The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-2525-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Projection welding of nuts involving the use of electromechanical

and pneumatic electrode force
Zygmunt Mikno 1

Received: 14 April 2018 / Accepted: 30 July 2018

# The Author(s) 2018

Abstract
The projection welding of nuts performed using the pneumatic (electrode) force system (PFS) was subjected to thorough
numerical and experimental analysis, enabling the identification of the window of welding parameters taking into consideration
boundary conditions including expulsion, torsional strength and the deformation of the nut thread. The welding process was
subjected to optimisation involving the use of a new, i.e. electromechanical (electrode) force system (EFS). The optimisation-
related approach involved the reduction of welding current and the extension of a welding current flow time in comparison with
those obtained when using the pneumatic force system. It was assumed that the acceptance criterion would be the breaking torque
not lower than that obtained under the most favourable welding conditions performed using the PFS. The research work involved
comparative numerical calculations (performed using the SORPAS software) in relation to both, i.e. the PFS and EFS. The
technological welding tests were performed using inverter welding machines (1 kHz) provided with various (electrode) force
systems. The research work also included metallographic tests, hardness measurements and torsional strength tests. As a result of
the application of EFS and a special innovative hybrid algorithm for controlling the electrode clamps, a wider and higher weld
core was obtained. The depth of “penetration” into the sheet was greater. As a result, the welded joint has a higher resistance (by
30%). Technological welding tests for the new EFS system were carried out for a 25% lower welding current compared with PFS.
Despite the lower welding current for EFS, the welding energy is slightly lower but the welding quality for EPS is significantly
higher.

Keywords FEM . Electromechanical force system . Resistance welding . Projection welding

1 Introduction welding, (iv) initial impact of electrodes, (v) insufficient dy-

namics of the force system, (vi) risk of expulsion and (vii) lack
Technologically advanced car bodies contain approximately of ability to modulate the electrode pressure force during the
300 welded and clamped fasteners, e.g. bolts, nuts and pins, to current flow. The foregoing disadvantages lead to deteriorated
which key safety features including seat belts, steering col- quality.
umns or the earthing of electric circuits are fastened [1]. The The above-named disadvantages could be primarily linked
quality of welded joints is of critical importance as regards the to the use of the pneumatic force system (PFS), characterised
safety and reliability of end products. by significant mechanical inertia and the impossibility to con-
However, the projection welding of nuts is characterised by trol force, particularly during the welding current flow [2].
numerous disadvantages and limitations, including (i) narrow The process of welding is also significantly affected by the
window of welding parameters, (ii) lack of repeatability, (iii) areas of projections during welding [3] and, in particular, the
sensitivity to the lack of tolerance in relation to the height of stability of welding power density in relation to the present
the projection and the hardness of the material subjected to area of contact between elements being welded [4].
A characteristic of projection welding, for PFS, is the fact
that the joint is obtained in the solid state. The foregoing
* Zygmunt Mikno
zygmunt.mikno@is.gliwice.pl
results from the fact that the molten material is pushed outside
the welding area by excessive electrode force. This, in turn,
1
Welding Institute from Poland, Bl. Czeslawa 16-18, leads to a significant increase in the area of contact between
44-100 Gliwice, Poland materials being welded (nut projection and sheet) and a rapid
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

decrease in current density. As a result, the melting of the 2 Methodology of numerical

material is significantly restricted (nearly stopped) as early and experimental tests
as at the initial stage of current flow. The zone of the molten
material, if any, is extremely narrow. The process of the projection welding of nuts involving the
An alternative solution could involve the use of the elec- use of the PFS was subjected to thorough numerical and ex-
tromechanical force system (EFS). The authors emphasise the perimental analysis. Afterwards, the process was optimised by
growing popularity of such an electrode force system [5], the involving the EFS. The adopted optimisation approach in-
possibility of extending the window of technological param- volved the reduction of welding current and the extension of
eters [6], the possibility of adjusting the force of electrode [7, its flow time. It was assumed that the acceptance criterion
8], the extended service life of electrodes [9] and the possibil- would be a torque (MB) not lower than that obtained in relation
ity of eliminating the dynamic impact of electrodes against the to the most favourable conditions of welding performed using
material being welded (during the initial squeeze) [10, 11]. the PFS.
Work [11] enumerates other advantages related to the use of The nut used in the tests is presented in Fig. 1. The dimen-
the EFS such as (i) faster handling of a servo welding gun in sions of the nut are detailed in Table 1.
the operating space, (ii) higher electrode force repeatability,
(iii) reduced noise, (iv) shorter welding time and (v) smaller 2.1 FEM calculations
movement (displacement) when closing and opening elec-
trodes, extending the service life of welding machine The numerical calculations were performed using the
mechanisms. SORPAS software, i.e. the 2D and 3D models, respectively
However, the application only of the EFS is insuffi- [18, 19]. The SORPAS software is dedicated to the process of
cient. The essence of the improvement of the resistance resistance welding and enables the performance of conjugated
welding process is the possibility of changing force dur- electric, thermo-metallurgical and mechanical calculations.
ing the welding process, especially during the current The SORPAS software makes it possible to implement an
flow. Improving the weld quality by applying a variable electrode displacement control algorithm, i.e. one of algo-
force is described in [12–15]. This control method can be rithms related to the control of a servomotor applied in the
called control according to the force control algorithm. EFS used in the experimental tests [20].
The control method for EFS is better than that for PFS.
However, it is characterised by a delay in obtaining a 2.2 Numerical model
preset force value by approximately 50–70 ms. This delay
depends on the type of servo motor and mechanical The numerical model concerned with the welding of a nut to
transmission. the sheet is presented in Fig. 2 Process-related calculations
There is another, more effective, method of controlling the were performed using both the 2D and the 3D model. The
pressure force of the electrodes, i.e. controlling the movement 2D model was used as only this model featured certain func-
of the electrodes. The delay mentioned above, in this case, is tions important in terms of performed analysis, e.g. power
very small (about 1 ms), and this is a very important advantage density distribution.
of the new control method. The authors of the publication [16, The software programme enables the performance of relat-
17] applied EFS and a special hybrid algorithm of control ed analyses, including coupled electro-thermo-mechanical-
according to the movement of electrode. The authors describe metallurgical analyses. The above-named software features a
a new control system and the results of its operation, particu- module including the effect of a new force and a precise elec-
larly visible in projection welding. This is an innovative ap- trode movement solution, i.e. based on the EFS.
proach to controlling the electrode movement. In the available The 3D model was composed of 4379 eight-node
literature no information about a similar solution was hexahedral and six-node prismatic elements. Mentioned
encountered. above elements provide three degrees of freedom (DOF) in
The aim of the new solution is to improve the quality of each node for the velocity components of plastic flow in the
welded joints, in particular to projection welding. The new mechanical model and one DOF for modelling the scalar
control method of electrode, described for projection welding, fields of temperature and one DOF for electrical potential.
significantly changes the usual views in terms of resistance The solution was performed using explicit time integration
welding and significantly influences the development of re- scheme [21].
search in this field. The numerical calculations involved the analysis of (i)
The article is part of the research in which the welding waveforms of dynamic resistance and momentary power, (ii)
process is analysed for the use of a variable force during the energy supplied to the weld, (iii) width, height and volume of
current flow. The new control method is implemented by the molten weld nugget, (iv) displacement of electrodes and
means of EFS and a special hybrid algorithm. (v) expulsion. The primary objective was to determine the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 1 Nut with three full

