SCIENCE NOTES

LAYERS OF THE EARTH THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CRUST

CONTINENTAL CRUST

- Thick, less dense than oceanic

crust and mostly old.
- About 25 miles (32 kilometers)
thick under the continents
- Is mostly composed of GRANITE

OCEANIC CRUST

- Thin, dense – sinks under

continental crust and young
- Is only about 3-5 miles (8
kilometers) thick under the
oceans
- - is mostly composed of BASALT

Basalt is much denser than the granite.

Because of this, the less dense
continents ride on the denser oceanic
plates.

The Crust of the earth is broken into

many pieces called plates. The plates
“float” on the soft, semi-rigid
asthenosphere.

The Asthenosphere is the semi-rigid

part of the middle mantle that flows like
hot asphalt under a heavy-

The Lithosphere

- The crust and the upper layer of

the mantle together make up a
zone of rigid, brittle rock called
the Lithosphere.

The Mantle

- Mostly – solid bulk of earth’s

interior.
- Is about 2,900 kilometers (1,802
miles) thick and makes up a
whopping 84% of earth’s total
volume.

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CONVECTION CURRENTS

- The middle mantle “flows”

because of convection currents.
Convection currents are caused
by the very hot material at the
deepest part of the mantle
rising, then cooling and sinking
again - - repeating this cycle
over and over.

THE OUTER CORE

- The core of the earth is like a
ball of very hot metals. The
outer core is so hot that the
metals in it are all in the
liquid state. The outer core is
composed of the melted
metals of nickel and iron.

THE INNER CORE

- The inner core of the earth
has temperatures and
pressures so great that the
metals are squeezed
together and are not able to
move about like a liquid but
are forced to vibrate in place
like a solid.

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EARTHQUAKES, SEISMIC WAVES SEISMIC WAVES

- These are vibrations from earthquakes that

travel through the Earth
- They are the waves of energy suddenly
created by rock fracture within the earth or
an explosion.
- They are the energy that travels through

BODY WAVES

- Travel through the earth’s interior

KINDS: Primary and Secondary Waves

Primary Waves
Types of Seismic Waves
- This is the fastest kind of seismic wave.
- Can move through solid rock and fluids like
water or the liquid –
- It pushes and pulls the rock as it moves

Secondary Waves

- The second wave you feel in an earthquake

- It is slower than P wave and can only move
through solid rock.
- It moves the rock up and down or side to
side

SURFACE WAVES

- Travel along the earth’s surface – similar to

ocean waves

KINDS: Love and Rayleigh Waves

Rayleigh Waves

- Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake

is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be
much larger than the other waves.
- It rolls along the ground just like a wave
rolling across a lake or an ocean.
- Moves the ground up and down

Love waves

- It is the fastest surface wave and moves the

ground from side to side.
- Has a horizontal motion that is transverse
(or perpendicular) to the direction the wave
is travelling.
- Moves the ground from side to side

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The plate tectonics affect people's lives Everything on top of the Earth's crust, as long
because it basically builds up earth and we are as it belongs to a certain plate, moves along
on top of those plates. Most of the with the specified plate. The movement of
geographical changes and movements these plates are small, therefore remains
depend on the tectonic plates. The way we live unnoticeable in human lifetime. Major
life and the features of earth also depend on geological activities occur on or near the plate
the tectonic plates. As we study Earth's interior boundaries because movements and some
and places, we also come to realize that major disruptions are common on these and it
changes happened during the long existence somehow triggers the activities.
of the world. Continents drifting due to the
unnoticeable movements of tectonic plates
contributed a big part on the placements of
countries, its borders, and geographical
features, therefor also affecting climate, and Major:
most importantly people's lives.
African Plate, Antarctic Plate
Eurasian Plate, North American Plate
South American Plate
Pacific plates
Minor:
Arabian Plate, Caribbean Plate
Iranian Plate, Cocos Plate
Gorda Plate, Nazca Plate
Philippine Plate

Pampagana boiii

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PLATE BOUNDARIES AND INTERACTIONS

Plates move with respect to each other in DIVERGENT BOUNDARY

three ways: they move together, move apart,
or move past each other. The regions between A divergent boundary marks two plates that
are moving apart from each other.
plates are called plate boundaries.

