Casimir effect

In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect and the Casimir–Polder

force are physical forces arising from a quantized field. They are
named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir, who predicted
them in 1948.

The Casimir effect can be understood by the idea that the presence of
conducting metals and dielectrics alters the vacuum expectation
value of the energy of the second quantized electromagnetic
field.[1][2] Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and
positions of the conductors and dielectrics, the Casimir effect
manifests itself as a force between such objects.

Any medium supporting oscillations has an analogue of the Casimir

effect. For example, beads on a string[3][4] as well as plates Casimir forces on parallel plates
submerged in turbulent water[5] or gas[6] illustrate the Casimir force.

In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the
nucleon; in applied physics it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and
nanotechnologies.[7]

Contents
Physical properties
History
Possible causes
Vacuum energy
Relativistic van der Waals force
Effects
Derivation of Casimir effect assuming zeta-regularization
More recent theory
Measurement
Regularization
Generalities
Dynamical Casimir effect
Analogies
Repulsive forces
Applications
See also
References
Further reading
 Introductory readings
Papers, books and lectures
Temperature dependence
External links

Physical properties
The typical example is of the two uncharged conductive plates in a vacuum, placed a few nanometers apart.
In a classical description, the lack of an external field means that there is no field between the plates, and no
force would be measured between them.[8] When this field is instead studied using the quantum
electrodynamic vacuum, it is seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons which constitute the field, and
generate a net force[9] – either an attraction or a repulsion depending on the specific arrangement of the two
plates. Although the Casimir effect can be expressed in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects,
it is best described and more easily calculated in terms of the zero-point energy of a quantized field in the
intervening space between the objects. This force has been measured and is a striking example of an effect
captured formally by second quantization.[10][11]

The treatment of boundary conditions in these calculations has led to some controversy. In fact, "Casimir's
original goal was to compute the van der Waals force between polarizable molecules" of the conductive
plates. Thus it can be interpreted without any reference to the zero-point energy (vacuum energy) of
quantum fields.[12]

Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is measurable only when the distance
between the objects is extremely small. On a submicron scale, this force becomes so strong that it becomes
the dominant force between uncharged conductors. In fact, at separations of 10 nm – about 100 times the
typical size of an atom – the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of about 1 atmosphere of pressure (the
precise value depending on surface geometry and other factors).[10]

History
Dutch physicists Hendrik Casimir and Dirk Polder at Philips Research Labs proposed the existence of a
force between two polarizable atoms and between such an atom and a conducting plate in 1947; this special
form is called the Casimir–Polder force. After a conversation with Niels Bohr, who suggested it had
something to do with zero-point energy, Casimir alone formulated the theory predicting a force between
neutral conducting plates in 1948 which is called the Casimir effect in the narrow sense.

Predictions of the force were later extended to finite-conductivity metals and dielectrics, and recent
calculations have considered more general geometries. Experiments before 1997 had observed the force
qualitatively, and indirect validation of the predicted Casimir energy had been made by measuring the
thickness of liquid helium films. However it was not until 1997 that a direct experiment by S. Lamoreaux
quantitatively measured the force to within 5% of the value predicted by the theory.[13] Subsequent
experiments approach an accuracy of a few percent.

Possible causes

Vacuum energy
The causes of the Casimir effect are described by quantum field theory, which states that all of the various
fundamental fields, such as the electromagnetic field, must be quantized at each and every point in space. In
a simplified view, a "field" in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected
vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field can be visualized as the displacement of a ball from
its rest position. Vibrations in this field propagate and are governed by the appropriate wave equation for the
particular field in question. The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-
spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. At
the most basic level, the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, and its quantization
places a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the elementary
particles of particle physics. However, even the vacuum has a vastly complex structure, so all calculations of
quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum.

The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: spin,[14] or polarization in the case
of light, energy, and so on. On average, most of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, "empty"
in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy.
The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy
that such an oscillator may have is

Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. Since only differences
in energy are physically measurable (with the notable exception of gravitation, which remains beyond the
scope of quantum field theory), this infinity may be considered a feature of the mathematics rather than of
the physics. This argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. Dealing with infinite
quantities in this way was a cause of widespread unease among quantum field theorists before the
development in the 1970s of the renormalization group, a mathematical formalism for scale transformations
that provides a natural basis for the process.

When the scope of the physics is widened to include gravity, the interpretation of this formally infinite
quantity remains problematic. There is currently no compelling explanation as to why it should not result in
a cosmological constant that is many orders of magnitude larger than observed.[15] However, since we do
not yet have any fully coherent quantum theory of gravity, there is likewise no compelling reason as to why
it should instead actually result in the value of the cosmological constant that we observe.[16]

The Casimir effect for fermions can be understood as the spectral asymmetry of the fermion operator
, where it is known as the Witten index.