projections: a nut and b scheme
with designated dimensions
(Table 1)

most favourable space distribution of welding power enabling The FEM calculations involved the adoption of material
the obtainment of the desirable weld nugget shape including data from the (SORPAS) software database [18, 19]:
deeper penetration in the sheet and a greater width of the weld.
The beginning of the welding process (current flow) was of i) Nut: AISI 1017IW.Nr.1.0037 (Hr): C0.20Mn0.6: solidus,
particular importance as regards the achievement of the as- 1500 °C; liquidus, 1510 °C (Table 4)
sumed goals. ii) Sheet: HSLA 420-SAE J2340 420X-420LAD: solidus,
Figure 2, showing the numerical model (3D), presents 1500 °C; liquidus, 1510 °C (Table 5)
mesh nodes (431, 415, 403) used in the analysis of the wave- iii) Electrode: grade A3-1 (Table 6)
forms of characteristic quantities (temperature and current
density).
The SORPAS software parameters adopted in the numeri-
cal calculations are presented in Table 2. 2.4 Experimental tests

2.3 Process parameters The technological welding tests involved the making of a nut-
sheet welded joint, frequently used when joining car body
Based on the present recommendations and guidelines elements. Nut M10 × 22 × 10 (SAE 1015) with three symmet-
concerning the projection welding of nuts, the following range rically arranged projections (total base of projections
of welding parameters was adopted in relation to: amounted to 65 mm2) was welded to 2.5 mm-thick sheet made
of DKP-S550MC-O (PN-EN-10149-2) (without protective
I) PFS [22–24]: (i) current I = 16.0 ÷ 20.0 kA, (ii) current coating) [25], 300 mm × 3000 mm, at 50 mm intervals.
flow time tweld = 10 ms (up-slope) + 200 ÷ 300 ms (prima- Before welding, the sheet was degreased using a piece of
ry welding time) and (iii) electrode force F = 5.0 ÷ 9.0 kN, flannel cloth. The chemical compositions of the welded mate-
II) EFS: (i) current I = 14.0 kA, (ii) current flow time tweld = rials (nut and sheet) are presented in Tables 7 and 8, respec-
10 ms (up-slope) + 200 ÷ 300 ms and (iii) electrode dis- tively. The technological welding tests were performed using
placement control during the flow of current. an inverter welding machine (1 kHz), the PFS (Fig. 3a) and
EFS (Fig. 3b).
For comparative purposes, also a current of 14.0 kA was The results obtained in numerical calculations were veri-
subjected to analysis (in relation to the PFS). However, the fied experimentally in technological welding tests, metallo-
above-named force was overly low and precluded the making graphic tests, hardness measurements of the welding area
of a proper welded joint. (hardness map) and torsion tests as well as through measure-
In total, 15 variants, i.e. 12 in relation to the PFS (P1 ÷ P12) ments of selected characteristic parameters of the welding
and 3 in relation to EFS (E1 ÷ E3) were subjected to analysis. process including welding current and voltage, displacement
The analysed variants along with preset welding parameters of electrodes (projection height reduction) and electrode force.
and the torsional moment obtained in destructive tests (MB) Characteristic parameters were recorded using a LogWeld-4
are presented in Table 3. measuring device (Fig. 4). The functions of the measuring

Table 1 Dimensions of the nut

d dc h h1 k S L m

8.0 mm 21.75 mm 2.80 mm 1.10 mm 9.75 mm 15.00 mm 7.30 mm 3.00 mm

 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 2 Three-dimensional model

with the FEM mesh and points
(nodes) for analysis

device also enabled the performance of the analysis of (current variable values in relation to a time span marked using the
and voltage) derivative parameters, e.g. waveform of static cursor.
slope resistance, momentary power and energy supplied to The specimens used in the metallographic tests were sub-
the welding area. The above-named parameters referred to jected to chemical etching using Nital. The parameters preset
the entire welding area. The device also featured the analysis in relation to the PFS (grey) and two most favourable variants
of waveforms, i.e. reading of momentary values and recorded are presented in Table 9 (P7, P11). The remainder of Table 9

Table 2 Parameters used in the

numerical calculations Initial Current up-slope Current Final
squeeze (increase) flow time squeeze

Pneumatic force system (PFS) 500 10–70 200 500 ms

Electromechanical force system (EFS) 200 10 250–300 500 ms
Increment 1 0.2 0.2 1 ms
Data recorded at 2 2 1 2 Step
Convergence of calculations
Accuracy of calculations
Electrical model 1.00E−5
Thermal model 1.00E−5
Mechanical model 1.00E−5
Heat emission (losses) to the environment
Ambient (air) temperature 20 °C
Heat transfer coefficient 300 W/m2*K
Other parameters
Electrode dimensions (diameter) 30 mm
Electrode height 10 mm
Type of welding current DC (1 kHz)
Type of contact between welded elements Sliding
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 3 Analysed variants in the

numerical model and No. Variant Electrode force system Welding parameters Remarks
technological welding tests
Current Time Force
kA ms kN

