Geographic profiling

Chapter 6: Crime Mapping Futures

Geographic profiling1 is an investigative methodology that uses the locations of a connected series of
crimes to determine the most probable area that an offender lives in. Although it is generally applied in
serial murder, rape, arson, robbery, and bombing cases, geographic profiling also can be used in
single crimes that involve multiple scenes or other significant geographic characteristics.

Developed from research conducted at Simon Fraser University's School of Criminology and rooted in
the pathbreaking work of Brantingham and Brantingham (1981), the methodology is based on a model
that describes the hunting behavior of the offender. The criminal geographic targeting (CGT) program
uses overlapping distance-decay functions centered on each crime location to produce jeopardy
surfaces—three-dimensional probability surfaces that indicate the area where the offender probably
lives. The distance-decay concept (see chapter 1) conveys the idea that people, including criminals,
generally take more short trips and fewer long trips in the course of their daily lives, which may include
criminal activities. Thus overlapping distance-decay functions are sets of curves expressing this
phenomenon and suggesting, for example, that it is more likely that offenders live close to the sites of
their crimes than far away. Probability surfaces can be displayed on both two- and three-dimensional
color isopleth maps, which then provide a focus for investigative efforts (see chapter 1 for a
description of isopleth maps).

This research has led to the development of Rigel, a computerized geographic profiling workstation
that incorporates an analytic engine, GIS capability, database management, and powerful
visualization tools. Crime locations, which are broken down by type (e.g., victim encounter, murder,
and body dump sites for a murder), are entered by address, latitude/longitude, or digitization.
Scenarios wherein crime locations are weighted based on certain theoretical and methodological
principles are created next and examined. The addresses of suspects can then be evaluated
according to their "hit" percentage on a probability chart known as a z-score histogram, which can
prioritize registered sex offenders, other known criminals, task force tips, and other information
contained in databases.

Geographic profiling can be used as the basis for several investigative strategies. Some of the more
common ones include:

 Suspect and tip prioritization.

 Address-based searches of police record systems.
 Patrol saturation and surveillance.
 Canvasses and searches.
 Mass DNA screening prioritization.
 Department of motor vehicles searches.
 ZIP Code prioritization.
 Information request mailouts.

Figure 6.1 displays the geoprofile produced from the analysis of 32 armed robberies that occurred
over a period of approximately 12 months in the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The
purple areas around the periphery are less likely to include offenders' residences, and the yellow and
orange areas in the center are more likely to include offenders' residences. Three strategies were
predicated on the geographic profile in this case. First, a search was conducted of the Vancouver
Police Department's Records Management System for known robbery offenders who matched the
criminals' descriptions and resided within the top 5 percent of geographic areas identified in the
geoprofile. This did not produce any viable matches, as neither offender had had a previous
conviction for robbery.
Second, a simplified geoprofile, displaying only the top 2 percent (0.7 square miles) of potential
offender residences, was produced for patrol officers. Previous research determined that robbery
offenders usually return home after committing a crime. It was therefore suggested that, in addition to
responding to a crime scene after the report of a new robbery, patrol members should also search the
most likely area of offender residence, paying particular attention to logical routes of travel. This also
was unsuccessful as the offenders were using stolen cars and no reliable vehicle descriptions were
ever obtained (even though the geoprofile was used by police units to search for stolen automobiles
that might be abandoned prior to a new robbery).

Third, the results of the geoprofile were released on the television show "CrimeStoppers." This
approach was successful, producing results that allowed the detectives to identify the offenders
responsible for the series of robberies. The primary offender's address was located within the top 1
percent of the peak area of the geoprofile.

It is important to stress that geographic profiling does not solve cases, but rather provides a means for
managing the large volume of information typically generated in major crime investigations. It should
be regarded as one of several powerful decision support tools available to the detective and is best
employed in conjunction with other police methods. Geographic crime patterns are clues that, when
properly decoded, can be used to point in the direction of the offender. 2

Currently, geographic profiling services are available from the Vancouver Police Department,
Geographic Profiling Section, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police, Pacific Region ViCLAS Section, also in Vancouver; and the Ontario Provincial Police,
Behavioral Sciences Section, Orillia, Ontario, Canada. It will be available in the near future from the
British National Crime Faculty, Bramshill, United Kingdom.

Concerned about the mapping and prediction of serial crimes, Geggie (1998) reported on the work of
Officer Timothy Meicher of the Los Angeles Police Department. The case related to robberies
involving a perpetrator who rode a motorcycle and snatched purses from elderly victims in shopping
center parking lots—hence the title "the Los Angeles Motorcycle Bandit." Employing basic statistical
concepts—mean and standard deviation—Meicher produced a map with boundaries indicating two
probability levels for the next bandit strike, one at 68 percent and the other at 95 percent (figure 6.2).
Meicher then collaborated with Geggie to automate the process of producing the probability map.
Their model was subsequently distributed both inside and outside the Los Angeles Police
Department.
Crime scene
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Related articles
 Crime scene
CSI effect
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Skid mark
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Use of DNA in forensic entomology

v·d·e

A crime scene.

A crime scene is a location where an illegal act took place, and comprises the area from
which most of the physical evidence is retrieved by trained law enforcement personnel, crime
scene investigators (CSIs) or in rare circumstances, forensic scientists.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Evidence collection
 2 Members of the law at a crime scene
 3 Reconstruction
 4 See also
 5 External links

[edit] Evidence collection

Strictly speaking, a crime scene is a location wherein evidence of a crime may be found. It is
not necessarily where the crime was committed. Indeed, there are primary, secondary and
often tertiary crime scenes. For instance, the police may use a warrant to search a suspect's
home. Even though the suspect did not commit the crime at that location, evidence of the
crime may be found there. In another instance, an offender might kidnap at one location
(primary crime scene), transport the victim (the car being a secondary crime scene), commit
another crime at a distant location (murder, for instance) and then dispose of the body at a
fourth scene.