Relativistic van der Waals force

Alternatively, a 2005 paper by Robert Jaffe of MIT states that "Casimir effects can be formulated and
Casimir forces can be computed without reference to zero-point energies. They are relativistic, quantum
forces between charges and currents. The Casimir force (per unit area) between parallel plates vanishes as
alpha, the fine structure constant, goes to zero, and the standard result, which appears to be independent of
alpha, corresponds to the alpha approaching infinity limit," and that "The Casimir force is simply the
(relativistic, retarded) van der Waals force between the metal plates."[17] Casimir and Polder's original paper
used this method to derive the Casimir-Polder force. In 1978, Schwinger, DeRadd, and Milton published a
similar derivation for the Casimir Effect between two parallel plates.[18] In fact, the description in terms of
van der Waals forces is the only correct description from the fundamental microscopic perspective,[19][20]
while other descriptions of Casimir force are merely effective macroscopic descriptions.
Effects
Casimir's observation was that the second-quantized quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk
bodies such as metals or dielectrics, must obey the same boundary conditions that the classical
electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the
presence of a conductor or dielectric.

Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a
metal cavity, such as, for example, a radar cavity or a microwave waveguide. In this case, the correct way to
find the zero-point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the standing waves of the cavity. To each and
every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the nth standing wave is . The
vacuum expectation value of the energy of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then

with the sum running over all possible values of n enumerating the standing waves. The factor of 1/2 is
present because the zero-point energy of the n'th mode is , where is the energy increment for the
n'th mode. (It is the same 1/2 as appears in the equation .) Written in this way, this sum is clearly
divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions.

In particular, one may ask how the zero-point energy depends on the shape s of the cavity. Each energy level
depends on the shape, and so one should write for the energy level, and for the vacuum
expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: the force at point p on the wall of the cavity
is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape s of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by , at
point p. That is, one has

This value is finite in many practical calculations.[21]

Attraction between the plates can be easily understood by focusing on the one-dimensional situation.
Suppose that a moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance a from one of two widely
separated plates (distance L apart). With a << L, the states within the slot of width a are highly constrained
so that the energy E of any one mode is widely separated from that of the next. This is not the case in the
large region L, where there is a large number (numbering about L / a) of states with energy evenly spaced
between E and the next mode in the narrow slot – in other words, all slightly larger than E. Now on
shortening a by da (< 0), the mode in the narrow slot shrinks in wavelength and therefore increases in
energy proportional to −da/a, whereas all the L /a states that lie in the large region lengthen and
correspondingly decrease their energy by an amount proportional to da/L (note the denominator). The two
effects nearly cancel, but the net change is slightly negative, because the energy of all the L/a modes in the
large region are slightly larger than the single mode in the slot. Thus the force is attractive: it tends to make a
slightly smaller, the plates attracting each other across the thin slot.
Derivation of Casimir effect assuming zeta-regularization
See Wikiversity for an elementary calculation in one dimension.

In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal
plates at distance apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, because the
transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on
the surface of a conductor. Assuming the plates lie parallel to the xy-plane, the standing waves are

where stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the polarization and
the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, and are the wave numbers in directions parallel to
the plates, and

is the wave-number perpendicular to the plates. Here, n is an integer, resulting from the requirement that ψ
vanish on the metal plates. The frequency of this wave is

where c is the speed of light. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes. Since
the area of the plates is large, we may sum by integrating over two of the dimensions in k-space. The
assumption of periodic boundary conditions yields,

where A is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of
the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce
a regulator (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in
the end will be removed. The zeta-regulated version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is
In the end, the limit is to be taken. Here s is just a complex number, not to be confused with the
shape discussed previously. This integral/sum is finite for s real and larger than 3. The sum has a pole at s=3,
but may be analytically continued to s=0, where the expression is finite. The above expression simplifies to:

where polar coordinates were introduced to turn the double integral into a single integral. The
in front is the Jacobian, and the comes from the angular integration. The integral converges if Re[s] >
3, resulting in

The sum diverges at s in the neighborhood of zero, but if the damping of large-frequency excitations
corresponding to analytic continuation of the Riemann zeta function to s=0 is assumed to make sense
physically in some way, then one has

But

and so one obtains

The analytic continuation has evidently lost an additive positive infinity, somehow exactly accounting for
the zero-point energy (not included above) outside the slot between the plates, but which changes upon plate
movement within a closed system. The Casimir force per unit area for idealized, perfectly conducting
plates with vacuum between them is
where

(hbar, ħ) is the reduced Planck constant,

is the speed of light,
is the distance between the two plates

The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the
energy is lowered. The presence of shows that the Casimir force per unit area is very small, and that
furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin.