1 P1 Pneumatic (PFS) 14.0 200 5.0 MB < 50 Nm

2 P2 7.0
3 P3 9.0
4 P4 16.0 5.0 MB < 200 Nm
5 P5 7.0 MB < 150 Nm
6 P6 9.0 MB < 50 Nm
7 P7 18.0 5.0 OK, MB = 220 Nm
8 P8 7.0 MB < 200 Nm
9 P9 9.0 MB < 150 Nm
10 P10 20.0 5.0 Thread deformation,
expulsion
11 P11 7.0 OK, MB = 220 Nm
12 P12 9.0 Thread deformation
13 E1 Electromechanical 14.0 250 forging 6.0 OK, MB = 230 Nm
14 E2 (EFS) 300 forging 6.0 OK, MB = 270 Nm
15 E3 300 forging 9.0 OK, MB = 300 Nm

presents characteristic parameters describing the welding pro- within the entire range of analysed electrode force of 5.0 to
cess. These parameters included energy supplied to the 9.0 kN, resulted in the obtainment of unacceptable values of a
welding area, a breaking torque (MB) as well as the width breaking torque of less than 50 Nm.
and depth of the weld. Unfavourable effects such as expulsion, Table 10 presents three exemplary analysed variants
nut thread deformation or the overheating on the other side of (E1 ÷ E3). The technological welding tests were performed
the sheet were not observed in relation to the above-named using a current of 14.0 kA. Parameters modified during the
parameters. In both cases the mean value of the breaking process included the time of current flow, the displacement of
torque in the torsion test amounted to 220 Nm. electrodes and the value of upsetting (forging) force. Because
of significantly many preset parameters and in order to dem-
2.5 Process optimisation onstrate differences between individual variants in a more
favourable manner (i.e. changed values of parameters), values
The optimisation of the projection welding of nuts was per- not changed in the subsequent variant (line in Table 10) were
formed experimentally in technological welding tests using presented using the sign of “–”. Such presentation of data
the EFS. The primary optimisation-related approach included enabled the author to analyse data relatively quickly.
the reduction of welding current and the extension (where/if
necessary) of welding current flow. The optimisation
concerning the EFS involved the adjustment of lower elec- 3 Results
trode force at the beginning of the welding process and con-
trolling the displacement of electrodes during the current flow. Presented below are the results of the numerical calculations
The above-named adjustment and control aimed to obtain the and experimental tests concerning the analysed process of the
most favourable space distribution of welding power enabling projection welding of nuts (to sheets) in relation to two
the emission of appropriately more heat (energy) in the contact analysed electrode force systems, i.e. PFS and EFS.
area between the elements being joined, i.e. the projection and
the nut, and, consequently, the more intense melting of the 3.1 FEM calculation results
materials being welded.
The preset parameters in relation to the EFS (grey) are Analyses were performed in relation to 12 variants connected
presented in Table 10. The technological welding tests were with the PFS (P1 ÷ P12) and three variants related to the EFS
performed using significantly lower current (14.0 kA) than (E1 ÷ E3). Table 11 presents numerical results concerning the
that applied when welding was performed using the PFS. As two electrode force systems. The welding process performed
regards the PFS, the above-named welding current value, using the PFS was analysed with reference to the electrode
Table 4 Material properties of nut (AISI 10017/W.Nr.1.0037) (Hr): C0.20Mn0.6)

Temperature Thermal Temperature Heat capacity Temperature Resistivity Temperature Mass density Temperature Thermal expansion Temperature Young’s modulus of
(°C) conductivity (W/ (°C) (J/kg*K) (°C) (μΩ*m) (°C) (kg/m3) (°C) coefficient (10−6/°C) (°C) elasticity (kN/mm2)
m*K)

0 51.9 100 481 20 0.159 20 7870 100 12.2 25 200

100 50.8 400 597 100 0.219 400 13.5
200 48.9 200 0.293 600 14.5

Table 5 Material properties of sheet (HSLA 420-SAE J2340 420X-H420LAD)

Temperature Thermal Temperature Heat capacity Temperature Resistivity Temperature Mass density Temperature Thermal expansion Temperature Young’s modulus of
(°C) conductivity (W/ (°C) (J/kg*K) (°C) (μΩ*m) (°C) (kg/m3) (°C) coefficient (10−6/°C) (°C) elasticity (kN/mm2)
m*K)

20 51.9 50 472 20 0.159 20 8020 100 11.9 25 200

100 51.7 150 506 100 0.205 200 12.7
200 50.0 200 522 200 0.277 400 13.9
300 48.0 250 538 400 0.465 600 14.7
400 45.2 300 559 600 0.745 800 12.1
500 42.2 350 584 800 1.083 1000 13.8
600 38.8 450 642 1000 1.158
700 33.8 550 773 1200 1.212
800 30.0 650 828 1400 1.234
1000 30.7 700 1439
750 812
850 530
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 7 Chemical
composition of nut C Mn P S Fe

Temperature Young’s modulus of

elasticity (kN/mm2)
M10x22x10 (SAE 1015,
wt.%) 0.17 0.44 0.013 0.008 Bal.

force range of 5.0 to 9.0 kN (every 2.0 kN), the welding

117
current range of 14.0 to 20.0 kA (every 2.0 kA) and a welding
time of 200 ms.
The analysis was performed in relation to the maximum
(°C)

current flow time amounting to 200 ms. This was because of

25

the fact that the extension of time did not result in an increase
in the most important joint-related parameters, i.e. the width
coefficient (10−6/°C)
Temperature Mass density Temperature Thermal expansion

and height of the joint. In turn, as regards the EFS, the analysis
was performed in relation to the same value of current
(14.0 kA) but for various welding times restricted within the
range of 250 to 300 ms and various electrode displacement
16.5

trajectories. In addition, the end of the welding process was

accompanied by the introduction of an upsetting force of 6.0
and 9.0 kN. The parameters subjected to analysis included (i)
weld width, (ii) weld height (penetration depth in the sheet),
(°C)

(iii) volume of molten material weld nugget) and (iv) displace-

25

ment of electrodes during the flow of current and at the end of

the process.
(kg/m3)

Figure 5 contains the graphic representation of the FEM

8750
8000

calculation results presented in Table 11 and the technological

welding test results in relation to the PFS.
Figure 6 presents calculation results, i.e. temperature dis-
20
1080

tribution, concerning the two selected variants, i.e. P7 (related

(°C)

to the PFS) and E1 (related to the EFS).

