactured from bones, while
feathers were highly prized as decorations to be worn in the hair or clothing. The results of this, in terms
of bird populations, has been calculated by the scientist Paul Martin. His research since the 1960s has
assessed the impact on flora and fauna of human arrival in various parts of the world, and he has
concluded that New Zealand is a unique example because bird species were wiped out so fast, relative to
other countries.
European migrants started arriving in significant numbers in the early 1800s and brought with them a
whole lot of new problems. The journals of the earliest European explorers in the country are full of
references to how they relied on their hunting dogs to catch birds in order to supply the expedition with
food, and these animals have been a constant threat to bird life ever since. Many of the European settlers
came to New Zealand to set up farms, but before this was possible it was necessary to clear the land of
trees, and this process of deforestation had serious consequences for many birds, as their habitats were
destroyed. As the country's population has grown and the need for more land for housing, industry and
farming has increased with it, many more bird species have faced extinction. However, in recent
decades attempts have been made to save some of these endangered species by creating sanctuaries
where they can live and breed. The location for nearly all of these sanctuaries has been small islands
scattered around the coastline, which can be kept free of predators and pests. In some cases, this
includes human beings, allowing the environment to return to its original condition.
Questions 1-4 Complete the notes below. Write ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for
each answer.
Reading Passage 3
Snow-makers
Skiing is big business nowadays. But what can ski resort owners do if the snow doesn't come?

A In the early to mid twentieth century, with the growing popularity of skiing, ski slopes became
extremely profitable businesses. But ski resort owners were completely dependent on the weather: if it
didn't snow, or didn’t snow enough, they had to close everything down. Fortunately, a device called the
snow gun can now provide snow whenever it is needed. These days such machines are standard
equipment in the vast majority of ski resorts around the world, making it possible for many resorts to
stay open for months or more a year.

B Snow formed by natural weather systems comes from water vapour in the atmosphere. The water
vapour condenses into droplets, forming clouds. If the temperature is sufficiently low, the water droplets
freeze into tiny ice crystals. More water particles then condense onto the crystal and join with it to form
a snowflake. As the snow flake grows heavier, it falls towards the Earth.

C The snow gun works very differently from a natural weather system, but it accomplishes exactly the
same thing. The device basically works by combining water and air. Two different hoses are attached to
the gun. one leading from a water pumping station which pumps water up from a lake or reservoir, and
the other leading from an air compressor. When the compressed air passes through the hose into the gun.
it atomises the water - that is, it disrupts the stream so that the water splits up into tiny droplets. The
droplets are then blown out of the gun and if the outside temperature is below 0°C, ice crystals will
form, and will then make snowflakes in the same way as natural snow.

D Snow-makers often talk about dry snow and wet snow. Dry snow has a relatively low amount of
water, so it is very light and powdery. This type of snow is excellent for skiing because skis glide over it
easily without getting stuck in wet slush. One of the advantages of using a snow-maker is that this
powdery snow can be produced to give the ski slopes a level surface. However, on slopes which receive
heavy use, resort owners also use denser, wet snow underneath the dry snow. Many resorts build up the
snow depth this way once or twice a year, and then regularly coat the trails with a layer of dry snow
throughout the winter.

E The wetness of snow is dependent on the temperature and humidity outside, as well as the size of the
water droplets launched by the gun. Snow-makers have to adjust the proportions of water and air in their
snow guns to get the perfect snow consistency for the outdoor weather conditions. Many ski slopes now
do this with a central computer system that is connected to weather-reading stations all over the slope.

F But man-made snow makes heavy demands on the environment. It takes about 275,000 litres of water
to create a blanket of snow covering a 60x60 metre area. Most resorts pump water from one or more
reservoirs located in low-lying areas. The run-off water from the slopes feeds back into these reservoirs,
so the resort can actually use the same water over and over again. However, considerable amounts of
energy are needed to run the large air-compressing pumps, and the diesel engines which run them also
cause air pollution.

G Because of the expense of making snow, ski resorts have to balance the cost of running the machines
with the benefits of extending the ski season, making sure they only make snow when it is really needed
and when it will bring the maximum amount of profit in return for the investment. But man-made snow
has a number of other uses as well. A layer of snow keeps a lot of the Earth’s heat from escaping into
the atmosphere, so farmers often use man-made snow to provide insulation for winter crops. Snow-
making machines have played a big part in many movie productions. Movie producers often take several
months to shoot scenes that cover just a few days. If the movie takes place in a snowy setting, the set
decorators have to get the right amount of snow for each day of shooting either by adding man-made
snow or melting natural snow. And another important application of man-made snow is its use in the
tests that aircraft must undergo in order to ensure that they can function safely in extreme conditions.
Questions 1-5. Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A-G. Choose the correct
heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
List of headings
i Considering ecological costs
ii Modifications to the design of the snow gun
iii The need for different varieties of snow
iv Local concern over environmental issues
v A problem and a solution
vi Applications beyond the ski slopes
vii Converting wet snow to dry snow
viii New method for calculating modifications
ix Artificial process, natural product
x Snow formation in nature

Example
Paragraph A v
Paragraph B x

1. Paragraph C
2. Paragraph D
3. Paragraph E
4. Paragraph F
5. Paragraph G

Questions 6-8. Label the diagram below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from
the passage for each answer.