Grammar Reference

Unit 1 the present, we use these verbs in the Present Simple tense.
I don’t like pizza.
These flowers smell lovely.
1.1 Present Simple
We use the Present Simple for 1.3 Present Perfect Simple
• facts or general truths.
The sun sets in the west. We use the Present Perfect Simple for
• routines or habits (often with adverbs of frequency). • something that started in the past and has continued
Amelia always goes shopping on Saturday. until now.
• permanent states. I have had the same car for twenty years.
Stan is a great-grandfather. • something that happened in the past, but we don’t
• timetabled events in the future. know or say exactly when.
The bus to Oxford departs at 10 am on Friday. Quentin has eaten all the crisps.
• narratives (a story, a joke, a plot and sports • something that happened in the past and has a result
commentaries, etc.). that affects the present.
Spanoulis passes to Printezis who shoots and scores! We’re ecstatic because we have won the lottery!
• an action that has just finished.
Note: Some common time expressions that are often Theo has just done his homework.
used with the Present Simple are every day/week/month/ • experiences and achievements.
summer, every other day, once a week, twice a month, He has competed in three marathons.
at the weekend, in January, in the morning/afternoon/ • an action that happened several times or repeatedly in
evening, at night, on Tuesdays, on Friday mornings, etc. the past.
We rent a house by the sea every summer. He has applied for numerous jobs but hasn’t been
successful yet.
Remember • superlatives and expressions the first/second time.
We often use adverbs of frequency with the Present It’s the third time I’ve called you today. Where have
Simple. They tell us how often something happens. They you been?
come before the main verb, but after the verb be.
I sometimes go to the theatre. Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the
My grandparents seldom eat out. Present Perfect Simple are already, ever, for, for a long
Amanda is often late for work. time, for ages, just, never, once, recently, since 2007/June,
so far, twice, three times, until now, yet, etc.
Some common adverbs of frequency are: always, usually, I’ve read three books so far this month.
often, sometimes, rarely, hardly, ever/seldom and never.
Remember
We use have been when someone has gone somewhere
1.2 Present Continuous and has now returned. We use have gone when someone
We use the Present Continuous for has gone somewhere and is still there.
• actions that are in progress at the time of speaking. Bob has been to the gym and now he’s walking home.
I’m reading a book about psychology at the moment. Bob has gone to the gym and will be home later.
• actions that are in progress around the time of speaking.
He’s looking for a more challenging job. 1.4 Present Perfect Continuous
• situations that are temporary.
We’re travelling around Mexico for a week. We use the Present Perfect Continuous for
• an annoying habit (often with always, continually, • actions that started in the past and are still in progress
constantly and forever). or have happened repeatedly until now.
Adrian is always boasting about his wealth. Harriet has been attending some seminars.
• describing what is happening in a picture. • actions that happened repeatedly in the past and have
Some children are running around in the playground. finished recently but that have results affecting the
• plans and arrangements for the future. present.
We’re moving to a bigger house next month. The students are tired because they’ve been studying
• situations that are changing or developing in the present. very hard.
Now that it’s August, it’s getting hotter. • emphasising how long actions have been in progress for.
I’ve been living in Greece for five years.
Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the • a recent or unfinished action.
Present Continuous are: at the moment, now, for the time We’ve been discussing the current political situation.
being, this morning/afternoon/evening/week/month/year,
today, etc. Note: Some time expressions that are often used with
I’m working at a bank for the time being. the Present Perfect Continuous are all day/night/week,
for years/a long time/ages, lately, recently, since. We can
Remember use How long ...? with the Present Perfect Continuous in
Stative verbs are not usually used in continuous tenses questions and for (very) long in questions and negative
because they describe states and not actions. To talk about sentences.

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 Grammar Reference
Albert has been revising for his physics test all night. • a
 ctions that were in progress in the past and had an
How long have you been working here? effect on a later action.
Tulise was exhausted because she had been rehearsing
1.5 Past Simple her new songs all morning.
We use the Past Simple for Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the
• something that started and finished in the past. Past Perfect Continuous are all day/night/week, for years/a
Neil Armstrong set foot on the Moon on 20th July, 1969. long time/ages, since.
• past routines and habits (often with adverbs of frequency). We can use How long ...? with the Past Perfect Continuous
Sam usually spent his free time playing sport. in questions and for (very) long in questions and negative
• past states. sentences.
She was pleased with her results. I hadn’t been watching the show for very long when I
• actions that happened one after the other in the past, realised the presenter was an old friend of mine.
for example when telling a story.
He took out his iPhone and checked his emails.
1.9 Used to & Would
Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the We use used to + bare infinitive for
Past Simple are yesterday, last night/week/month/summer, • actions that we did regularly in the past, but that we
a week/month/year ago, twice a week, once a month, at don’t do now.
the weekend, in April, in the morning/afternoon/evening, Herbert used to collect stamps from around the world.
at night, on Sundays, on Tuesday mornings, etc. • states that existed in the past, but that don’t exist now.
I watched a very interesting documentary last night. She used to like celebrities, but now she thinks
they’re silly.
1.6 Past Continuous
We use would + bare infinitive for actions that we did
We use the Past Continuous for regularly in the past, but that we don’t do now. We don’t
• a ctions that were in progress at a specific time in the past. use it for past states.
Ashley was watching the news at 8 o’clock last night. When I was younger, I would read stupid teen magazines.
• two or more actions that were in progress at the same
time in the past.
 Tina was making coffee while Jim was reading the paper.
• giving background information in a story.
Unit 2
The rain was pouring down and the wind was howling. 2.1 Future Simple
• an action that was in progress in the past that was
interrupted by another action. We use the Future Simple for
• Vincent was climbing the mountain when a snow storm • decisions made at the time of speaking.
began. I’m starving. I’ll make a sandwich.
• temporary situations in the past. • predictions.
He was singing in a rock band at the time. People will live longer in the future.
• promises.
Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the I’ll help you design your website.
Past Continuous are while, as, all day/week/month/year, • threats.
at nine o’clock last night, last Saturday/week/year, this Stop wasting your time online or I’ll take away your
morning, etc. computer.
Shaz was auditioning for Next Factor all morning. • talking about future facts.
The new social networking site will be for elderly
people.
1.7 Past Perfect Simple
• offering to do something for someone.
We use the Past Perfect Simple for an action or situation I’ll get the door for you.
that finished before another past action or situation. • asking someone to do something.
She had bought the novel before she saw the bad reviews. Will you help me carry these boxes, please?
By the time we arrived, the concert had started.
2.2 Be going to
Note: Some common time expressions that are often
used with the Past Perfect Simple are before, after, when, We use be going to for
already, for, for a long time, for ages, just, never, once, • future plans.
since 2009/July, yet, etc. Tim’s going to invest in MyFace shares.
I hadn’t watched anything good on TV for ages. • predictions for the near future based on present
situations or evidence.
Look at the queue! It’s going to take hours to get the
1.8 Past Perfect Continuous
concert tickets.
We use the Past Perfect Continuous for
• actions that started in the past and were still in progress Note: Some time expressions that are often used with
when another action started or when something the Future Simple and be going to are this week/month/
happened. summer, tonight, this evening, tomorrow, tomorrow
Glen had been looking for work for months before he morning/afternoon/night, next week/month/year, at the
found something. weekend, in December, in a few minutes/hours/days, on
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 Saturday, on Friday morning, etc. 2.8 Time expressions
I’ll show you how to upload videos tomorrow night.
When we use time expressions such as when, before, after,
until, once, by the time, etc. to talk about the future, we use
2.3 Future Continuous them with a present or a present perfect tense. We do not use
We use the Future Continuous for them with a future tense.
• actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future. After I have paid for the delivery, I’ll receive my order.
I’ll be watching a film at 9 o’clock tonight. By the time he finds the information online, it will be too
• plans and arrangements for the future. late.
The writers will be meeting the editor next week.
Like all future forms, Future in the Past cannot be used with
Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the time expressions. Instead of Future in the Past, we use the
Future Continuous are this time next week/month/summer, Past Simple.
this time tomorrow morning/afternoon/night, etc. I told him once he finished the project, we would discuss
This time next week, we’ll be flying to Mykonos. his next assignment.

2.4 Future Perfect Simple

We use the Future Perfect Simple to talk about
Unit 3
• something that will be finished by or before a specific 3.1 Demonstrative Pronouns
time in the future.
Marty will have designed the new website by Friday. The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that, these and
• the length of time that an action will have lasted for at a those. They stand alone in a sentence or clause. They can
point of time in the future. be used to refer to a thing or things nearby or further away.
I will have been a member of MyFace for five years next Have you seen this?
month. Look at that over there!