Temperature Heat capacity Temperature Resistivity

The distribution of temperature was presented in one of the

(μΩ*m)

SORPAS software modes, i.e. in the so-called pick

0.055
0.060
0.071
0.075
0.082
0.090
0.098
0.106

0.124
0.135
0.254
0.260
0.266
0.115

temperature mode. This result presentation mode presents

Material properties of electrode (ISO 5182 A3/1 electrode CuCoBe)

(“remembers”) the maximum temperature occurring in a giv-

en area within a given welding cycle.
Figure 7 presents selected comparative results concerning
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
(°C)

numerical calculations related to the PFS and EFS, i.e. elec-

trode force and displacement, momentary power, static slope
resistance, the course of temperature, the volume of the molten
(J/kg*K)

metal and the weld nugget area.

420
446
466
482
500
529

Figure 8a presents comparative courses of temperature in

relation to the PFS and EFS. The courses are presented for the
selected numerical model mesh nodes (Fig. 2c) located cen-
trally in the sheet, under the projection, being 1/6 mm (node
(°C)

20
127
327
527
727
927

431), 1/3 mm (node 415) and 1/2 mm (node 403) away from
the upper surface of the sheet respectively. In turn, Fig. 8b
conductivity (W/

presents the waveforms of the dynamic resistance and mo-

mentary power in relation to the entire welding area.
Temperature Thermal

m*K)

225
217
210
203
196
190
183
177
171
165
160
154
149
143

Table 8 Chemical composition of sheet DKP-S550MC-O (1434, wt%)

C Mn P S Si Al. Nb V Ti Fe
Table 6

1000

1200
1300

0.065 0.91 0.008 0.007 0.014 0.032 0.063 0.003 0.039 Bal.
1100
(°C)

100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
20
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 3 Test rig for technological

welding tests provided with: a
PFS and b EFS: (1) pneumatic
actuator and (2) servomotor

3.2 Experimental test results pressure, which, theoretically, translates into the constant value
of preset force and results in the displacement of electrodes
The technological welding tests were performed for all (15) of tantamount to projection height reduction. Parameters adjusted
the variants subjected to analysis (Table 3). Selected results in before the process of welding, i.e. current, current flow time and
the form of metallographic structures of the welded joints are electrode force, are decisive for the final outcome related to the
presented in: movement, i.e. displacement of electrodes. It should be noted
that because of the high inertia of the PFS it is not possible to
– Figure 9, in relation to the PFS-variant P7, control electrode force or displacement during welding.
– Figure 10, in relation to the EFS-variant E1. An alternative solution enabling the improvement of the
welding process involves the use of the EFS and the applica-
tion of an appropriate (hybrid) algorithm enabling the control
of electrode force and/or displacement and characterised by (i)
4 Discussion adjustment of electrode force before the flow of current; force
being lower than that applied using the PFS, (ii) control of
Before the principal discussion, it is necessary to characterise electrode displacement during the welding current flow and
the correlation between the electrode force and the electrode (iii) exertion of upsetting force after current decay. The most
displacement, i.e. the basis of the optimisation related to the important factors characterising the EFS include the possibil-
analysed resistance projection welding of nuts. ity of slowing down the movement of electrodes and the
In cases of projection welding performed using the classical follow-up control of electrode displacement (particularly dur-
PFS, the preset parameter is the constant value of actuator ing the flow of current) [26, 27].

Fig. 4 LogWeld-4 device for

measurements of characteristic
parameters of the resistance
welding process, (1)
measurement interface, (2)
Rogowski coil and (3) PC
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 9 Preset parameters and characteristic parameters in relation to the PFS

No. Variant Preset parameters Recorded parameters

No.
Force Up-slope Main welding Total Main Energy Projection Weld Weld Breaking Number of
time current interval height width height torsional specimens
(Irms) current (Irms) reduction moment (MB)
Current Time Current Time
kN kA ms kA ms kA kA kJ mm mm mm Nm pcs
A B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2 E F G H I J

1 P7 5.0 18.0 50 18.0 150 17.8 13.0 8.3 0.74 2.1 0.05 220 30
2 P11 7.0 20.0 50 20.0 150 19.7 20.0 9.5 0.95 2.1 0.06 220 3C

Irms, root-mean-square current

The application of the hybrid algorithm (instead of the depth, (vi) energy supplied to the welding area and vii) weld
classical PFS) enabled the obtainment of favourable condi- nugget volume respectively.
tions as early as at the very beginning of the flow of welding The analysis of the PFS-related results (Fig. 5) indicates a
current. Lower electrode force resulted in (i) lower cold pro- narrow window of parameters. The comparative analysis was
jection height reduction (before current flow), (ii) increase in performed using variant P7, requiring less welding current.
contact resistance, (iii) higher power and (iv) generation of The above-named variant was subjected to the comparative
higher energy in the most favourable area, i.e. in the contact analysis with selected variant E1 related to the EFS. Figures 6
area between elements being welded. Subsequently, during and 7 present the comparative analysis in relation to selected
the flow of current, the control of electrode displacement variants P7 and E1. Figures 6 and 7 present the distribution of
and the slowing down of electrode movement resulted in the temperature during the welding process and courses/
obtainment a less contact area between elements being welded waveforms of characteristic parameters (electrode force and
and, consequently, higher resistance in the contract area. The displacement, momentary power, dynamic resistance, temper-
foregoing enabled the more intense heating and, consequently, ature, the volume of the weld nugget molten material and the
the melting of the materials subjected to welding, whereas the surface of weld nugget, respectively).
use of the PFS only enabled the obtainment of material The images presenting the distribution of temperature dur-
plasticisation. ing the flow of current in the welding process performed using
The slowing down of electrode movement translated into a the PFS (Fig. 6 (a1–a6)) revealed the very slight melting of the
favourable decrease in the rate of projection height reduction. material. At the beginning of the welding time (up to 50 ms)
The time of welding could be extended, which significantly the melting of the material was not observed (Fig. 6 (a1/a2)).
affected the generation of welding power in the most impor- The foregoing could be attributed to the excessive cold pro-
tant areas, i.e. in the projection material and in the contact area jection height reduction (i.e. before the flow of current) and
between materials being welded. In spite of the lower value of fast projection material plasticisation. The above-named fac-
welding current, the extension of projection height reduction tors increased the unfavourably large contact area between the
time led to the generation of higher welding power in the welded elements (projection and sheet), which decreased the
projection material [16]. density of current to a level precluding the melting of the
material. Figure 6 (a7) present the total molten material area
4.1 FEM calculations in relation to variant P7, where the weld nugget height
amounted to a mere 0.15 mm, whereas the width amounted
The PFS-related results detailed in Table 11 are presented to approximately 1.1 mm.
graphically in Fig. 5. Only two variants, the P7 and P11 met For comparison, Fig. 6 (b1–b6) presents the distribution of
the acceptance criterion, i.e. the obtainment of a breaking temperature during the flow of current in the welding process
torque (MB) of 220 Nm. The above-presented torque value performed using the EFS. Within the entire range of welding
was determined experimentally in related strength tests per- current flow, particularly at the very beginning, it was possible
formed using the welded test specimens (Fig. 5h). The results to observe the melting of the material. The foregoing indicates
shown in Fig. 5a–g present the variability of characteristic that, in spite of a lower welding current of 14.0 kA, the process
parameters obtained in the numerical model. Figure 5a–g pre- provided better conditions for the melting of the material. The
sents (i) weld width, (ii) displacement of electrodes at the end use of the EFS and the application of the hybrid algorithm
of the flow of current, (iii) weld height, (iv) displacement of resulted in the obtainment of the greater total area and volume
electrodes at the end of the welding process, (v) penetration of molten material, where the weld nugget height amounted to
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Number of
specimens
approximately 0.42 mm, whereas its width amounted to
2.3 mm (Fig. 6 (b7)).