NOTE: In Casimir's original derivation [1] ([Link] a

moveable conductive plate is positioned at a short distance a from one of two widely separated plates
(distance L apart). The 0-point energy on both sides of the plate is considered. Instead of the above ad hoc
analytic continuation assumption, non-convergent sums and integrals are computed using Euler–Maclaurin
summation with a regularizing function (e.g., exponential regularization) not so anomalous as in the
above. [22]

More recent theory

Casimir's analysis of idealized metal plates was generalized to arbitrary dielectric and realistic metal plates
by Lifshitz and his students.[23][24] Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the
modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity, can be calculated numerically using the
tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. Lifshitz's theory for two metal plates
reduces to Casimir's idealized 1/a4 force law for large separations a much greater than the skin depth of the
metal, and conversely reduces to the 1/a3 force law of the London dispersion force (with a coefficient called
a Hamaker constant) for small a, with a more complicated dependence on a for intermediate separations
determined by the dispersion of the materials.[25]

Lifshitz' result was subsequently generalized to arbitrary multilayer planar geometries as well as to
anisotropic and magnetic materials, but for several decades the calculation of Casimir forces for non-planar
geometries remained limited to a few idealized cases admitting analytical solutions.[26] For example, the
force in the experimental sphere–plate geometry was computed with an approximation (due to Derjaguin)
that the sphere radius R is much larger than the separation a, in which case the nearby surfaces are nearly
parallel and the parallel-plate result can be adapted to obtain an approximate R/a3 force (neglecting both
skin-depth and higher-order curvature effects).[26][27] However, in the 2000s a number of authors developed
and demonstrated a variety of numerical techniques, in many cases adapted from classical computational
electromagnetics, that are capable of accurately calculating Casimir forces for arbitrary geometries and
materials, from simple finite-size effects of finite plates to more complicated phenomena arising for
patterned surfaces or objects of various shapes.[26][28]

Measurement
One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Sparnaay at Philips in Eindhoven
(Netherlands), in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment with parallel plates, obtaining results not in
contradiction with the Casimir theory,[29][30] but with large experimental errors. Some of the experimental
details as well as some background information on how Casimir, Polder and Sparnaay arrived at this
point[31] are highlighted in a 2007 interview with Marcus Sparnaay.

The Casimir effect was measured more accurately in 1997 by Steve K. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos National
Laboratory,[13] and by Umar Mohideen and Anushree Roy of the University of California, Riverside.[32] In
practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to
ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a sphere
with a large radius.

In 2001, a group (Giacomo Bressi, Gianni Carugno, Roberto Onofrio and Giuseppe Ruoso) at the University
of Padua (Italy) finally succeeded in measuring the Casimir force between parallel plates using
microresonators.[33]

Regularization
In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a regulator in the
summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily
manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator.

The heat kernel or exponentially regulated sum is

where the limit is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as

for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant C which does
not depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-
dependent. The Gaussian regulator

is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, but is more difficult
to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The zeta function
regulator
is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular,
divergences show up as poles in the complex s plane, with the bulk divergence at s=4. This sum may be
analytically continued past this pole, to obtain a finite part at s=0.

Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at s=0) or shape-
independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into
account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the plasma frequency), metals become
transparent to photons (such as X-rays), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This
frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in solid state physics,
mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the cutoff frequency comes into explicit play to
keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in Landau and Lifshitz, "Theory of Continuous
Media".)

Generalities
The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of functional integrals of
quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to
comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the
formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a
certain sense summations over so-called "virtual particles".

More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally
understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such
as the van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one
considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in
configuration space. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can
be understood to result in forces acting between the objects.

In the chiral bag model of the nucleon, the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of
the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the spectral asymmetry is interpreted as a non-zero
vacuum expectation value of the baryon number, cancelling the topological winding number of the pion
field surrounding the nucleon.

A "pseudo-Casimir" effect can be found in liquid crystal systems, where the boundary conditions imposed
through anchoring by rigid walls give rise to a long-range force, analogous to the force that arises between
conducting plates.[34]

Dynamical Casimir effect

The dynamical Casimir effect is the production of particles and energy from an accelerated moving mirror.
This reaction was predicted by certain numerical solutions to quantum mechanics equations made in the
1970s.[35] In May 2011 an announcement was made by researchers at the Chalmers University of
Technology, in Gothenburg, Sweden, of the detection of the dynamical Casimir effect. In their experiment,
microwave photons were generated out of the vacuum in a superconducting microwave resonator. These
researchers used a modified SQUID to change the effective length of the resonator in time, mimicking a
mirror moving at the required relativistic velocity. If confirmed this would be the first experimental
verification of the dynamical Casimir effect.[36] [37]

Analogies
A similar analysis can be used to explain Hawking radiation that causes the slow "evaporation" of black
holes (although this is generally visualized as the escape of one particle from a virtual particle-antiparticle
pair, the other particle having been captured by the black hole).[38]

Constructed within the framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime, the dynamical Casimir
effect has been used to better understand acceleration radiation such as the Unruh effect.