Note: Some time expressions that are often used with the Demonstrative pronouns can also be used to refer to
Future Perfect Simple are by the end of the week/month/ people.
year, by this time tomorrow, by tomorrow morning/10 Hello, this is Angela speaking. Is that Ivana?
o’clock/2015, etc.
By this time tomorrow, we will have uploaded all of our 3.2 Reflexive Pronouns
holiday videos online. Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of a sentence
or clause. We can use them for
2.5 Future Perfect Continuous • emphasising the subject.
We use the Future Perfect Continuous for The scientist himself tried the new medicine.
• showing that something will continue until a particular • when the subject and object are the same.
event or time in the future. We need doctors because patients can’t cure
I will have been studying for three years when I themselves.
graduate from university. • the object of a preposition, when the subject and the
• actions that will be in progress in the future and will object are the same.
have an effect on a later action. Selena is angry with herself because she can’t diagnose
The band will be great when they perform because they the problem.
will have been rehearsing for months.
3.3 Indefinite Pronouns
2.6 Shall There are two types of indefinite pronouns. The first
We use shall to make a suggestion or an offer. category includes pronouns that refer to a non-specific
Where shall we go? noun. These pronouns are: anybody, anyone, anything,
Shall we eat out tonight? everyone, everybody, everything, nobody, no one, none,
Shall I book the tickets online? nothing, somebody, someone, something.
Somebody called and asked for Dr Zachary Smith.
I haven’t eaten anything all day.
2.7 Future in the Past
The second category includes pronouns that refer to a
Future in the Past is used to express the idea that in the specific noun whose meaning is easily understood because
past you thought something would happen in the future. it was previously mentioned or because the words that
• would is used to talk about offers or promises. follow the indefinite pronoun make it clear. These pronouns
She said she would call me. are: all, any, each, few, neither, some, another, both, either,
• was/were going to is used to talk about plans. many, one, several.
I told you they were going to visit us. Many of these medicines are effective, but few are
• would and was/were going to can be used for talking affordable.
about predictions.
• I had a feeling that the online magazine wouldn’t/ 3.4 Reciprocal Pronouns
wasn’t going to be very popular.
Reciprocal pronouns are used to refer to a shared action or
feeling and can only refer to plural or multiple nouns.
When the nurses went on strike, the patients had to help
each other.

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 Grammar Reference
They have a possessive form. • to explain purpose.
The ladies discussed one another’s illnesses. We went to the ticket office to ask about screening
times.
3.5 Adverbs and Adverb Phrases • after adjectives such as afraid, scared, happy, glad,
pleased, sad, etc.
An adverb can be a single word or it can be a phrase or I was pleased to be invited to the film premiere.
clause. • after the words too and enough.
She swallowed the medicine quickly. It was too crowded to go backstage.
She swallowed the medicine with difficulty. He isn’t famous enough to get an interesting role.
She took the medicine when the nurse gave it to her.
She took the medicine to get better. We also use full infinitives after certain verbs and phrases:
afford, agree, allow, appear, arrange, ask, begin, choose,
3.6 Adverb Forms decide, expect, fail, forget, hope, invite, learn, manage,
Not all single word adverbs end in -ly. Some of these need, offer, persuade, plan, prepare, pretend, promise,
include always, soon, today, ever, yet, away, here, so, too. refuse, seem, start, want, would like.
I’m going to the dentist today. Will managed to convince the director to give him the role.
She has always got a cold. I can’t afford to go to a Broadway show.

Some adverbs have two forms. These include wide/widely, 4.4 Bare Infinitives
hard/hardly, high/highly, slow/slowly, late/lately, close/
We use bare infinitives after
closely.
• modal verbs.
You might get the lead role.
3.7 Intensifying Adverbs • had better to give advice.
We use intensifying adverbs to modify We had better book our tickets now.
• adjectives. • would rather to talk about preference.
What an absolutely awful day! I would rather watch a comedy than a silly love story.
• other adverbs.
Harry did surprisingly well in his biology test. Note: We use let + object + bare infinitive when someone
has permission to do something and it is only used in the

Unit 4
active voice. In the passive we can use the verb to be
allowed to.
The director let the cast take a short break during filming.
4.1 Gerunds The cast was allowed to take a short break during filming.
We use make + object + bare infinitive when a person is
We form gerunds with verbs and the –ing ending. We can
forced to do something in the active voice. In the passive
use gerunds
it’s followed by a full infinitive.
• as nouns.
The usher made me sit at the back of the theatre.
Acting is an interesting profession.
I was made to sit at the back of the theatre by the usher.
• after prepositions.
I’m looking forward to watching the film.
• after the verb go when we talk about activities. 4.5 Gerund or Infinitive?
Tess goes shopping at the mall every Saturday. Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or a full infinitive
with no change in meaning. Some common verbs are:
We also use gerunds after certain verbs and phrases: begin, bother, continue, hate, like, love and start.
admit, avoid, be used to, can’t help, can’t stand, deny, The audience began clapping / to clap when the play
dislike, (don’t) mind, enjoy, fancy, feel like, finish, forgive, ended.
hate, have difficulty, imagine, involve, it’s no good, it’s no
use, it’s (not) worth, keep, like, love, miss, practise, prefer, There are other verbs that can be followed by a gerund or
prevent, regret, risk, spend time, suggest. a full infinitive, but the meaning changes. Some common
I can’t stand watching his films; he’s a really bad actor. ones are go on, forget, regret, remember, stop and try.
We really enjoy going to the theatre. I forgot buying that TV guide. (I didn’t remember that I
had bought that TV guide.)
4.2 Infinitives I forgot to buy a TV guide this week. (I didn’t remember to
buy a TV guide, so I don’t have one.)
Active Passive I remember seeing Brad Pitt in a supermarket in Paris. (I
Present (to) give (to) be given saw Brad Pitt and now I remember seeing him.)
I remembered to renew my film magazine subscription. (I
Perfect (to) have given (to) have been given remembered first and then I renewed my subscription.)
We stopped talking because the film started. (We didn’t
We will produce the film. talk any more.)
The film will be produced. We stopped to watch the film. (We stopped doing
something so we could watch the film.)
4.3 Full Infinitives
We form full infinitives with to and the verb. We use full
infinitives
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 4.6 Discourse Markers 5.4 Question Tags for polite requests
Discourse markers (also known as linking words/phrases) Question tags can be used to make polite requests.
hold together a piece of writing or speech and can You couldn’t help me with the cake, could you?
also show the attitude of the writer or speaker. Without
discourse markers, the connections between the different 5.5 Reinforcement Tags
sentences and paragraphs would not be obvious.
Discourse markers have a wide range of functions. These Reinforcement tags come at the end of a statement
include adding, sequencing, illustrating, expressing and reinforce what the speaker has said. They take the
cause and effect, comparing, qualifying, contrasting, form subject + auxiliary/modal verb, i.e. the opposite of
emphasising, repeating, generalising, conceding, question tags.
concluding, expressing attitude, disagreeing, granting That was the best meal ever, that was.
permission, etc. Heston could become a great chef, he could.
‘You should take some acetylsalicylic acid, in other words,
aspirin,’ said the doctor. (repetition)
The stuntman needs surgery, namely, a knee replacement Unit 6
operation. (illustrating)
Frankly, the specialist was rude and arrogant! (expressing
6.1 Modal Verbs
attitude) Modal Use
‘May I say something?’ ‘By all means.’ (granting
permission) can to talk about general ability in the present
and the future
for requests
Unit 5 can’t
for permission
to show that we are sure something isn’t
5.1 Transitive and Intransitive Phrasal Verbs true
Transitive phrasal verbs are followed by an object after the could to talk about general ability in the past
particle, while intransitive phrasal verbs are not. (past form of can)
to talk about possibility
Honey is great for a sore throat. I can’t do without it when for polite requests
I’m sick. (transitive, object = ‘it’) to make suggestions
You may feel pain when the medicine wears off.
(intransitive, no object) may to talk about possibility in the future
for polite requests
for polite permission
5.2 Separable and Inseparable Phrasal Verbs
might to talk about possibility in the future
In a phrasal verb, an object can come after the particle as the past tense of may
(inseparable phrasal verb) or between the verb and the
must to say that something is necessary
particle (separable phrasal verb). to talk about obligation
Mary has got over the flu now. (inseparable) to show that we are sure something is true
You should put some money aside every month for your to recommend something
holiday. (separable)
mustn’t to talk about something that is not allowed
Usually, object phrases go after the particle while pronouns should to give advice
are often put between the verb and the particle. Pronouns to ask for advice
are not put after the particle. would for actions that we did regularly in the past,
They carried out the experiment. (object = ‘the but that we don’t do now
experiment’) for polite requests
They carried it out. (object = the pronoun ‘it’) needn’t to say that something is not necessary
They carried out it. ✘
be able to to talk about general ability
Generally, phrasal verbs with two particles are inseparable. to talk about a specific ability in the past
However, they can be followed by a personal pronoun. have to to say that something is necessary
He has decided to cut down on sugar. to talk about obligation
He has decided to cut down on it. mustn’t We use mustn’t to say that something is
& don’t not allowed, whereas we use don’t have
5.3 Same-way Question Tags have to to to show that there is no obligation or
necessity.
The usual structure of a question-question tag is positive-
negative or negative-positive. However, it is sometimes Stan can look after the garden and he’s only seven!
possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative Can you wash the car?
structure. We use same-way question tags to express Yes, you can go to the environment seminar.
interest, surprise, anger, joy, etc., and not to make real That river can’t be safe to swim in; it’s filthy!
questions. My son could walk when he was a year old.
So you’re going to Hawaii, are you? Don’t dump your rubbish; it could harm the environment.
You think that’s funny, do you? Could you explain global warming to me, please?
You could ask a scientist to talk to the students on
Earth Day.
They may put recycling bins outside the supermarket.