pcs

30

30

30
The obtainment of more favourable conditions resulted

L
from the use of the EFS and the hybrid algorithm enabling

moment (MB)
Weld Weld Breaking the control of electrode displacement. The melting of the
width height torsional material proved more intense despite the fact that lower

mm

230

270

300
welding current was used. Figure 7 presents waveforms/

K
courses of the welding process characteristic parameters.

0.50

0.53

0.55
mm
Figure 7 (a1/b1) presents the waveforms/course of (i)
J
Recorded parameters

welding current, (ii) electrode displacement and (iii) elec-

mm

2.9

3.0

3.1
trode force. The use of the EFS involved the control of
I

electrode displacement (curve 2b). Importantly, the pro-

Energy Projection

reduction

jection height reduction obtained when using the EFS

height

(ΔL EPHRC ) only amounted to 0.04 mm (Fig. 7 (b1)),

0.71

0.75
mm

0.9
H

whereas, as regards the PFS (ΔLPPHRC), it amounted to

0.23 mm (Fig. 7 (a1)). The use of the above-presented
“trick” at the very beginning of the flow of current created
6.7

7.5

7.5
kJ

significantly more favourable welding conditions. The

Upsetting

(forging)

control of electrode displacement led to the obtainment

force

of an appropriate course of electrode force (Fig. 7 (b1,

6.0

100 6.0

9.0
kN

curve 3b)). Force values obtained when using the EFS

0.3

0.3
t4/ΔI4

were lower than those obtained using the PFS (Fig. 7

E4

50

–
Time and displacement of

(a1, curve 3a)). The lower EFS-related force values trans-

0.03 0. 15
t3/ΔI3

lated into the smaller contact area between the elements

E3

75

being welded. The greater resistance of the entire welding

t1/ΔI1 t2/ΔI2

area combined with the lower value of electrode force

110
E2
electrodes

resulted in an increase in resistance, primarily in the con-

–

–
ms/mm

0.05

tact area between the elements being welded. The forego-

E1

15

ing resulted in higher resistance (Fig. 7 (b2, curve 4b)),

–

particularly visible at the beginning of the time of current

interval

flow (RE = 420 μΩ), than the resistance obtained using the
Main

(Irms)

14.4
kA

D2

PFS (Fig. 7 (a2, curve 4a), RP = 300 μΩ). Next, it was

–
–
Preset parameters and characteristic parameters in relation to the EFS

current

possible to observe the generation of higher welding pow-

(Irms)
Main welding Total

240 14.1

er, particularly important at the beginning of welding (the

ms kA

D1

–
290 –

first 50 ms, Fig. 7 (a2/b2, curves 5a/5b)), providing con-

Irms, root-mean-square current, “–” value identical as in the line above
Initial Minimum Maximum Current Time Current Time

C2

ditions for the more intense melting of the material (Fig. 6

–

(b1)). The effectiveness of the EFS control was confirmed

time

14.0
ms kA

C1

by the greater ultimate area of the weld (Fig. 7 (b3, curve

–

6b)) and the greater volume of the molten material, i.e. the
B2

10

weld nugget (curve 7b), in comparison with those obtain-

–
–
Up-slope

ed using the PFS (Fig. 7 (a3, curves 6a and 7a, respec-

14.0
kA

B1

tively)). The weld area obtained using the EFS was by

–

twice larger than that obtained using the PFS (S E =

53.2 mm2, SP = 24.0 mm2). In turn, the volume of the
6.3
A3

weld nugget material was four times greater (V E =

–

21.0 mm3, VP = 4.7 mm3). The higher efficiency of the

Variant Preset parameters

heating (or, more precisely, melting) of the material was

2.5
A2

demonstrated by the course of temperature in relation to

–

(mesh) node No. 403 of the numerical mesh model (Fig.

Force

3.5
kN

A1

2). The above-named node was located below the projec-

–

tion, in the sheet, 0.5 mm away from the upper surface of

Table 10

No.

the sheet. In relation to the EFS (curve 8b), it was possi-

2 E2

3 E3
1 E1

ble to observe the exceeding of the sheet melting point

Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 11 Preset parameters and characteristic result of FEM calculations for PFS and EFS

Pneumatic system (PFS) Servo system (EFS)