Repulsive forces
There are few instances wherein the Casimir effect can give rise to repulsive forces between uncharged
objects. Evgeny Lifshitz showed (theoretically) that in certain circumstances (most commonly involving
liquids), repulsive forces can arise.[39] This has sparked interest in applications of the Casimir effect toward
the development of levitating devices. An experimental demonstration of the Casimir-based repulsion
predicted by Lifshitz was carried out by Munday et al.[40] who described it as "quantum levitation". Other
scientists have also suggested the use of gain media to achieve a similar levitation effect,[41] though this is
controversial because these materials seem to violate fundamental causality constraints and the requirement
of thermodynamic equilibrium (Kramers–Kronig relations). Casimir and Casimir-Polder repulsion can in
fact occur for sufficiently anisotropic electrical bodies; for a review of the issues involved with repulsion see
Milton et al.[42] More on tunable repulsive Casimir effect.[43]

Applications
It has been suggested that the Casimir forces have application in nanotechnology,[44] in particular silicon
integrated circuit technology based micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, and so-called Casimir
oscillators.[45]

The Casimir effect shows that quantum field theory allows the energy density in certain regions of space to
be negative relative to the ordinary vacuum energy, and it has been shown theoretically that quantum field
theory allows states where the energy can be arbitrarily negative at a given point.[46] Many physicists such
as Stephen Hawking,[47] Kip Thorne,[48] and others[49][50][51] therefore argue that such effects might make it
possible to stabilize a traversable wormhole.

On 4 June 2013 it was reported[52] that a conglomerate of scientists from Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, University of Florida, Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Oak
Ridge National Laboratory have for the first time demonstrated a compact integrated silicon chip that can
measure the Casimir force.[53]

See also
Casimir pressure
Negative energy
Scharnhorst effect
Van der Waals force
Squeezed vacuum