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May I make a suggestion? Peter might have mowed the lawn, but I’m not sure.
Yes, you may see Professor Green. Sam could have solved the problem, but he didn’t care
Donald might come with us to clean the beach. enough.
A scientist said we might run out of fossil fuels sooner than You should have watered the plants! Now they’re all dead!
we think. The geologists should have arrived by now.
Wilderness areas must be protected. I would have recycled the bottles, but there were no
You must ask permission before you borrow these books. recycling bins.
It must be nice to live on a tropical island. We needn’t have bought a car because we moved to the
You must watch this documentary, it’s amazing. city centre and no longer use it.
They mustn’t dump chemical waste at sea.

Unit 7
You should install solar energy panels.
Should I buy environmentally-friendly products even if they
cost more?
I would let the tap run while doing the dishes, now I’m 7.1 Zero Conditional
more careful.
Would you put up these posters about pollution, please? If clause Main clause
You needn’t take the car, you can get there by bus. present simple present simple
Chrissie is able to measure the gas emissions from her car.
Dad wasn’t able to fix the fuel leak on his own. We use the zero conditional to talk about the result of an
You have to be very careful when you are in a wilderness area. action or situation that is always true. We can use when
You have to divide the kilometres covered by the number instead of if.
of litres of fuel consumed. If you heat water to 100˚C, it boils.
We mustn’t ignore the problems threatening the planet. When you heat water to 100˚C, it boils.
You don’t have to throw it away, just wash it out and use it
to store food. 7.2 First Conditional
Notes If clause Main clause
Ought to can also be used to give advice, but it is not
usually used in the question form. present tense will, can, could, may,
Governments ought to punish polluters. might + bare infinitive
We can also use need as an ordinary verb. It has
affirmative, negative and question forms and it is usually We use the first conditional to talk about the results of an
used in the Present Simple and the Past Simple. It is action or situation that will probably happen now or in the
followed by a full infinitive. future.
They need to pedestrianise the town centre. If you mix the wrong chemicals, the experiment won’t work.

6.2 Perfect Modal Verbs We can also use an imperative in the main clause.
If you want to learn something, watch a documentary.
Perfect Meaning
Modal 7.3 Second Conditional
must have + We are sure something happened in the
If clause Main clause
past participle past.
past tense would, could, might +
can’t have + We are sure something didn’t happen in
bare infinitive
past participle the past.
may/might/ It is possible that something happened in We use the second conditional to talk about a situation
could have + the past, but we aren’t sure. that is
past participle
• unlikely to happen now or in the future.
could/might It was possible for something to happen If I knew the answer, I would solve the problem.
have + past in the past, but it didn’t. • impossible or imaginary in the present.
participle If I had lots of money, I would donate it to science.
should/ought Something was the right thing to do, but
to have + past we didn’t do it. We can also use the second conditional to give advice.
participle We expected something to happen, but If I were you, I’d patent that invention.
it didn’t.
would have + We wanted to do something, but we Note: We usually use were for all persons in second
past participle didn’t. conditional sentences.
needn’t It wasn’t necessary to do something, but If the professor were here, he’d set up the equipment
have + past we did. properly.
participle
7.4 Third Conditional
Watching the sunset on Santorini must have been very
romantic. If clause Main clause
Helen can’t have driven the car because she was at home. past perfect tense would, could, might + have +
past participle

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 We use the third conditional to talk about events or order changes. This is called inversion.
situations in the past that could have happened, but didn’t. Never have the students observed an experiment.
They are always hypothetical because we cannot change Not only was she late, but she also forgot her biology
the past. notes.
If he had invented it first, he would have become very rich. Under no circumstances must you leave the lab unlocked.
We could have filmed the experiment if we had had a At no time did he admit he had copied someone else’s
video camera. work.
Little did we know that the invention would revolutionise
7.5 Mixed Conditionals science.
Rarely / Seldom do you read about aspiring young
If clause Main clause scientists.
past perfect tense would + bare infinitive
Not once did he offer to help me with my research.
I got home from the lab. Only then did I realise I was still
wearing my safety goggles.
A mixed conditional is where the two clauses in a
Only after / Not until I adjusted my calculations did I solve
conditional sentence refer to different times. We use
the equation.
a mixed conditional to express the present result of a
So complicated was the maths problem that nobody could
hypothetical past event or situation.
solve it.
If Mark hadn’t stolen his idea, Kevin would be famous now.
No sooner / Hardly had he won the scholarship than he
was on a plane to the UK.
7.6 Conditionals without if Nowhere can you find a better equipped lab as this one
We can use a number of phrases to express conditions, right here.
without using if.
Provided that you have finished your experiment, you may
leave the lab.
As long as there are problems, people will look for
Unit 8
solutions. 8.1 Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give more information about the subject
We can use unless in first and second conditional or the object of a sentence. They are introduced by the
sentences. It means the same as if not. following words:
I won’t be able to finish the research unless you help me. • who for people
• which for things
We can use otherwise to replace an if clause. It means if not. • whose to show possession
Watch how I do it. Otherwise, you’ll make a mistake. • when for time
• where for places
We can use supposing in all conditional sentences. The main
clause is usually a question. It means imagine or what if. 8.2 Defining Relative Clauses
Supposing the experiment doesn’t work, what will you do?
This type of relative clause gives us information that we
We can use an infinitive structure to replace if. need to be able to understand who or what the speaker is
Ask me the time once more and I’ll get very angry. talking about. We do not use commas to separate it from
the rest of the sentence. We can use that instead of who
We can also use should to replace an if clause. and which in defining relative clauses.
Should you see Dr Evans, please tell him a package has That’s the mall where I work.
arrived for him.
When who, which or that is the object of the relative
7.7 Wish & If only clause, we can omit the relative pronoun.
She is the new secretary (who) they hired for the loans
Unreal past forms can be used with wish and if only to refer department.
to wishes in past, present and future time.
We use wish + a past tense when we talk about the present 8.3 Non-defining Relative Clauses
or the future.
I wish I knew the answer. This type of relative clause gives us extra information which
If only he could win the next science scholarship. isn’t necessary to understand the meaning of the main
I wish we were going to the space museum next week. clause. We use commas to separate it from the rest of the
sentence.
We use wish + a past perfect tense when we talk about the My neighbour, who is a bit absent-minded, often forgets
past. to pay her bills.
If only she had graduated last year.
8.4 Prepositions in Relative Clauses
We use wish + would + bare infinitive when we talk about
The relative pronoun can refer to the object of a
other people’s annoying habits or to say that we would like
preposition. In informal styles, the preposition comes after
something to be different in the future. We use it for actions,
the verb. In formal English, prepositions can come before
not states. I wish you wouldn’t bother me all the time.
the relative pronoun. The pronoun that cannot be used
after a preposition.
7.8 Inversion The shop which Katie works in is over there.
We can use certain words and expressions at the beginning The shop in which Katie works is over there.
of a sentence for emphasis. When we do this, the word Mr Greenback, whom I spoke to, is worth a fortune.
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 Grammar Reference
Mr Greenback, to whom I spoke, is worth a fortune. Their second album became a hit more quickly than their
first one.
8.5 Participle Clauses
We use the superlative to compare one person or thing
There are two kinds of participles. The present participle with other people or things of the same type. We usually
(verb + -ing) and the past participle (verb + -ed or irregular form the superlative by adding –est to the adjective
form). or adverb. If the adjective or adverb has two or more
syllables, we use the word most. We use the word the
We can use participles in participle clauses to make before the superlative.
sentences shorter. They can replace the subject and the Which is the biggest selling album of all time?
verb in a sentence if the subject of both clauses is the The lead singer spoke the most politely of all the band
same. We use a present participle if the verb is active and a members.
past participle if the verb is passive.
Before buying the shares, I checked to see that the Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular and form their
company was legitimate. comparative and superlative in different ways.
Asked to explain his actions, Bernie admitted he was a
fraud.
Adjective/Adverb Comparative Superlative
We can also use a participle to replace a relative pronoun good/well better the best
and verb.
The sales staff who were hired recently are excellent. bad/badly worse the worst
The sales staff hired recently are excellent. many/more more the most
The customer who wanted a refund asked for the
much more the most
manager.
The customer wanting a refund asked for the manager. little less the least
far farther/further the farthest/furthest
We can also use a perfect participle (having + past
participle) to combine clauses that have the same subject Note:
• when one action is completed before another action. 1 Some words like hard, late, straight and fast are both
She found her credit card and then paid for the goods. adjectives and adverbs.
Having found her credit card, she paid for the goods. 2 The words friendly, lovely, silly and ugly are adjectives
• when one action has been going on for a period of time (not adverbs).
before another action starts. 3 The words hardly (= barely) and lately (= recently) are
She had been spending so much money that she was not the adverbs of hard and late.
broke.
Having spent so much money, she was broke.
9.2 Other ways of comparing
The perfect participle can be used for active and passive We use as + adjective/adverb + as to show that two
voice. people or things are similar in some way.
• active voice: having + past participle Are van Gogh’s paintings as nice as those by Renoir?
Having asked the sales assistant for his opinion, Martha
listened. We use not as/so ... as to show that one person or thing
• passive voice: having been + past participle has less of a quality than another.
Having been asked his opinion, the sales assistant gave it. Painting isn’t as difficult to do as sculpture.