Preset parameters
1 (a) Force kN 5 7 9 –
(b) Displacement mm – – – 0,65 0,7 0,7
2 Welding time ms 200 200 200 250 300 300
3 Welding current kA 14 16 18 20 14 16 18 20 14 16 18 20 14
4 Variant number P1 P4 P7 P10 P2 P5 P8 P11 P3 P6 P9 P12 E1 E2 E3
Characteristic quantities
5 Nugget width mm 0.81 1.58 2.31 2.92 0.42 0.62 0.96 1.88 0.35 0.54 0.92 1.31 2.8 2.8 2.9
6 Depth of penetration in the sheet mm 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.45 0.5 0.5
7 Height of the nugget mm 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.50 0.55 0.55
8 Electrode displacement at the mm 0.45 0.56 0.66 0.76 0.61 0.65 0.80 0.92 0.71 0.79 0.96 1.11 0.25 0.25 0.25
end of current flow
9 Displacement of electrodes (final) mm 0.51 0.67 0.82 1.00 0.54 0.78 1.00 1.12 0.62 0.94 1.12 1.13 0.70 0.75 0.85
10 Nugget volume mm3 0.83 2.34 3.58 6.23 0.14 0.40 1.05 2.81 0.03 0.39 1.01 1.67 16.2 18.1 18.1
11 Energy kJ 6.37 7.64 8.90 10.24 6.04 7.26 8.50 9.84 5.80 7.01 8.40 9.58 7.0 7.5 7.5

(solidus 1500 °C) and the obtainment of the maximum performed using the PFS it was necessary to adopt a similar
temperature of 1560 °C. The maximum temperature ob- welding current envelope (Figs. 7 (a1–a4) and 8a, b). The rate
tained using the PFS amounted to 1284 °C (curve 8a). of the initial current up-slope was higher in relation to the
The analysis of related temperature courses demonstrated welding machine provided with the EFS (Figs. 3b and 11
deeper penetration, i.e. the greater height of the weld (b1, curve 3b1)).
nugget. In relation to the PFS, the value of force was constant,
amounted to 5.0 kN (Fig. 11 (a1, curve 2a1)) and led to
4.2 Experimental tests the obtainment of the resultant displacement of electrodes
(Fig. 11 (a1, curve 1a1)). In terms of the total displace-
4.2.1 Waveforms/courses of characteristic parameters ment of electrodes, it is necessary to take into account the
value of cold projection height reduction. The above-
The results of the experimental tests, in the form of recorded named value, amounting to approximately 0.3 mm, is
characteristic parameters (current, electrode force and dis- not visible in Fig. 11 (a1). In turn, in relation to the EFS
placement, momentary power and dynamic resistance), (Fig. 11 (b1/b2)), the displacement of electrodes was sub-
concerning the two analysed electrode force systems are pre- jected to control (curve 1b1) and force was a resultant
sented in Fig. 11. element (curve 2b1). Nearly within the entire range of a
The above-presented variant P7 is concerned with the PFS, current flow time of 240 ms, the course of force (Fig. 11
whereas variant E1 is concerned with the EFS. A significant (b1, curve 2b1)) amounted to less than 5.0 kN, i.e. was
difference, resulting from the adopted approach to optimisa- below the value of force obtained using the PFS (Fig. 11
tion, was the lower value of welding current (obtained when (a1, curve 2a1)). Figure 11 (a2 and 11b2) present the
the EFS was used) amounting to 14.0 kA. waveforms of resistance (curve 1a2/1b2) and momentary
Figure 11 presents the results concerning the PFS (on the power (curve 2a2/2b2) in relation to both cases (PFS and
left) and those related to the EFS (on the right). It is possible to EFS). The waveforms of resistance and momentary power
notice differences in welding current waveforms in relation to refer to the entire welding area. The resistance is greater
the analysed electrode force systems. The technological (especially at the beginning of current flow), whereas the
welding tests involving the use of the PFS were performed waveform and the maximum momentary power were sig-
using a DALEX welding machine (Fig. 3a) with the maxi- nificantly lower (Fig. 11 (a2/b2, curve 2a2/2b2), in rela-
mum adjusted current up-slope rate. An effect in the form of tion to the EFS. As regards the EFS, lower power resulted
delayed current up-slope presented in Fig. 11 (a1, curve 3a1) from the lower value of current. However, the melting of
resulted from restrictions connected with the current up-slope the greater weld nugget area (Fig. 10) combined with the
rate, which in turn, was related to the reactance of the second- lower value of power constituted a significant advantage
ary circuit and software-hardware protections of the welding of the applied solution (algorithm enabling the control of
machine. In order to control welding current during welding displacement) but also came as a surprise.
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 5 Graphic representation of numerical calculation results listed in Table 11 in relation to the PFS and related boundary criteria

Figure 12 presents the EFS-related courses/waveforms of the extension of welding time from 250 to 300 ms (E2), which
characteristic parameters recorded during the technological increased the breaking torque by approximately 17% (from
welding tests involving various EFS variants (Table 10, vari- 230 to 270 Nm). Variant E3 involved an increase in upsetting
ants E1 ÷ E3). (forging) force from 6.0 to 9.0 kN, which, in turn, increased
The breaking torque related to the first analysed EFS var- the torque by approximately 30% (from 230 to 300 Nm) in
iant amounted to 230 Nm (E1, Table 10 line 1, column K) and relation to variant E1. The energy supplied to the weld and the
was slightly higher than the value obtained using the PFS courses of electrode force related to variants E1 ÷ E3 are
(220 Nm) (P7, Table 9, line 1, column I). Already, the first presented in Fig. 12 (a2, curves 1a2, 4a2, and 7a2) and in
analysed EFS (E1) satisfied the initial criterion related to tor- Fig. 12 (a3, curves 1a3, 3a3, and 5a3), respectively. The
sional strength, where the breaking torque should be not less greatest displacement of electrodes (projection height reduc-
than that obtained in relation to the most favourable PFS- tion) was recorded in relation to variant E3 and a forging force
related (P7). The further EFS-related optimisation involved of 9.0 kN (Fig. 12 (a1, curve 7a1)).
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 6 Temperature distribution at

selected moments of the welding
process performed using the PFS
(variant P7) and EFS (variant E1)
(FEM)