References
1. E. L. Losada" Functional Approach to the Fermionic Casimir Effect ([Link]
r/workshops/silafae/data/[Link]) Archived ([Link]
 p://[Link]/workshops/silafae/data/[Link]) 31 May 2011 at the Wayback
Machine"
2. Michael Bordag; Galina Leonidovna Klimchitskaya; Umar Mohideen (2009). "Chapter I; § 3:
Field quantization and vacuum energy in the presence of boundaries" ([Link]
m/books?id=CqE1f_s5PgYC&pg=PA33). Advances in the Casimir effect. Oxford University
Press. pp. 33 ff. ISBN 978-0-19-923874-3. Reviewed in Lamoreaux, Steve K. (2010).
"Advances in the Casimir Effect Advances in the Casimir Effect , M. Bordag , G. L.
Klimchitskaya , U. Mohideen , and V. M. Mostepanenko Oxford U. Press, New York, 2009.
$150.00 (749 pp.). ISBN 978-0-19-923874-3". Physics Today. 63 (8): 50–51.
Bibcode:2010PhT....63h..50B ([Link]
doi:10.1063/1.3480079 ([Link]
3. Griffiths, D. J.; Ho, E. (2001). "Classical Casimir effect for beads on a string". American Journal
of Physics. 69 (11): 1173. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69.1173G ([Link]
2001AmJPh..69.1173G). doi:10.1119/1.1396620 ([Link]
4. Cooke, J. H. (1998). "Casimir force on a loaded string". American Journal of Physics. 66 (7):
569–572. Bibcode:1998AmJPh..66..569C ([Link]
569C). doi:10.1119/1.18907 ([Link]
5. Denardo, B. C.; Puda, J. J.; Larraza, A. S. (2009). "A water wave analog of the Casimir effect"
([Link] American Journal of Physics. 77 (12): 1095.
Bibcode:2009AmJPh..77.1095D ([Link]
doi:10.1119/1.3211416 ([Link]
6. Larraza, A. S.; Denardo, B. (1998). "An acoustic Casimir effect". Physics Letters A. 248 (2–4):
151. Bibcode:1998PhLA..248..151L ([Link]
doi:10.1016/S0375-9601(98)00652-5 ([Link]
2-5).
7. Astrid Lambrecht, Serge Reynaud and Cyriaque Genet (2007) "Casimir In The Nanoworld (htt
p://[Link]/~cewqo2007/Archive/presentations/[Link])" Archived ([Link]
[Link]/web/20091122143950/[Link]
[Link]) 22 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine
8. Genet, C.; Intravaia, F.; Lambrecht, A.; Reynaud, S. (2004). "Electromagnetic vacuum
fluctuations, Casimir and Van der Waals forces" ([Link]
f) (PDF). Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie. 29 (1–2): 311–328. arXiv:quant-
ph/0302072 ([Link] Bibcode:[Link]..2072G ([Link]
[Link]/abs/[Link]..2072G).
9. The Force of Empty Space ([Link] Physical Review Focus, 3
December 1998
10. Lambrecht, A. (1 September 2002). "The Casimir effect: a force from nothing" ([Link]
[Link]/a/the-casimir-effect-a-force-from-nothing/). Physics World. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
11. American Institute of Physics News Note 1996 ([Link]
m)
12. Jaffe, R. (2005). "Casimir effect and the quantum vacuum". Physical Review D. 72 (2): 021301.
arXiv:hep-th/0503158 ([Link] Bibcode:2005PhRvD..72b1301J
([Link] doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.021301
([Link]
13. Lamoreaux, S. K. (1997). "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 μm Range" (http
s://[Link]/paper/d3aa03f8bf9f202317dafece681458789da2f718). Physical
Review Letters. 78 (1): 5–8. Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78....5L ([Link]
997PhRvL..78....5L). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5 ([Link]
8.5).
14. Du, Z. Z.; Liu, H. M.; Xie, Y. L.; Wang, Q. H.; Liu, J.-M. (7 December 2015). "Spin Casimir
effect in noncollinear quantum antiferromagnets: Torque equilibrium spin wave approach".
Physical Review B. 92 (21): 214409. arXiv:1506.05211 ([Link]
Bibcode:2015arXiv150605211D ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.92.214409 ([Link]
ISSN 1098-0121 ([Link]
15. SE Rugh, H Zinkernagel; Zinkernagel (2002). "The quantum vacuum and the cosmological
constant problem" ([Link] Studies in History and Philosophy of
Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics. 33 (4): 663–705.
arXiv:hep-th/0012253 ([Link] Bibcode:2002SHPMP..33..663R
([Link] doi:10.1016/S1355-
2198(02)00033-3 ([Link]
16. Bianchi, Eugenio; Rovelli, Carlo (2010). "Why all these prejudices against a constant?".
arXiv:1002.3966 ([Link] [[Link] ([Link]
[Link])].
17. [Link] (2005). "The Casimir Effect and the Quantum Vacuum". Physical Review D. 72 (2):
021301. arXiv:hep-th/0503158 ([Link]
Bibcode:2005PhRvD..72b1301J ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.021301 ([Link]
18. Schwinger, Julian; DeRaad, Lester L.; Milton, Kimball A. (1978). "Casimir effect in dielectrics".
Annals of Physics. 115 (1): 1–23. Bibcode:1978AnPhy.115....1S ([Link]
abs/1978AnPhy.115....1S). doi:10.1016/0003-4916(78)90172-0 ([Link]
03-4916%2878%2990172-0).
19. Nikolić, Hrvoje (10 October 2016). "Proof that Casimir force does not originate from vacuum
energy". Physics Letters B. 761: 197–202. arXiv:1605.04143