8.6 Cleft Sentences We use the + comparative, the + comparative to show how
one action or situation affects another.
Cleft sentences are used to emphasise what we want to The bigger the band, the harder it is to get concert tickets.
say. They are like a relative clause. Cleft structures include
the reason why, the thing that, the person/people who, the
place where, the day when and what-clauses with is or was.
9.3 Qualifiers
The reason (why) he became a doctor was to make a lot of Qualifiers come before an adjective or adverb and increase
money. or decrease the word. The most common qualifiers in
The people who really annoy me are talentless celebrities. English are: very, quite, rather, somewhat, far more, most,
What I like best is picking up bargains at antique markets. less, least, more or less, too, so, just, enough, indeed, still,
almost, fairly, really, pretty, even, a bit, a little, a (whole) lot,

Unit 9
a good deal, a great deal, much, kind of, sort of.
The Beatles were far more successful than the Monkees.
These artists are more or less the same in terms of brush
9.1 Comparison of Adjectives & Adverbs work.
We use the comparative to compare two people or things.
We usually form the comparative by adding -er to an 9.4 Too & Enough
adjective or adverb. If the adjective or adverb has two or We use too + adjective/adverb to show that something is
more syllables, we use the word more. We often use the more than we want or need.
word than after the comparative. It’s too expensive to buy an original El Greco!
Live performances are more entertaining than video clips. Marc is too scared to perform on stage in public.
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 We use adjective/adverb + enough or enough + noun to is used in the same tense of the main verb in the active
show that something is or isn’t as much as we want or need. sentence, together with the past participle of the main
Their last album wasn’t good enough. verb in the active sentence.
I have got enough money to buy a new stereo system. They were interviewing him. He was being interviewed.

9.5 So & Such When we want to change an active sentence with two
objects into the passive voice, one becomes the subject
We use so and such for emphasis. They are stronger than of the passive sentence and the other one remains an
very. object. We choose the object we want to emphasise. If the
We use so + adjective/adverb. personal object remains an object in the passive sentence,
The Mona Lisa is so beautiful! then we have to use a suitable preposition (to, for, etc).
We use such + (adjective) + noun. We gave him the promotion.
The Mona Lisa is such a beautiful painting. He was given the promotion.
The promotion was given to him.
We can also use so and such to emphasise characteristics
that lead to a certain result or action.
The Clash were such a great band that I have all of their 10.2 Passive Voice: Gerunds, Infinitives &
albums. Modal Verbs
These paintings are so modern that I can’t tell what they
depict. Tense Active Passive
Gerund taking being taken
Unit 10 Bare Infinitive take be taken
Full Infinitive to take to be taken
10.1 Passive Voice: Tenses
Modal can take can be taken
We use the passive when
• the action is more important than who or what is
The bank clerk denied being involved in the robbery.
responsible for it (the agent).
The problem had better be dealt with quickly.
I was employed on a temporary basis.
He agreed to be transferred to another branch.
• we don’t know the agent, or it is not important.
Any problems must be reported to the manager.
People are being forced to join the rat race.

Note: When it is important to mention the agent in a Note: Some verbs have noun forms that can be used as
passive sentence, we use the word by. When we want to the subject of a passive sentence, with the addition of a
mention a tool or material in the passive sentence, we use new passive verb.
the word with. They’re relocating Jim to New York next month.
The employee of the month was congratulated by the Jim is being relocated to New York next month.
manager. Jim’s relocation to New York will be finalised by next
The employee was presented with a prize. month.

The passive is formed with the verb be and a past 10.3 Reporting with Passive Verbs
participle. Notice how the active verb forms change to We often use verbs like believe, consider, know, expect,
passive verb forms. say, suppose and think in the passive voice to report what
someone has said. They can be used in an impersonal or a
Tense Active Passive personal passive structure.
Present take/takes am/are/is taken
Simple We form the impersonal passive structure with it + passive
verb + that + clause.
Present am/are/is taking am/are/is being It is believed that working too hard is bad for you.
Continuous taken
Past Simple took was/were taken We form the personal structure with noun + passive verb +
full infinitive.
Past was/were taking was/were being
Continuous taken Inner city areas are said to be dangerous.
Present Perfect have/has taken have/has been taken
Simple
10.4 Seem & Appear
Past Perfect had taken had been taken The verbs seem and appear can be used in similar ways
Simple to indicate the impression you get from something or
somebody. After seem and appear we often use a full
Future Simple will take will be taken infinitive or a perfect infinitive for past events.
The shop doesn’t appear to be open. Let’s come back
Note: There is no passive form for Future Continuous, later. (present)
Present Perfect Continuous and Past Perfect Continuous. The accountant appears to have stolen all of the money.
(past)
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in
the following way. We can also use a that-clause after It seems and It appears.
It seems that none of the candidates are suitable.
The object of the verb in the active sentence becomes the It appears that we may have to advertise again.
subject of the verb in the passive sentence. The verb be  
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 Grammar Reference
After seem, but not normally after appear, we can use as if Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
or like.
It seems as if the company has gone bankrupt. ‘He was buying tickets,’ She said (that) he had
It seems like they’ll never finish all the work. she said. been buying tickets.

Note: Adjectives, not adverbs, are used after seem and Other changes in verb forms are as follows:
appear.
He seems careful. can could
The manager appeared (to be) apologetic.
‘He can swim very fast,’ She said (that) he could
  she said. swim very fast.
10.5 Passive Causative
may might
We use the causative to say that
• someone has arranged for somebody to do something ‘He may be injured,’ she She said (that) he might be
said. injured.
for them.
Many businesses have burglar alarms installed on their must had to
premises. ‘He must run faster,’ she She said (that) he had to
• something unpleasant happened to someone. said. run faster.
I had my iPhone stolen while I was at work.
will would
We form the causative with have + object + past participle. ‘They will buy new She said (that) they would
It can be used in a variety of tenses. When we want to players,’ she said. buy new players.
mention the agent, we use the word by.
We have had all of the offices painted. Note:
The manager used to have the files locked in his safe. 1 We often use the verbs say and tell in reported speech.
The customer will have their order processed (by the We follow tell with an object.
staff). Our coach said (that) we should run further.
Our coach told us (that) we should run further.
Note: We can also use get + object + past participle. This
structure is less formal. 2 We can leave out that.
Tina got her car repaired after someone scratched it. He said that he deserved a place on the team.
→ He said he deserved a place on the team.
Other passive causative structures can be formed with
need, prefer, want, would like + object + past or present 3 R
 emember to change pronouns and possessive
participle. adjectives where necessary.
He prefers the orders to be dealt with immediately. ‘We are packing the equipment,’ he said. → He said
We needed the computers (to be) checked for viruses. (that) they were packing the equipment.
I want this report (to be) typed, please. ‘That’s my baseball bat,’ she said. → She said (that) that
was her baseball bat.

Unit 11 4 T
 he following tenses and words don’t change in reported
speech: Past Perfect Simple, Past Perfect Continuous,
11.1 Reported Speech: Statements would, could, might, should, ought to, used to, had
better, mustn’t and must when they refer to deduction.
When we report direct speech, the tenses used by the
speaker usually change as follows: 11.2 Reported Speech: Changes in time and
place
Present Simple Past Simple
When we report direct speech, there are often changes in
‘He enjoys sailing,’ she She said (that) he enjoyed the words which show time and place.
said. sailing.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Direct speech Reported speech
‘She is flying a kite,’ he He said (that) she was ‘I’m training now,’ she She said she was training
said. flying a kite. said. then.
Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple ‘They’re getting the nets He said they were getting
‘They have played well,’ She said (that) they had today,’ he said. the nets that day.
she said. played well. ‘I don’t want to jog She said she didn’t want to
Present Perfect Past Perfect Continuous tonight,’ she said. jog that night.
Continuous ‘I lost my gloves He said he had lost his
yesterday,’ he said. gloves the previous day /
‘They have been training She said (that) they had the day before.
hard,’ she said. been training hard.
‘He won last week,’ she She said he had won the
Past Simple Past Perfect Simple
said. previous week / the week
‘She attended the race,’ He said (that) she had before.
he said. attended the race.