The further process optimisation, involving the extension lower power and the obtainment of torsional strength not low-
of welding time, resulted in expulsion and the overheating of er than that obtained using the PFS.
the nut material on the side of contact with the upper electrode.
Both phenomena led to the partial melting of the upper part of 4.2.2 Metallographic tests and hardness measurements
the nut and to the deformation of the thread.
The results presented in Table 10 revealed that, as regards The welding process-related characteristic courses/waveforms
the EFS and the applied hybrid algorithm, the decrease in presented in Fig. 11 were recorded for the technological
welding current enabled the use of a welding machine having welding tests, in relation to which metallographic and
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 7 Waveforms/courses of characteristic parameters in relation to: a PFS and b EFS (FEM)

hardness tests were performed. The hardness measurements (Figs. 7 and 8) and indicating the possibility of obtaining more
were performed making a hardness map of the entire welding favourable temperature distribution and a greater sheet mate-
area, containing a total of 588 measurement points (21 lines, rial melting area (volume) when slowing down the movement
each having 28 points) (Fig. 13). (displacement) of the electrodes.
The metallographic test results (Figs. 9 and 10) confirmed Figure 14 presents the PFS (Fig. 14 (a1, P7)) and EFS-
the results previously obtained in the numerical calculations related metallographic structures (Fig. 14 (b1, E1)) along with
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 8 Waveforms/courses of characteristic parameters in relation to the PFS and EFS: a temperature and b dynamic resistance, momentary power
(FEM)

the hardness map (Fig. 14 (a2/b2)). The metallographic The tests concerning the distribution of hardness (Fig. 14
structure-related results presented in Figs. 9, 10 and 14 con- (a2/b2)) in relation to the PFS (P7) and EFS (E1) are the
firmed the melting of a greater area of the welded materials following:
(greater width and height of the weld) when the EFS was used.
As regards the PFS, the height of the molten area of the 1. As regards the PFS Fig. 14 (a1/a2 (P7)), a metallic joint
weld (nugget) amounted to a mere 58 μm, whereas the width was present only along length A = 830 μm. Outside the
was 830 μm. The remainder of 2031 μm (recognised as a joint above-named area, the joint contained a zone without the
without the clearly visible stirring of the materials) constituted clearly visible stirring of materials (typical of solid-sate
a solid-state joint (Fig. 9 (P2)). joints). The above-presented phenomenon was not ob-
As regards the EFS, the height of the molten area of the served as regards the weld made using the EFS (Fig. 14
weld (nugget) amounted to 567 μm (ten times higher), where- (b1/b2), where the width of the zone characterised by
as the width was 2976 μm. The material was molten across the (clearly visible) stirring of materials amounted to A =
entire width of the weld (Fig. 14 (b1)). 2976 μm.

Fig. 9 Metallographic structure of the welded joint in relation to the PFS (variant 7)
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 10 Metallographic structure of the welded joint in relation to the EFS (variant E1)

Fig. 11 Experimental waveforms/courses in relation to the two analysed electrode force systems: a PFS (P7) and b EFS (E1)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

3. Variant E1 (EFS) was related to the lower hardness of the

weld, which indicated higher plasticity in the welding
area, translating into the lower tendency of joint cracking
in operating conditions.
4. The area of the welded joint made using the EFS was
deliberately provided with a higher heat input to melt
greater material volume. However, the aforesaid action
increased the HAZ, which could be perceived as a certain
inconvenience when making projection welded joints as it
could worsen mechanical properties of the sheet material.

4.3 Comparison of results

It was decided that the most favourable form of result presen-

tation, making it possible to explain the essence of the phe-
nomena occurring in the resistance welding process per-
formed using the new electrode force system, would be the
comparison of the experimental test results having the form of
welded joint metallographic structures and of the numerical
calculations having the form of courses of temperature at se-
lected points of the welding area (Fig. 15) as well as the dis-
tribution of temperature in the welding area (Fig. 16).
The above-named comparison of the results was extended
by the comparison of the characteristic parameters (current,
momentary power, energy) recorded during the technological
welding tests (Fig. 17) and the numerical calculation results
concerned with the analysis of volumetric power at selected
points of the welding area (Fig. 18). The selected examples
clarified the new approach to electrode displacement control
and demonstrated the convergence of the results obtained in
the numerical calculations and in the experimental tests.
Fig. 12 Courses/waveforms of the characteristic parameters recorded Figure 15 presents the comparison of the numerical calcu-
during the technological welding tests in relation to variants E1 ÷ E3 lation results and the results of the metallographic tests in
(experiment)
relation to the analysis of temperature and current density in
selected numerical model mesh nodes. Fig. 15(a/c) presents
(partly) the welded joint metallographic structure where the
2. Material continuity was observed in cases of the welds connection of the welded materials was obtained. Figure 15a
made using the EFS-Fig. 14 (b2 (E1)). is related to the EFS, whereas Fig. 15c is related to the PFS.

Fig. 13 Arrangement of points in

the hardness measurement
involving the nut-sheet welded
joint
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 14 Metallographic structures of the welded joints in relation to: a PFS (P7) and b EFS (E1) along with the welding area hardness map

The fragments of the metallographic structures were selected process performed using the EFS (Fig. 8 (curve 5b)) than
from Figs. 10 to 9 respectively (presenting the entire metallo- that obtained using the PFS (Fig. 8 (curve 2b)), which, in
graphic image of the joints). The comparative analysis was turn, resulted in the obtainment of higher temperature in
based on three points arranged geometrically in the sheet, the aforesaid area.
under the nut projection material. The above-named points In selected EFS-related nodes (A-431, B-415 and C-
were numerical model mesh nodes numbered 431, 415 and 403), temperature exceeded a melting point of 1500 °C.
403, and located 1/6, 1/3 and ½ mm (Fig. 2c) away from the The foregoing was confirmed by the metallographic test
sheet upper surface, respectively. Figure 15d presents the results, revealing penetration depth (weld nugget height)
magnified image related to the temperature courses shown in hE = 567 μm. In turn, as regards the PFS, at the same
Fig. 8 (related to both electrode force systems) along with mesh nodes (D-431, E-415 and F-403) the melting point
welding current waveforms (as synchronising waveforms). (1500 °C) was not obtained. At a distance of 1/6 mm from
The EFS-related technological tests and metallographic tests the upper surface of the sheet the maximum temperature
(Fig. 14 (b1)) revealed deeper penetration in the sheet (hE = amounted to 1383 °C. The foregoing was confirmed by
567 μm) than that obtained using the PFS (Fig. 14 (a1), hP = the metallographic test results, revealing penetration depth
58 μm). The above-named greater penetration could be attrib- (weld nugget height) hP = 58 μm. The numerical test re-
uted to the more favourable distribution of welding power. In sults presented in Fig. 15 were entirely consistent with the
Fig. 15b, the aforesaid distribution is presented in the form of metallographic test results.
EFS-related higher welding current density (Fig. 15a, point Figure 16 presents the comparison of the metallographic
C). Appropriately slowed down and controlled electrode force test results with the temperature distribution obtained in the
was responsible for lower force, a smaller contact area be- numerical calculations. The dashed line marks the area of the
tween welded elements and higher contact resistance, which, molten material in relation to the metallographic structures
in spite of lower current (14.0 kA), enabled the obtainment of obtained using the PFS (Fig. 16 (a1)) and EFS (Fig. 16
higher current density. The maximum values of power density (b1)). The figure also contains the temperature distribution
concerned with node No. 403 amounted to 335 and 225 A/mm2 images obtained in the numerical calculations (Fig. 16 (a2/
(Fig. 15b) in relation to the EFS and PFS, respectively. It b2)). After plotting the contours of the molten material area
was important that high current density was obtained at the in relation to the PFS (Fig. 16 (a2)) and EFS (Fig. 16 (b2)), it
very beginning of the welding process (first 20 ÷ 30 ms), was possible to observe high similarity in terms of the weld
which led to the melting (and not only to the plasticising) nugget formation as regards the weld width and height.
of the projection material from the very beginning. Higher Figure 17 presents the results of the experimental tests,
current density led to the generation of higher power of the i.e. the comparison of the characteristic parameters
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 15 Comparison of the FEM results and the metallographic test results (temperature, current density) in relation to selected numerical model mesh
nodes and metallographic structure (P7 and E1)