([Link] Bibcode:2016PhLB..761..197N ([Link]
du/abs/2016PhLB..761..197N). doi:10.1016/[Link].2016.08.036 ([Link]
[Link].2016.08.036).
20. Nikolić, Hrvoje (August 2017). "Is zero-point energy physical? A toy model for Casimir-like
effect". Annals of Physics. 383: 181–195. arXiv:1702.03291 ([Link]
Bibcode:2017AnPhy.383..181N ([Link]
doi:10.1016/[Link].2017.05.013 ([Link]
21. For a brief summary, see the introduction in Passante, R.; Spagnolo, S. (2007). "Casimir-
Polder interatomic potential between two atoms at finite temperature and in the presence of
boundary conditions". Physical Review A. 76 (4): 042112. arXiv:0708.2240 ([Link]
s/0708.2240). Bibcode:2007PhRvA..76d2112P ([Link]
A..76d2112P). doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.76.042112 ([Link]
2112).
22. Ruggiero, Zimerman; Villani (1977). "Application of Analytic Regularization to the Casimir
Forces" ([Link] (PDF). Revista Brasileira de
Física. 7 (3).
23. Dzyaloshinskii, I E; Lifshitz, E M; Pitaevskii, Lev P (1961). "General Theory of van der Waals'
Forces". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 4 (2): 153. Bibcode:1961SvPhU...4..153D ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1961SvPhU...4..153D). doi:10.1070/PU1961v004n02ABEH003330 ([Link]
[Link]/10.1070%2FPU1961v004n02ABEH003330).
24. Dzyaloshinskii, I E; Kats, E I (2004). "Casimir forces in modulated systems". Journal of
Physics: Condensed Matter. 16 (32): 5659. arXiv:cond-mat/0408348 ([Link]
-mat/0408348). Bibcode:2004JPCM...16.5659D ([Link]
M...16.5659D). doi:10.1088/0953-8984/16/32/003 ([Link]
6%2F32%2F003).
25. V. A. Parsegian, Van der Waals Forces: A Handbook for Biologists, Chemists, Engineers, and
Physicists (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
26. Rodriguez, A. W.; Capasso, F.; Johnson, Steven G. (2011). "The Casimir effect in
microstructured geometries". Nature Photonics. 5 (4): 211–221. Bibcode:2011NaPho...5..211R
([Link] doi:10.1038/nphoton.2011.39 (http
s://[Link]/10.1038%2Fnphoton.2011.39). Review article.
27. B. V. Derjaguin, I. I. Abrikosova, and E. M. Lifshitz, Quarterly Reviews, Chemical Society, vol.
10, 295–329 (1956).
28. Reid, M. T. H.; White, J.; Johnson, S. G. (2011). "Computation of Casimir interactions between
arbitrary three-dimensional objects with arbitrary material properties". Physical Review A. 84
(1): 010503(R). arXiv:1010.5539 ([Link]
Bibcode:2011PhRvA..84a0503R ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.84.010503 ([Link]
29. Sparnaay, M. J. (1957). "Attractive Forces between Flat Plates". Nature. 180 (4581): 334–335.
Bibcode:1957Natur.180..334S ([Link]
doi:10.1038/180334b0 ([Link]
30. Sparnaay, M (1958). "Measurements of attractive forces between flat plates". Physica. 24 (6–
10): 751–764. Bibcode:1958Phy....24..751S ([Link]
751S). doi:10.1016/S0031-8914(58)80090-7 ([Link]
2980090-7).
31. Movie ([Link]
32. Mohideen, U.; Roy, Anushree (1998). "Precision Measurement of the Casimir Force from 0.1 to
0.9 µm". Physical Review Letters. 81 (21): 4549–4552. arXiv:physics/9805038 ([Link]
g/abs/physics/9805038). Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.4549M ([Link]
998PhRvL..81.4549M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.4549 ([Link]
vLett.81.4549).
33. Bressi, G.; Carugno, G.; Onofrio, R.; Ruoso, G. (2002). "Measurement of the Casimir Force
between Parallel Metallic Surfaces". Physical Review Letters. 88 (4): 041804. arXiv:quant-
ph/0203002 ([Link] Bibcode:2002PhRvL..88d1804B (https://
[Link]/abs/2002PhRvL..88d1804B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.041804 (http
s://[Link]/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.88.041804). PMID 11801108 ([Link]
[Link]/11801108).
34. Ajdari, A.; Duplantier, B.; Hone, D.; Peliti, L.; Prost, J. (March 1992). " "Pseudo-Casimir" effect
in liquid crystals" ([Link]
51c04). Journal de Physique II. 2 (3): 487–501. Bibcode:1992JPhy2...2..487A ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1992JPhy2...2..487A). doi:10.1051/jp2:1992145 ([Link]
Fjp2%3A1992145).
35. Fulling, S. A.; Davies, P. C. W. (1976). "Radiation from a Moving Mirror in Two Dimensional
Space-Time: Conformal Anomaly". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 348 (1654): 393.
Bibcode:1976RSPSA.348..393F ([Link]
doi:10.1098/rspa.1976.0045 ([Link]
36. "First Observation of the Dynamical Casimir Effect" ([Link]
v/26813/). Technology Review.
37. Wilson, C. M.; Johansson, G.; Pourkabirian, A.; Simoen, M.; Johansson, J. R.; Duty, T.; Nori,
F.; Delsing, P. (2011). "Observation of the Dynamical Casimir Effect in a Superconducting
Circuit". Nature. 479 (7373): 376–379. arXiv:1105.4714 ([Link]
Bibcode:2011Natur.479..376W ([Link]