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 ‘We’ll call the players She said they would call verb + preposition + gerund (-ing)
tomorrow,’ she said. the players the next day /
the following day. apologise ‘I’m sorry I lost your gloves,’ he said.
for He apologised for losing my gloves.
‘We’re playing in the final She said they were playing
next month,’ she said. in the final the following complain ‘I lost my gloves,’ he said.
month. about He complained about losing his gloves.
‘This is my sports club,’ She said that was her insist on ‘Of course I will buy new gloves for you,’
she said. sports club. he said.
He insisted on buying new gloves for me.
‘The tournament started She said the tournament
two days ago,’ she said. had started two days verb + object + preposition + gerund (-ing)
before. accuse sb ‘I’m sure you cheated in the race,’ he said.
‘He’s playing tennis at the She said he was playing of He accused me of cheating in the race.
moment,’ she said. tennis at that moment. congratulate ‘You won the race! Well done!’ he said.
‘The footballs are here,’ he He said the footballs were sb on He congratulated me on winning the race.
said. there. verb + that
announce ‘I’m going to train for the marathon,’ he
11.3 Reporting Verbs said.
Apart from the verbs say, tell and ask, we can use other He announced that he was going to train
verbs to report what someone says more accurately. Notice for the marathon.
the different structures. complain ‘I don’t have time to train for the
marathon,’ he said.
He complained that he didn’t have time to
verb + full infinitive train for the marathon.
agree ‘Yes, I’ll give the presentation,’ he said. demand ‘Help me train for the marathon,’ he said.
He agreed to give the presentation. He demanded that I help him train for the
claim ‘I’m good at giving presentations,’ he said. marathon.
He claimed to be good at giving
presentations. 11.4 Reported Questions
decide ‘I think I’ll give the presentation,’ he said. When we report questions, changes in tenses, pronouns,
He decided to give the presentation. possessive adjectives, time and place are the same as
refuse ‘I won’t give the presentation,’ he said. in reported statements. In reported questions, the verb
He refused to give the presentation. follows the subject as in ordinary statements and we do
offer ‘Shall I give the presentation?’ he said. not use question marks.
He offered to give the presentation.
When a direct question has got a question word, we use
promise ‘Don’t worry, I’ll give the presentation,’ he this word in the reported question.
said. ‘When did you decide to become an athlete?’ he asked.
He promised to give the presentation.
He asked when I had decided to become an athlete.
verb + object + full infinitive
advise ‘If I were you, I’d train hard,’ he said. When a direct question does not have a question word, we
He advised me to train hard. use if or whether in the reported question.
‘Are the training facilities good?’ he asked.
encourage ‘Go on, train hard and you’ll do well,’ he He asked if/whether the training facilities were good.
said.
He encouraged me to train hard.
order ‘Train!’ he said.
He ordered me to train. Unit 12
persuade ‘You should train hard,’ he said. 12.1 Clauses of Reason
‘You’re right!’ I said.
He persuaded me to train hard. We can begin a clause with these words to give a reason
for a particular situation: so, because of, for, because,
remind ‘Don’t forget to train hard,’ he said. owing to, due to, as, since, seeing that/as, with.
He reminded me to train hard. Since I’m not sure what I want to do, I haven’t yet decided
warn ‘Train! Don’t waste your time,’ he said. what to study.
He warned me not to waste my time. They’re moving to the city because they feel there are no
verb + gerund (-ing) jobs in the village.
With all the new technology around, I’m not sure what I
admit ‘I took your basketball,’ he said. should buy.
He admitted taking my basketball. Why don’t you become a doctor, seeing that/as your mum
deny ‘I didn’t take your basketball,’ he said. is one too?
He denied taking my basketball.
recommend ‘You should buy this basketball,’ he said. 12.2 Clauses of Purpose and Result
He recommended buying that basketball. We can begin a clause with these words to give the
suggest ‘Let’s get a basketball,’ he said. purpose of a particular situation: so that, in order to, so as
He suggested getting a basketball. to, for, and the full infinitive.
People went to the Moon in order to/so as to explore it.
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 Grammar Reference
Robots are used to explore/for exploring strange Neither Julie nor Patty wants to become a space engineer.
landscapes. Neither Simon nor his friends are worried about the future.

We can begin a clause with these words to give the result 12.5 Either … or
of a particular situation: so, such a, so many, so much, so
few, so little, too/not enough + to. Either … or is used to offer a choice between two
The program was too difficult/not easy enough for the possibilities.
engineer to understand. Either Jim or Tom can help you.
The NASA scientists were so excited (that) they were You should study either science or engineering.
jumping up and down.
Not ... either... or denies both possibilities.
I don’t think either John or Anne will be there.
12.3 Clauses of Contrast He doesn’t like either physics or maths.
We can express contrast with these words and phrases in
a clause: despite, in spite of, despite the fact that, in spite Not either is used after a negative statement.
of the fact that, however, nevertheless, although, though, I don’t understand rocket science and you don’t either.
even though, whereas, while. He isn’t interested in space exploration and we aren’t
It was freezing. Nevertheless, we stayed outdoors to either.
observe the meteor shower.
In spite of the dangers, the astronauts were eager to go
into space.

12.4 Neither … nor

Neither … nor is used to give a negative sense. Subjects
connected by ‘neither … nor’ take either a plural or
singular verb conjugation depending on the subject closer
to the conjugated verb.

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 Irregular verbs
Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle
be was/were been
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burn burnt burnt
buy bought bought
can could –
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fly flew flown
forecast forecast forecast
forget forgot forgotten
get got got
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
have had had
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lead led led
learn learnt learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
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 Grammarverbs
Irregular Reference

Infinitive Past Simple Past Participle

lie lay lain
light lit lit
lose lost lost
mean meant meant
make made made
meet met met
pay paid paid
prove proved proven
put put put
read read /red/ read /red/
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
show showed shown
shoot shot shot
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
smell smelt smelt
speak spoke spoken
speed sped sped
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
stink stank stunk
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
take took taken
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
win won won
write wrote written

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 Writing Reference
Reference

When writing a reference,

• 
clearly state the reason for writing, explain who you are and what your relationship to the person is.
• describe the person’s character, relevant skills and their previous experience.
• present the person positively and make it clear why they are suitable for the job.
• use formal language.

Plan
Beginning
Use a formal greeting.
To whom it may concern, / Dear Sir/Madam, / Dear Sir, / Dear Madam, / Dear Mr/Ms …,

Introduction
Say who you are and how you know the person you are referring to.
I am writing to recommend … / I have been asked by my friend/colleague …
/ I have known … for/since … / I first met … in/when …

Main Paragraph 1
Describe the person’s character and qualities.
… is reliable/organised/efficient/extremely competent/flexible … / … can work under
pressure … / … can work independently/in a team …/is a team player… / … is willing to
offer assistance

Main Paragraph 2
Describe the person’s skills.
… is a skilled … /… is proficient in … / … is highly … / … is an accomplished … /
… has a talent/flair/gift for … / … has the necessary … skills /… has excellent … skills

Main Paragraph 3
Discuss the person’s previous relevant experience.
… was responsible for / … worked as a(n) … / her/his duties included … /
… effectively carried out his/her responsibilities/tasks … / … did an excellent job …

Main Paragraph 4
Give reasons why the person should be selected.
I believe that his/her skills and experience make ... an excellent candidate for … /
I believe he/she would be an asset to … / as is evidenced / shown by the fact that … /
his/her … is such that … / For this reason, …

Conclusion
Reinforce your belief and repeat your recommendation.
I highly recommend … / I have no hesitation in recommending … / I am confident that …

Ending
Use a formal phrase for closing the letter.
Yours faithfully, … (if you don’t know the reader’s name) or Yours sincerely, …
(if you know the reader’s name)

Reference checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you included all the necessary information?
• Have you presented the person in a positive way?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your reference well organised?
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 Writing Reference

Essay
When writing an essay,
• think about the topic and your opinion on it.
• present your arguments.
• use examples to support the arguments you make.
• summarise your arguments and express your opinion in the conclusion.
• use appropriate language.

Plan
Introduction
Introduce the topic. In your own words, include the statement declared in the task. State
your point of view.
There is no doubt that … / Many people feel/believe that … /
People sometimes argue that … / It can be argued that … / Most people say …

Main Paragraph 1
Agree or disagree with the statement. Give your view and support it with
examples and evidence.
Generally speaking, … / There are many advantages/disadvantages to … / It is a
well-known fact that … / It is widely thought/believed/claimed that … / One point of view
is … / For one thing, … / Moreover, … / For example, … / As a result, …

Main Paragraph 2
Add more information or present the other side of the argument and give examples.
One can imagine that … / It would not be unreasonable to … / It is plain to see
… / Far from -ing … / There are those who believe that … / In contrast with … /
Contrary to the above ideas, … / On the contrary, … / Others feel/argue that … /
However, … / Consequently, … / For instance, …

Conclusion
Summarise your arguments and express your overall opinion.
All in all, … / On the whole, … In conclusion, … / To conclude, … / To sum up, … /
I strongly believe, …

Essay checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your essay well organised?

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 Information sheet
When writing an information sheet,
• make sure that it contains clear and factual information.
• organise the information into sections with appropriate headings and address every point in the task.
• think of a suitable title for your information sheet.
• use informal or semi-formal language.

Plan
Title
Attract the attention of the reader and state the content of the information sheet.

Introduction
Say why you are writing the information sheet in a friendly manner to ensure the
reader continues reading.
Here are some helpful hints … / Here are a few tips … / The following is a list of …

Main Paragraphs 1-4

Discuss the points. Inform your reader and advise. Start a new paragraph for
each point and remember to use headings to organise your information sheet and
make your ideas clearer.
Here are some … to … / It would be a good idea to … / It is important to consider … /
When + -ing … / If you follow these tips, …

Conclusion
Summarise your main points.

Information sheet checklist

• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you used correct headings?
• Is your information sheet informative?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your information sheet well organised?

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 Writing Reference

Review
When writing a review,
• try to catch the reader’s attention in the first paragraph.
• remember to support your arguments with examples.
• remember to give your recommendation in the last paragraph.

Plan
Introduction
Introduce what you are reviewing.

Main Paragraphs 1-2

Describe one aspect of what you are reviewing in paragraph 1. Give the reader an idea of
what you are writing about. Describe another aspect and give further details in paragraph 2.
What I liked most was … / The thing I liked most was … / The highlight for me was … /
... combines ... with ...
What I disliked most was … / I was disappointed by/with … / The … was a real let-down. /
I wasn't impressed by/with ... / That doesn't mean that ...