Fig. 16 Comparison of the FEM results and the metallographic test results in relation to temperature distribution at the end of the welding
process (P7 and E1)
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

5 Summary

The direction of changes resulting from the use of the EFS and
the algorithm of electrode force and displacement control is
entirely different from previously adopted approaches.
Undertaken activities produced a positive and very desirable
effect in the form of more favourable space distribution of
welding power, i.e. increased welding power density, particu-
larly in the contact area between elements being welded.
The principal difference between the two electrode force
systems is the fact that, in terms of the PFS, (electrode) force
was preset and the displacement of electrodes was the result.
In turn, as regards the EFS and the new (hybrid) control algo-
Fig. 17 Experimental comparison of the characteristic parameters rithm, displacement (of electrodes during the flow of current)
(current, momentary power, energy) in relation to the PFS (P7) and
was preset and the force of electrodes was the result. The
EFS (E1)
foregoing led to the slower displacement of electrodes than
that obtained using the PFS. In addition, as regards the EFS,
the course of electrode force was more favourable and the
(current, momentary power, energy) recorded in relation value of force was lower. As a result, it was possible to gen-
to the technological welding tests and the two analysed erate higher energy and, consequently, heat in the contact area
electrode force systems (P7 and E1). Figure 18 presents between elements being welded.
the results of the FEM calculations in relation to volumet- The welding process performed using the EFS involved the
ric power at selected mesh node No. 636 in the 2D model, use of a lower welding current of 14.0 kA (by 28%) than that
located geometrically at the same point as node 403 in the used during welding performed using the PFS (18.0 kA). In
3D model. spite of the foregoing (i) volume of the weld nugget molten
Both figures make it possible to present advantages of the material increased more than four times (according to FEM
EFS over the PFS. The sequence of events (particularly at the calculations from 4.7 to 21.0 mm3), (ii) weld area increased
beginning of the flow of current) was the following: (i) contact more than two times (according to FEM calculations from
area between the welded elements was smaller, (ii) current 24.0 to 53.2 mm2), (iii) penetration depth increased three
density was higher and (iii) power generated, at the beginning times (according to FEM calculations from 0.15 to 0.5 mm)
of current flow, in the contact area between the welded ele- (exp. ten times from 58 to 567 μm), (iv) welding energy was
ments and in the adjacent area was higher (Fig. 18 (curve 2)). slightly lower (exp. from 4.6 to 4.4 kJ), (v) breaking torque
The above-named factors were responsible for the more in- (MB) increased by 30% (exp. from 220 to 300 Nm) and (vi)
tense melting of the material in the contact area. The advan- more favourable joint hardness distribution was obtained.
tages resulting from the control of electrode force were the The analysis was performed using 2D and 3D numerical
following: (i) welding current was lower by 28% and (ii) models (SORPAS). The calculation results were verified
welding process total energy was slightly lower—Fig. 17 experimentally.
(curve 4)). The proposed innovative control of electrode displacement
could revolutionise and alter previously existing views on the
course of the resistance welding process and significantly af-
fect the development of welding engineering.
Presently, the control of electrode displacement in relation
to the EFS during the flow of current is based on a previously
defined displacement profile. The profile is a preset parameter
and the control system implements this profile without
feedback.

Funding information This work was supported by the Polish National

Centre for Research and Development (NCBR) under project no.
TANGO1/267374/NCBR/2015.

Abbreviations PFS, pneumatic (electrode) force system; EFS, electro-

mechanical (electrode) force system; ΔLPWE/ΔLEWE, displacement of
Fig. 18 Volumetric power waveform in relation to (1) PFS (P7) and (2)
electrodes at the end of a welding process in relation to PFS and EFS;
EFS (E1) (FEM-2D model)
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

ΔLPCFT/ΔLECFT, displacement of electrodes during current flow in rela- 10. Zhang XQ, Chen G, Zhang YS (2008) On-line evaluation of elec-
tion to PFS and EFS; ΔLPPHRC/ΔLEPHRC, projection height reduction trode wear by servo gun in resistance spot welding. Int J Adv Manuf
(cold) in relation to PFS and EFS; SP/SE, weld area in relation to PFS Technol 36:681–688
and EFS; VP/VE, weld volume in relation to PFS and EFS; hP/hE, pene- 11. Slavick SA (1999) Using Servoguns for automated resistance
tration depth (weld nugget height) in relation to PFS and EFS; up-slope, welding. Weld J 78(7):29–33
current up-slope time; MB, breaking torque (ISO 898-7); A, weld nugget 12. Sun HT, Lai YS, Shen J (2007) Effect of variable electrode force on
width (molten material); B, total weld width; DA, DT, width of a joint weld quality in resistance spot welding. Journal Science and
(away from and toward the nut axis) without connection Technology of Welding and Joining 12:718–724
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Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http:// 14. Zhang XQ, Chen GL, Zhang YS (2008) On line evaluation of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, electrode wear by servo gun in resistance spot welding. Int
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Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. steels welds: under the SISF and DIDF welding schemes using
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Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- tance spot welding. T Int J Adv Manuf Technol 89:3161–3168
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. 16. Mikno Z (2016) Projection welding with pneumatic and
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