doi:10.1038/nature10561 ([Link] PMID 22094697 ([Link]
[Link]/22094697).
38. Sundermier, Ali (15 August 2016). "Evidence of Stephen Hawking's famous prediction about
black holes was just observed for the first time" ([Link]
ings-prediction-about-black-holes-was-just-observed-for-the-first-time-2016-8). Business
Insider. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
39. Dzyaloshinskii, I.E.; Lifshitz, E.M.; Pitaevskii, L.P. (1961). "The general theory of van der Waals
forces†". Advances in Physics. 10 (38): 165. Bibcode:1961AdPhy..10..165D ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1961AdPhy..10..165D). doi:10.1080/00018736100101281 ([Link]
080%2F00018736100101281).
40. Munday, J.N.; Capasso, F.; Parsegian, V.A. (2009). "Measured long-range repulsive Casimir-
Lifshitz forces" ([Link] Nature. 457 (7226):
170–3. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..170M ([Link]
M). doi:10.1038/nature07610 ([Link] PMC 4169270 (https://
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC4169270). PMID 19129843 ([Link]
[Link]/19129843).
41. Highfield, Roger (6 August 2007). "Physicists have 'solved' mystery of levitation" ([Link]
[Link]/news/1559579/Physicists-have-%27solved%[Link]). The
Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
42. Milton, K. A.; Abalo, E. K.; Parashar, Prachi; Pourtolami, Nima; Brevik, Iver; Ellingsen, Simen
A. (2012). "Repulsive Casimir and Casimir-Polder Forces". J. Phys. A. 45 (37): 4006.
arXiv:1202.6415 ([Link] Bibcode:2012JPhA...45K4006M ([Link]
[Link]/abs/2012JPhA...45K4006M). doi:10.1088/1751-8113/45/37/374006 (https://
[Link]/10.1088%2F1751-8113%2F45%2F37%2F374006).
43. Jiang, Qing-Dong; Wilczek, Frank (4 March 2019). "Chiral Casimir forces: Repulsive,
enhanced, tunable". Physical Review B. 99 (12): 125403. arXiv:1805.07994 ([Link]
bs/1805.07994). Bibcode:2019PhRvB..99l5403J ([Link]
B..99l5403J). doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.99.125403 ([Link]
403).
44. Capasso, F.; Munday, J.N.; Iannuzzi, D.; Chan, H.B. (2007). "Casimir forces and quantum
electrodynamical torques: physics and nanomechanics". IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in
Quantum Electronics. 13 (2): 400. Bibcode:2007IJSTQ..13..400C ([Link]
u/abs/2007IJSTQ..13..400C). doi:10.1109/JSTQE.2007.893082 ([Link]
TQE.2007.893082).
45. Serry, F.M.; Walliser, D.; MacLay, G.J. (1995). "The anharmonic Casimir oscillator (ACO)-the
Casimir effect in a model microelectromechanical system" ([Link]
[Link]) (PDF). Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems. 4 (4): 193.
doi:10.1109/84.475546 ([Link]
46. Everett, Allen; Roman, Thomas (2012). Time Travel and Warp Drives ([Link]
s/isbn_9780226224985/page/167). University of Chicago Press. p. 167 ([Link]
ails/isbn_9780226224985/page/167). ISBN 978-0-226-22498-5.
47. "Space and Time Warps" ([Link]
[Link]. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
48. Morris, Michael; Thorne, Kip; Yurtsever, Ulvi (1988). "Wormholes, Time Machines, and the
Weak Energy Condition" ([Link] (PDF).
Physical Review Letters. 61 (13): 1446–1449. Bibcode:1988PhRvL..61.1446M ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1988PhRvL..61.1446M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.61.1446 ([Link]
0.1103%2FPhysRevLett.61.1446). PMID 10038800 ([Link]
0).
49. Sopova; Ford (2002). "The Energy Density in the Casimir Effect". Physical Review D. 66 (4):
045026. arXiv:quant-ph/0204125 ([Link]
Bibcode:2002PhRvD..66d5026S ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.66.045026 ([Link]
50. Ford; Roman (1995). "Averaged Energy Conditions and Quantum Inequalities". Physical
Review D. 51 (8): 4277–4286. arXiv:gr-qc/9410043 ([Link]
Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.4277F ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.51.4277 ([Link]
PMID 10018903 ([Link]
51. Olum (1998). "Superluminal travel requires negative energies". Physical Review Letters. 81
(17): 3567–3570. arXiv:gr-qc/9805003 ([Link]
Bibcode:1998PhRvL..81.3567O ([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3567 ([Link]
52. "Chip harnesses mysterious Casimir effect force" ([Link]
7/[Link] 4
June 2013. Archived from the original ([Link]
us_casimir_effect_force-113394) on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
53. Zao, J.; Marcet, Z.; Rodriguez, A. W.; Reid, M. T. H.; McCauley, A. P.; Kravchenko, I. I.; Lu, T.;
Bao, Y.; Johnson, S. G.; Chan, H. B.; et al. (14 May 2013). "Casimir forces on a silicon
micromechanical chip". Nature Communications. 4: 1845. arXiv:1207.6163 ([Link]
s/1207.6163). Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1845Z ([Link]
4.1845Z). doi:10.1038/ncomms2842 ([Link]
PMID 23673630 ([Link]