Conclusion
Summarise your points and give your recommendation.
I highly recommend ... / I can't recommend it highly enough. / ... would appeal to ... /
If you get a chance to ... / If ... is your thing ... / ... should not be missed. / I wouldn't
recommend ... / You should probably give it a miss.

Review checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your review well organised and interesting for the reader?

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 Proposal
When writing a proposal,
• a
 nswer the question in the task by describing, expressing your opinion and recommending.
Remember to be persuasive.
• think of a suitable title for your proposal.
• remember to use headings to organise your proposal and make your ideas clearer.
• use semi-formal language.

Plan
Title

Introduction
Heading
Say why you are writing the proposal.
The aim/purpose of this proposal is to recommend ... / This is a proposal on ... / This
proposal will make suggestions/recommendations for ... / It will also suggest/recommend ...

Main Paragraphs 1-4

Write one paragraph for each suggestion. Don't forget to include a heading for each
paragraph. Make your choice clear by writing positively about it.
The first suggestion is/would be ... / In terms of … / Regarding … / When it comes to …
On the plus side, … / The best thing about … is … / … it is by far the most … / This may be
a good choice ... because ... / This option has several advantages ...
This is a nice idea, but … / On the minus side, … / An alternative possibility would be to ... /
Alternatively, ... / However ,...

Conclusion
Heading
Bring your proposal to an end by making a recommendation.
I strongly recommend ... / I can't recommend ... highly enough ... / To sum up, my
recommendation/suggestion is ... / As can be seen from this proposal, ... / I feel that the
best option is ...

Proposal checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your proposal well organised?

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 Writing Reference

Contribution
When writing a contribution,
• k eep in mind that even though it is part of a larger document (a book, brochure, guidebook
or a research project), it should be able to stand alone.
• grab the reader’s attention and make them want to continue reading more.
• describe, explain and recommend.
• use appropriate language. The register and style is determined by the purpose and target reader
of the main document. You may include headings.

Plan
Title

Introduction
Engage your reader immediately.
Have you ever wondered …? / Have you ever been …? / Imagine … / Suppose, for
a moment, that …

Main Paragraphs 1-3

Address every part of the question in the task. Write one paragraph for each
point.
When it comes to … / Without a doubt, the best/worst … / Few would agree/disagree
that … / The impact this has had on … is … / It is responsible for … / No doubt, it is the
cause of … / On the one hand … / On the other hand … / In this case …

Conclusion
Summarise your view and express your opinion. Give a recommendation.
Why not …? / How about …? / The only way … / The most successful measure
would be … / By … we can … / For these reasons, it would be …

Contribution checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you included all the necessary information?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your contribution well organised?

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 Competition entry (nomination)
When writing a competition entry (nomination),
• persuade the reader that your choice is the best.
• don’t just give a general description of the person you are nominating. Remember to describe
the person’s achievements, explain and justify.
• write a strong final paragraph.
• use formal language.

Plan
Introduction
Nominate a person and engage the reader.

Main Paragraph 1
Describe the person’s achievements in a general way.
… is regarded as … / … is widely believed to be … /… is considered to be …

Main Paragraph 2
Discuss the person’s specific achievements.
the founder of … / … the father of … / … was the first to … / … was responsible for … /
… laid the foundations for … / … paved the way for … / … if not for … / groundbreaking/
radical/revolutionary/original / His/Her work has been inspirational to many people … / To
my mind, this person/he/she displays a talent for …

Conclusion
Summarise your points and stress the importance of the person’s achievements.

Competition entry (nomination) checklist

• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you included all the necessary information?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your competition entry (nomination) well organised?

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 Writing Reference

Article
When writing an article,
• t hink about who you’re writing for and what you want to say about the topic. Use a suitable style.
The target reader will determine the register.
• write down your ideas and select the best ones.
• think of a title that will get your reader’s attention.
• make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence.
• put the main points of your article into the middle paragraphs.

Plan
Title
Give your article an eye-catching title.

Introduction
Get the attention of the reader and introduce the topic of your article.
Have you ever wondered/asked yourself/thought about ...?
Can you imagine ...? / Imagine … / What would happen if …? / When was the last time
you …?

Main Paragraphs 1-3

Address all the points in the task. Start a new paragraph for each point. Discuss the topic
and give information in an interesting and engaging way.

Conclusion
Summarise and give your opinion.
If you ask me, … / I believe … / I would have to say … / In my opinion, ... / As far as I'm
concerned, ...

Article checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your article well organised and interesting for the reader?

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 Report
When writing a report,
• allow yourself time to plan what you will include in your report. Remember to cover all the points in the task.
• think of a suitable title for your report.
• use headings or topic sentences to organise your report and make your ideas clearer.
• use appropriate language.

Plan
Introduction
Introduce the topic of the report.

Main Paragraph 1
Discuss the first point. Describe what the best thing was.
By far the best thing was … / Without a doubt, … was the best … / In terms of … ,
the best thing was …

Main Paragraph 2
Discuss the second point. Describe any problems.
On the down side, … / … could have been better. / I wasn’t very impressed
with/by … / There’s room for improvement …

Main Paragraph 3
Bring the report to an end by discussing the last point. Make suggestions or
recommendations.
I would therefore suggest/recommend … / The problem can be easily addressed
by … / One way to deal with it would be to … / An effective solution would be …

Report checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your report well organised?

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 Writing Reference

Letter
When writing a letter,
• r espond appropriately to the situation presented in the task.
• use correct set phrases and make sure your paragraphs are clear.
• answer all the questions and/or refer to all the points in the original letter if you are replying
to someone.

Plan
Beginning
Use an appropriate greeting.
Dear Mayor, / Dear Sir/Madam, / Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms ... , / Dear (name), ... Hi ...!

Introduction
Acknowledge receiving the letter. Give a reason for writing.

Main paragraphs 1-3

Respond appropriately. You may be required to provide or ask for information, express
an opinion, give advice, persuade someone to do something, etc. Cover all the points or
queries raised in the input material.
Firstly, regarding ... / In addition, ... / I would like to know if/whether ... / I would be grateful
if you could tell me ... / Please let me know ... / I was wondering if ... / I would also like to
ask about ...
It would be better to ... / One solution would be to ... / An alternative idea might be to ... /
Would you like me to ...? / I think we should ... / I would recommend ... / What/How about
…? / I'd suggest … / I think you should … / If I were you, I'd … / Have you considered …? /
I think you'd really enjoy … because … / … would be ideal for you. / I wouldn't take up …
because …
I'm really pleased with … / It's by far the best … / No other place can match it.

Conclusion
You may be required to summarise your arguments and give a personal opinion, say what
you want to happen next or make a comment.
Given the above, it is my opinion that ... / I think we/you should ... /
Thank you in advance for ... / I would appreciate it if you could reply soon. / I look forward
to hearing from you.

Ending
Sign off in an appropriate way.
Yours faithfully, ... (if you don't know the reader's name) or Yours sincerely, ... (if you know
the reader's name). / Best wishes, ... / Kind regards, ... / Love, ... / Bye for now, ... / Take
care, ... / Look after yourself, ... /I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

Letter checklist
• Have you followed the plan?
• Have you used appropriate language?
• Have you checked for mistakes in grammar, spelling and punctuation?
• Is your letter well organised?

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 Speaking Reference
Dealing with all parts of the question For me / To my mind / In my opinion, the biggest
Photo … shows …, whereas photo … shows … advantage / drawback is …
The photos are similar as / in that they both … The next / second film is …
While there are some similarities between the photos, they
Handing over to your partner
are different because …
That’s all I have to say about my options. What about yours?
One thing they both have in common is …
That sums up my options. Tell me about your two films.
Achievement is depicted / shown in photo … by …, but in
What films do you have to suggest?
photo … it is shown by …
Both photos show completely different aspects of Adding ideas
achievement because / since … Not only does / is …, but it also …
The main aspect of achievement that comes over in photo Another factor we should take into consideration is …
… is, while / whereas in photo …, … is more important. This is not only true of …, but also of …
The main measure of success in photo …, is …, while / What’s more / Furthermore / In addition / Similarly, …
whereas in photo …, success is measured in terms of …
Contrasting
How successful the person / people in photo … is / are
On the one hand, …, but on the other …
depends on …
While it might be true that …, we could also say that …
He / She / They must be feeling …
In one sense, …, but in another …
He / She / They appear to be …
Involving your partner
Presenting opinions and reaching a decision
So, what's your opinion about / on ...?
So, what do you think about ...?
Do you agree with me?
I think / I don't think ...
How about you?
It seems to me that ...
And you?
Don’t you agree that …?
How do you feel about ...?
Why do you say / think that ...?
I (completely) agree / disagree ... Selecting photos
I (really) can't see the point of ... I’m going to compare / discuss / choose photos … because
So, we both agree on this, but ... I'd like to focus on photos …
I’ll begin by comparing photos …
Topic vocabulary
The two photos I’m going to compare are …
accident and emergency
The photo that best shows … is ...
avoid / prevent injury
I’d say that photo … shows … more clearly because …
careless
So, it seems to me that ...
caring
Well, to sum up, I think ...
CPR
In conclusion ...
don't give much importance to
give first aid Justifying choices
health professional I believe ... doesn't really reflect / show us ... because / as
injection / since ...
junk food The reason why I think this is ...
organic / fresh produce Most people would probably say ... because / as / since ...
paramedic Although some people ... might choose ...
positive / negative attitude towards Not everyone ... so I wouldn't suggest / choose ...
prescribe / dispense / take medication ... is much more popular with ..., so ...
preventative measures If we consider the effect ... has had on our lifestyles, we
protective clothing could say that ...
resuscitation
Linking ideas
side-effects
I think / don't think ... because ...
stretcher
I'd say that ... because ...
take care of
If I had to choose, I'd ... because ...
vaccination
I'd / I wouldn't like to ... because ...
warm up
This is why ...
Presenting your options For that reason ...
Let me begin by telling you about … For example ...
Well, my first option is … This is ... but / although / so / because / and ...
On the one hand, this film …, but on the other …
Not only is / does this film …, but it also, …
What is most impressive / disappointing about this film is