All locations where in there is the potential for the recovery of evidence must be handled in
the same manner. They must be protected from interference of any kind so as to preserve any
trace evidence. It is usually achieved by taping a wide area around the crime was committed
to prevent access by any person other than the investigators. The conditions at the crime
scene must be carefully recorded in great detail, as well as conserved. Only when recording
has taken place can items be removed for laboratory analysis.

Legal concepts impacting the usefulness of evidence in court (Daubert, chain of custody,
etc.), apply to the recovery of evidence whether or not a crime actually occurred at that
location.

[edit] Members of the law at a crime scene

Soldiers of the United States Army Criminal Investigation Division inspecting a crime scene.

Numerous members of the law are involved at a crime scene including police officers, crime
scene investigators and forensic scientists. All who have very important roles including
collection and photography of evidence.

[edit] Reconstruction
Crime scene reconstruction is the use of scientific methods, physical evidence, deductive
reasoning, and their interrelationships to gain explicit knowledge of the series of events that
surround the commission of a crime.

[edit] See also

Criminal justice portal

 Forensic photography
  Problem property

[edit] External links

 International Crime Scene Investigators Association
 Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Crime scenes

This law enforcement-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Personnel Duties and Responsibilities

There are certain personnel duties and responsibilities which are necessary in almost any
major search operation. Those enumerated in these guidelines concentrate on the ones which
are typically crucial to ensure that search efforts are conducted in an organized and
methodical fashion. It is important to note it may not be feasible to have one person assigned
to each duty. It is relatively common for one person to accomplish two or more duties.

For all positions, interest and attitude of personnel are paramount concerns. Training and
experience will only be used to best potential when team members possess a positive attitude.
This human side of evidence response teams is significant due to the long hours and attention
to detail often required of personnel.

The major assignments, as well as corresponding general duties and responsibilities, are set
forth as follows:

1. Team Leader
2. Photographer and Photographic Log Recorder
3. Sketch Preparer
4. Evidence Recorder/Evidence Recovery Personnel
5. Specialists

Team Leader

1. Assume control - ensure safety of personnel and security at scene. Ensure personnel use
appropriate protective equipment and follow standard recommendations to protect them
from any health hazard which might be presented by blood or any other human body fluid.
2. Conduct initial walk-through for purposes of making a preliminary survey, evaluating
potential evidence, and preparing a narrative description.
3. Determine search patterns, and make appropriate assignments for team members.
 4. Designate command post location and ensure exchange of information between search and
investigative personnel.
5. Coordinate with other law enforcement agencies and make sure a cooperative spirit is
maintained.
6. Ensure that sufficient supplies and equipment are available for personnel.
7. Control access to the scene and designate an individual to log everyone into the scene.
8. Continuously reevaluate efficiency of search during entire course of operation.
9. Release the scene after a final survey and inventory of the evidence has been done.

Photographer and Photographic Log Recorder

1. Photograph entire area before it is entered.

2. Photograph victims, crowd, and vehicles.
3. Photograph entire scene with overall, medium and close-up coverage, using measurement
scale when appropriate.
4. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved; coordinate this effort with Sketch
Preparer, Evidence Recorder, and Evidence Recovery Personnel.
5. Photograph all latent fingerprints and other impression evidence before lifting and casting
are accomplished.
6. Prepare photographic log and photographic sketch.

Sketch Preparer

1. Diagram immediate area of scene and orient diagram with sketch.

2. Set forth major items of evidence on sketch.
3. Designate and label areas to be searched and advise team leader and all other search
members of nomenclature for designated areas.
4. Obtain appropriate assistance for taking measurements and double check measurements.
5. Ensure necessary administrative information, such as scale disclaimer (not drawn to scale), is
recorded on sketch.

Evidence Recorder/Custodian

1. Have significant evidence photographed before collection.

2. Describe evidence and its location on appropriate bag or envelope.
3. Sign and date evidence container/maintain chain of custody.
4. Appropriately collect and package evidence to maximize evidence integrity.
5. Maintain evidence log.
6. Use appropriate protective equipment (gloves) and methods when dealing with potentially
infective evidence (blood).
Specialists

It is sometimes necessary to bring in expertise from an outside agency. The field of forensic
science is so broad today that no agency will have every form of specialty service available
from among its ranks. Typically, specialists are brought in from industry, the academic
community, private scientific laboratories, and similar concerns.

When dealing with outside specialists some pertinent aspects to consider are:

1. The competence and reliability of the specialist.

2. The ability of the specialist to work at a scene within law enforcement guidelines.
3. The role of the specialist in presenting expert testimony in court.

Specialists should be identified before they are needed in an actual case. A current list should
be maintained, if possible. The agency should meet with these individuals to determine the
best manner to jointly conduct search planning, operations, and follow-up activity.

The following list provides examples of specialty assistance to be considered (it is not meant
to be completely inclusive):

 Anthropologist
 Blood Pattern Analyst
 Bomb Technician
 Criminalist
 Engineer
 Entomologist
 Medical Examiner
 Odontologist
 Surveyor

This information was adapted from the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards
and Training's workbook for the "Forensic Technology for Law Enforcement" Telecourse
presented on May 13, 1993. Please see the acknowledgments.