Further reading

Introductory readings
Casimir effect description ([Link] from
University of California, Riverside's version of the Usenet physics FAQ ([Link]
me/baez/physics/[Link]).
A. Lambrecht, The Casimir effect: a force from nothing ([Link]
effect-a-force-from-nothing/), Physics World, September 2002.
NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: Casimir effect (17 December 2006) ([Link]
v/apod/[Link])
Simpson, W. M. R; Leonhardt, U. (2015). Forces of the Quantum Vacuum: An introduction to
Casimir physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4632-90-4.

Papers, books and lectures

Casimir, H. B. G.; Polder, D. (1948). "The Influence of Retardation on the London-van der
Waals Forces". Physical Review. 73 (4): 360–372. Bibcode:1948PhRv...73..360C ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1948PhRv...73..360C). doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.360 ([Link]
103%2FPhysRev.73.360).
Casimir, H. B. G. (1948). "On the attraction between two perfectly conducting plates" ([Link]
[Link]/DL/publications/[Link]) (PDF). Proceedings of the Koninklijke
Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen. B51: 793–795.
Lamoreaux, S. K. (1997). "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 μm Range" (http
s://[Link]/paper/d3aa03f8bf9f202317dafece681458789da2f718). Physical
Review Letters. 78 (1): 5–8. Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78....5L ([Link]
997PhRvL..78....5L). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.5 ([Link]
8.5).
Bordag, M.; Mohideen, U.; Mostepanenko, V. M. (October 2001). "New developments in the
Casimir effect". Physics Reports. 353 (1–3): 1–205. arXiv:quant-ph/0106045 ([Link]
bs/quant-ph/0106045). Bibcode:2001PhR...353....1B ([Link]
hR...353....1B). doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(01)00015-1 ([Link]
3%2801%2900015-1).
Milton, K. A. (2001). The Casimir Effect: Physical Manifestations of Zero-point Energy ([Link]
[Link]/details/casimireffectphy0000milt) (Reprint ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-
 4397-5.
Dalvit, Diego; Milonni, Peter; Roberts, David; Da Rosa, Felipe (2011). Dalvit, Diego; Milonni,
Peter W.; Roberts, David; da Rosa, Felipe (eds.). Casimir Physics ([Link]
books?id=eqQRBwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=falseref=harv). Lecture
Notes in Physics. 834. arXiv:1007.0966 ([Link]
Bibcode:2011LNP...834.....D ([Link]
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-20288-9 ([Link] ISBN 978-3-
642-20287-2. ISSN 0075-8450 ([Link] OCLC 844922239
([Link]
Bressi, G.; Carugno, G.; Onofrio, R.; Ruoso, G. (2002). "Measurement of the Casimir Force
between Parallel Metallic Surfaces". Physical Review Letters. 88 (4): 041804. arXiv:quant-
ph/0203002 ([Link] Bibcode:2002PhRvL..88d1804B (https://
[Link]/abs/2002PhRvL..88d1804B). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.041804 (http
s://[Link]/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.88.041804). PMID 11801108 ([Link]
[Link]/11801108).
Kenneth, O.; Klich, I.; Mann, A.; Revzen, M. (2002). "Repulsive Casimir Forces". Physical
Review Letters. 89 (3): 033001. arXiv:quant-ph/0202114 ([Link]
4). Bibcode:2002PhRvL..89c3001K
([Link]
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.033001 ([Link]
PMID 12144387 ([Link]
Barrow, J. D. (2005). "Much Ado About Nothing" ([Link]
8/[Link] Lecture at Gresham College.
Archived from the original ([Link] on
30 September 2007. (Includes discussion of French naval analogy.)
Barrow, J. D. (2000). The Book of Nothing: Vacuums, Voids, and the Latest Ideas About the
Origins of the Universe ([Link] Pantheon
Books. ISBN 978-0-09-928845-9. (Also includes discussion of French naval analogy.)
Downling, J. P. (1989). "The Mathematics of the Casimir Effect". Mathematics Magazine. 62
(5): 324–331. doi:10.1080/0025570X.1989.11977464 ([Link]
989.11977464).
Patent No. PCT/RU2011/000847 Author Urmatskih.

Temperature dependence
Measurements Recast Usual View of Elusive Force ([Link]
006/[Link] from NIST
Nesterenko, V. V.; Lambiase, G.; Scarpetta, G. (2005). "Calculation of the Casimir energy at
zero and finite temperature: Some recent results". Rivista del Nuovo Cimento. 27 (6): 1–74.
arXiv:hep-th/0503100 ([Link] Bibcode:2004NCimR..27f...1N (ht
tps://[Link]/abs/2004NCimR..27f...1N). doi:10.1393/ncr/i2005-10002-2 (https://
[Link]/10.1393%2Fncr%2Fi2005-10002-2).

External links
Casimir effect article search ([Link]
1) on [Link]
G. Lang, The Casimir Force ([Link]
[Link]/[Link]) web site, 2002
J. Babb, bibliography on the Casimir Effect ([Link]
l) web site, 2009
Retrieved from "[Link]

This page was last edited on 26 April 2020, at 20:42 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.