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 Speaking Reference
Evaluating … is the most / least suitable candidate of all due to the
Photo … best portrays …, because … fact that / since / because …
While photo … is a good example of …, photo … is There can be no doubt that … is the best / worst choice as
probably better as … …
All photos show …, but the one that stands out from the
Developing answers to personal questions
rest is …
In general / On the whole, I prefer … to … because …
There’s no doubt that photo … is a more accurate
Although I enjoy …, I’d much rather …
portrayal of …
I’m not really the kind of person who …, so for me … is
Negotiating preferable.
I see your point, but don’t you think …? … isn’t really the sort of thing I’m into / my cup of tea
I’m not really sure that …, surely photo … is a better because …
choice? There’s no way you’d catch me …, but I love …
I know where you’re coming from, but I can’t help thinking I can’t describe myself as being a big fan of …
that … There’s nothing I like better than …
I know what you mean, but ... When it comes to sport, I’m the kind of person who …
Speculating Supporting opinions with examples
This type of art might / could be ... because ... Modern technology (doesn’t) always bring(s) progress as
Graffiti must / might / could have had a real effect on ... can be seen by …
Don't you think this idea could be seen as ... A concrete example of how modern technology …
I would say that street art reaches people because it could Just think about how … affected progress.
/ might be ... … is a classic example of how …
If we take into consideration …, it’s clear that life in the
Comparing options
future …
… may have all the relevant qualifications, but he / she has
Bearing in mind that … future generations will …
less experience than …
The past has shown / taught us that …
I think the fact that he / she … is much more important
than … Talking about the future
Being able to … is more essential for this particular post In years to come, …
than … In the future, …
It’s no use having / being … if / unless … Five / Ten / Fifty years from now, …
While it would be an advantage if …, his / her other In ten / twenty years’ time …
credentials more than make up for it.

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 Collocations & Expressions
A little bird told me. (U2) go places (U1)
a no-brainer (U1) have a change of heart (U3)
bank account (U8) have a frog in your throat (U2)
bank balance (U8) have deep pockets (U8)
bank statement (U8) have egg on your face (U5)
be at each other’s throats (U3) have someone in your corner (U11)
be cutting edge (U7) have your cake and eat it too (U5)
be first out of the gate (U11) hit rock bottom (U10)
be full of beans (U5) hit the bull’s-eye (U11)
be in the money (U8) hot potato (U5)
be light years ahead (U7) internal organs (U3)
be music to your ears (U9) It’s not rocket science! (U7)
be on the tip of your tongue (U3) keep your chin up (U3)
be toast (U5) keep your head above water (U10)
bite someone’s head off (U3) line your pockets (U8)
black market (U8) make a fortune (U8)
blow your own trumpet (U9) make a loss (U8)
bodily functions (U3) make a profit (U8)
box clever (U1) make a song and dance about something (U9)
burn the candle at both ends (U10) old money (U8)
buy/sell something for a song (U9) pocket money (U8)
Cat got your tongue? (U2) push the panic button (U7)
change your tune (U9) reinvent the wheel (U7)
chemical imbalance (U3) run yourself into the ground (U10)
coughing fit (U3) running sore (U3)
credit card (U8) sales assistant (U8)
credit limit (U8) sales figures (U8)
credit rating (U8) sales tax (U8)
do something on a shoestring (U8) shout at the top of your lungs (U3)
do the trick (U1) sing like a canary (U2)
do your best (U1) sing someone’s praises (U9)
drop the ball (U11) splitting headache (U3)
dumb down (U1) stock market (U8)
easy money (U8) streetwise (U1)
face the music (U9) terminal illness (U3)
failing eyesight (U3) The ball’s in your court. (U11)
fall at the first hurdle (U11) the best thing since sliced bread (U5)
flea market (U8) There’s no use crying over spilt milk. (U5)
for my money (U8) throw in the towel (U10)
get a slap on the wrist (U3) throw money at something (U8)
get cold feet (U3) throw your money around (U8)
get something straight from the horse’s mouth (U2) tighten your belt (U8)
get the green light (U1) turn a blind eye (U3)
get there in the end (U1) Wake up and smell the coffee. (U5)
get your money’s worth (U8) wise up (U1)
get your wires crossed (U7) wouldn’t say boo to a goose (U2)
go all out (U1)

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 Prepositions
(be) a source of (U11) go without a hitch (U1)
(be) about to (U12) have got a lot on my plate (U1)
(be) advised against (U6) improvement in (U12)
(be) an alternative to (U6) in character (U4)
(be) a factor in (U12) in showbiz (U4)
(be) in great shape (U11) in the background (U4)
(be) indifferent to (U6) increase by (U12)
(be) of the opinion that (U12) insistence on (U6)
(be) on display (U9) interfere with (U6)
(be) on tour (U9) lean on (U11)
(be) unaware of (U6) learn something by heart (U9)
(be) under construction (U2) on occasion (U2)
(be) under contract (U9) on the set (U4)
(be/come) under fire (U1) on your own (U11)
(be) under new management (U9) paint in oils (U9)
(get) off to a good start (U11) play music by ear (U9)
at a guess (U2) sing in harmony (U9)
at a moment’s notice (U4) take something out of context (U2)
by a mile (U1) tell someone in confidence (U2)
by profession (U4) to my face (U2)
come to a (sudden) halt (U11) to the accompaniment of (U4)
fight on (U11) without warning (U2)
give rise to (U12) work around the clock (U1)
go for it (U1) work for (U11)
go off without a hitch (U4)

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 Phrasal verbs
be taken aback = be greatly surprised (U2)
beat down (sun) = shine very strongly (U6)
blow away = impress someone greatly (U1)
blow over (storm) = go away without causing any serious damage (U6)
blow up (storm) = begin suddenly and with force (U6)
bounce back = recover from a bad situation (U10)
break through = make new and important discoveries (U1)
bring down = cause someone to lose power (U2)
bucket down = rain very heavily (U6)
catch up with = manage to reach someone who is ahead of you (U11)
chip in = contribute to something (U8)
clear up (weather) = when the rain stops and the clouds disperse (U6)
come down with = get an illness that is not very serious (U3)
come in for = receive (U2)
come up against = have a problem (U1)
come up against = be faced with or opposed by (U10)
cut in = interrupt someone while they are speaking (U2)
dine out = eat at a restaurant (U5)
do without = cope well despite not having something (U10)
drop back = fall back, get left behind (U11)
dry up (river or lake) = lose all its water (U6)
fall through = not happen (U1)
fight off = avoid getting an illness (U3)
fork out = reluctantly pay money for something (U8)
get ahead = make progress in life or in your career (U1)
get back at = take revenge (U2)
get by = have just enough money to live (U10)
hang on = keep going in difficult circumstances (U1)
knock out = hit someone so they become unconscious (U11)
knuckle down = start working or studying hard (U1)
live on = eat only a particular type of food (U5)
live on = have a specific amount of money to buy food and other necessities (U8)
pack away = eat a lot of food (U5)
pass out = faint (U3)
pick at = eat unwillingly (U5)
pick up = catch an illness from somebody or something (U3)
polish off = finish all of a particular dish or portion of food (U5)
pull off = succeed in doing something difficult or unexpected (U1)
pull out = withdraw from an activity (U11)
pull together = work as a team to achieve something (U10)
put down = pay a specific amount as a deposit (U8)
set back = cost someone a large amount of money (U8)
set out = start to do something (U2)
splash out = spend a lot of money (U8)
stir up = cause problems for someone else (U2)
take out = remove something (U3)
take to = start liking something or someone (U2)
throw up = vomit (U3)
tuck in = start eating enthusiastically (U5)
warm up = heat food so that it is not cold (U5)
warm up = prepare for physical activity by exercising gently (U11)
wear down = make weaker (U10)
whip up = prepare a meal very quickly (U5)

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 Close-up C1 © 2016 National Geographic Learning, a part of Cengage Learning
Student’s Book, Second Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
Angela Healan herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form
Katrina Gormley or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not
with Karen Ludlow limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitialising, taping, Web
Publisher: Sharon Jervis distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval
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Commissioning Editor: Kayleigh Buller
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Editor: Cathy Rogers
For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all
Content Project Manager: Jon Ricketts requests online at cengage.com/permissions
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ISBN: 978-1-40-809581-2
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Acknowledgements
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 Photo Credits
Cover images:  (front cover) © Geanina Bechea/Shutterstock, (back cover) Sabena Jane Blackbird/Alamy

Shutterstock:

5 Greg Epperson; 6 Mikadun; 6 Epicstockmedia; 7 Nikkytok; 7 Pressmaster; 7 Taboga; 7 Kostudio; 8 Violetkaipa; 8 Vitalii Nesterchuk; 9 Rawpixel; 10 Gina Smith; 12
Robert Kneschke; 12 Popova Valeriya; 12 Nikkytok; 13 David Ionut; 13 Armadillo Stock; 13 Bikeriderlondon; 13 Shutterstock; 13 Poznyakov; 13 Shutterstock; 14 Diego
Cervo; 15 Nikkytok; 15 Wavebreakmedia; 16 Germanskydiver; 16 Kaarsten; 17 Violetkaipa; 18 Odua Images; 19 Nikkytok; 19 Iqoncept; 19 Kostudio; 20 Nikkytok; 20
Grafvision; 20 Rafal Olechowski; 22 Arek_Malang; 24 Boris Rabtsevich; 24 Shutterstock; 25 Nikkytok; 25 Andrey_Popov; 25 Fotoluminate Llc; 25 Monkey Business
Images; 25 Ammentorp Photography; 25 Kostudio; 26 Angela Waye; 27 Nikkytok; 27 Agusyonok; 27 Andreas Saldavs; 27 Gpointstudio; 27 Warren Goldswain; 27
David Pereiras; 27 Miriam Doerr; 28 Charles Taylor; 28 Kaarsten; 32 Mangostock; 32 Lightspring; 32 Shutterstock; 33 Nikkytok; 33 Kostudio; 34 Nenov Brothers
Images; 34 Alex Staroseltsev; 35 Lurochkin Alexandr; 36 Subbotina Anna; 37 Bikeriderlondon; 37 Luckyimages; 38 Solarseven; 38 Nikkytok; 38 Kuco; 39 Nikkytok;
39 Shutterstock; 39 Minerva Studio; 39 Monkey Business Images; 39 Goodluz; 39 Zoom Team; 39 Dotshock; 39 Kaarsten; 40 Luciano Mortula; 41 Nikkytok; 41
Shutterstock; 42 Kostudio; 44 Francis Wong Chee Yen; 44 Linda Bucklin; 44 Nolte Lourens; 44 Kirsz Marcin; 44 Anton Gvozdikov; 44 Luckyimages; 45 Nikkytok;
45 Kaarsten; 46 James Steidl; 46 Nikkytok; 47 Lakeview Images; 47 Sean Gladwell; 50 Lance Bellers; 50 Nikkytok; 51 Tourdottk; 51 Yevgenia Gorbulsky; 51
Epicstockmedia; 51 Junial Enterprises; 51 Kostudio; 52 Stuart Monk; 53 Nikkytok; 53 Stamatoyoshi; 54 Kaarsten; 58 Elena Schweitzer; 58 Elena Schweitzer; 58 Goran
Bogicevic; 59 Bergamont; 59 Evdokimov Maxim; 59 Nikkytok; 59 Kostudio; 60 Ismagilov; 60 Sakuoka; 61 Stockyimages; 62 Natalia Klenova; 63 Angela Waye; 63
Sergio33; 64 Nikkytok; 64 Travellight; 65 Monkey Business Images; 65 Branislavpudar; 65 Joe Gough; 65 Sspopov; 65 Francesco R. Iacomino; 65 Wavebreakmedia;
65 Nikkytok; 65 Kostudio; 66 Elena Elisseeva; 67 Nikkytok; 67 Shutterstock; 68 Worradirek; 68 Kostudio; 69 Anton Balazh; 71 Nikkytok; 71 Kostudio; 73 Tankist276;
73 Nikkytok; 73 Felix Lipov; 74 Neelsky; 75 Roman Zherdytskyi; 76 Tischenko Irina; 76 Nikkytok; 77 Rainer Albiez; 77 E. Sweet; 77 Grzegorz Petrykowski; 77 George
Lamson; 77 Kletr; 77 Alenkadr; 77 Nikkytok; 77 Kaarsten; 78 Leoks; 79 Nikkytok; 79 Bezikus; 80 Juan R. Velasco; 80 Kostudio; 83 Peterphoto123; 84 Micimakin;
85 Nikkytok; 85 Kostudio; 86 Shutterstock; 86 Rainer Plendl; 87 Reggison; 87 Dusit; 88 Jupeart; 89 Anyaivanova; 90 Monkey Business Images; 90 Nikkytok; 90
Anyaivanova; 91 Nikkytok; 91 Ingrid Balabanova; 91 Anthony Berenyi; 91 Olena Mykhaylova; 91 Adam Radosavljevic; 91 Pavel L Photo And Video; 91 Kostudio;
92 Karramba Production; 93 Nikkytok; 94 Bierchen; 94 Kaarsten; 96 Dibrova; 96 Dules; 96 Dules; 97 Nikkytok; 97 Kaarsten; 98 Phillip Minnis; 99 Africa Studio;
100 Jerome Whittingham; 101 Stuart Monk; 101 Dmitrijs Dmitrijevs; 102 Shutterstock; 102 Nikkytok; 103 Pressmaster; 103 Nolte Lourens; 103 Luckyimages; 103
Multiart; 103 Dmitrijs Dmitrijevs; 103 Tgeorge; 103 Kostudio; 104 Valua Vitaly; 105 Nikkytok; 105 Ferenc Szelepcsenyi; 106 Kostudio; 110 Iofoto; 111 Nikkytok;
112 Vectorvault; 113 Maxim Blinkov; 113 Vectomart; 115 Louisanne; 115 Boyan Dimitrov; 116 Vaclav Taus; 116 Nikkytok; 117 Banana Republic Images; 117 Ezz Mika
Elya; 117 Christian Carollo; 117 Shutterstock; 117 Inga Ivanova; 117 Thirteen; 117 Nikkytok; 117 Kostudio; 118 Sinisa Botas; 119 Nikkytok; 119 Shutterstock; 120 Guido
Nardacci; 122 Dhoxax; 122Pavel L Photo And Video; 122 Sinisa Botas; 122 Sergey Popov V; 122 Sklep Spozywczy; 122 06Photo; 122 Dudarev Mikhail; 122 Irisphoto1;
123 Nikkytok; 123 Kaarsten; 124 R.Nagy; 125 Cody Wheeler; 125 Travellight; 126 Arek_Malang; 127 Gui Jun Peng; 128 Kzenon; 128 Kurhan; 128 Nikkytok; 129
Kostudio; 130 Monkey Business Images; 131 Nikkytok; 131 Kevin Eaves; 132 Christian Colista; 132 Kostudio; 135 Bikeriderlondon; 136 Germanskydiver; 136 Shane
Gross; 136 Robert Kneschke; 137 Nikkytok; 137 Kostudio; 138 Africa Studio; 139 Suzanne Tucker; 140 Maxisport; 142 Nikkytok; 143 Harsanyi Andras; 143 Lorraine
Swanson; 143 Greg Epperson; 143 Szasz-Fabian Jozsef; 143 Laszlo Szirtesi; 143 Nikkytok; 143 Kaarsten; 144 Tatyana Vyc; 145 Nikkytok; 145 Bogdanhoda; 146
Kostudio; 148 Jupeart; 148 Mozzyb; 149 Nikkytok; 149 Kaarsten; 150 Diversepixel; 151 Fuyu Liu; 151 Kurhan; 151 Nikkytok; 152 Sergey Kamshylin; 153 Shutterstock;
154 Nikkytok; 154 Krivosheev Vitaly; 155 Algol; 155 Patrick Breig; 155 Holbox; 155 Cozyta; 155 Alexander Kirch; 155 Esbobeldijk; 155 Nikkytok; 155 Kostudio; 156
Nejron Photo; 157 Nikkytok; 158 Iurii; 158 Shutterstock.

National Geographic:

6 Gordon Wiltsie; 31 Cary Wolinsky; 42 Michael Nichols; 54 Sarah Leen; 54 Sarah Leen; 57 Thomas J. Abercrombie; 70 Patrick Mcfeeley; 70 Stephen Alvarez; 84
Bruce Dale; 84 Pete Mcbride; 84 Stephen St. John; 106 Heather Perry; 121 Xpacifica; 136 Pete Ryan; 147 Jim Richardson.

6 Action Plus Sports Images/Alamy; 11 Christopher Morris/Corbis; 11 David Bagnall/Alamy; 14 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 18 Geraint Lewis/Alamy; 18 Art
Directors & Trip/Alamy; 22 Alex Segre/Alamy; 23 Rosanna U/Corbis; 25 Geogphotos/Alamy; 26 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 40 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert
Harding; 43 Oliver Furrer/Alamy; 48 Fabrizio Bensch/Reuters/Corbis; 49 Donald Nausbaum/Robert Harding; 52 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 62 Marc
Macdonald/Alamy; 66 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 72 Kim Walker/Robert Harding; 76 Michael Parker-Pearson; 78 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding;
92 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 95 Christian Kapteyn/Robert Harding; 104 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 110 david hancock/Alamy; 111 Roland
Brass/Alamy; 114 Tom Corban/Alamy; 118 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 130 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 136 dpa picture alliance/Alamy; 141 Keith
Birmingham/Zuma Press/Corbis; 143 Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/Blend Images/Corbis; 144 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding; 156 Frank Fox/Okapia/Robert Harding.

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