A plate boundary is a fracture that separates

one plate from another. Adjacent plates can
move relative to one another in three different
ways. When plates move, the results are seen
along the plate boundaries. A change in one
plate boundary may cause other plate
boundaries to change.

The border between two tectonic plates is called

a boundary. All the tectonic plates are constantly
moving — very slowly — around the planet, but in
many different directions. Some are moving
toward each other, some are moving apart, and
some are sliding past each other. Because of
these differences, tectonic plate boundaries are
grouped into three main types.

TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
A transform boundary occurs where two
A convergent boundary occurs where two plates
plates slide past each other.
are pushing toward each other.

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WEGENER’S IDEAS SCIENCE TODAY

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1. How does Science prove that continents are drifting?

Science prove that continents are drifting by showing evidence that

demonstrate possible movements and changes with the position of
plates / continents. Some of the evidences were the continents
perfectly fitting each other like a puzzle. Furthermore, the fossils and
rock types are also similar despite of being in different continents.
Scientists also use the earth’s magnetic field to see variation of
sequences when it comes to lava rock composition.

2. What are the general similarities between continental drift theory and
today's findings?

The general similarities between continental drift theory and

today’s findings are the landmasses ’drifting’ across the Earth.
They move around on earth’s surface and was once joined together
as a single supercontinent. Both theory and findings were essential,
and the given clues were identical like the fossils, rocks,
geographical features, topography, and how continents seems to fit
each other.

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Geologists- are scientists who study the forces that make and shape
planet Earth. They have used evidence from rock samples and evidence
from seismic waves to learn about Earth's interior
Geology- is the study of planet earth
Constructive forces shape the surface by building mountains.
Plate tectonics
-Plates are driven by cooling of Earth (convection)
-Gravity provides additional force to move plates
-Convection is like a boiling pot. Heated soup rises to the surface, spread,
and begins to cool, and then sinks back to the bottom of the pot where it
is reheated and rises again
• The Earth’s crust is divided into 15 major plates which are moved in various
directions
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each
other.
• Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or
“tectonic” features.
________________________________________________________________
• 1596 Recognition of the plates having moved
• 1858 Correlating rock type and fossils across the continents
• 1872 Mapping the Atlantic Mid-ocean Ridge
• 1896 Discovery of radioactivity (Earth’s interior is hot)
• 1897-1911 Delineating Earth’s layered interior
• 1912 Alfred Wegner proposed “Continental Drift”
• 1927 Convection of the mantle could drive the plates
• 1953 Marie Tharpe recognizes mid-ocean ridge spreading
• 1962 Harry Hess names “Spreading ridges”
• 1963 Magnetic striping of ocean floor gives relative ages
• 1963 Hotspots defined; transform vaults
• 1960s Defined the driving forces of plate tectonics

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TYPE OF TYPES OF TOPOGRAPHY GEOLOGIC EVENTS EXAMPLES

BOUNDARY PLATES (example: rift (example: earthquakes, Possible Answers: Andes,
INVOLVED valley, mid- subductions, rock MAR
(example: oceanic ridge, deformation, etc.)
ocean- mountains, etc.)
ocean, etc.)

CONVERGENT Continent - Mountains Collision, Land Formation European Alps, Himalayas

Continent (mountain range)

Oceanic - Volcanic Subduction The Andes Mountains

Continental Mountain
Ranges, Trench

Oceanic - Trench, Chain of Collision, Subduction Mariana Trench, Aleutian

Oceanic Volcanoes Arc

DIVERGENT Oceanic - Mid-Oceanic Seafloor Spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Oceanic Ridge

Continental Rift valley, Continental Rifting Alfagja Rift Valley

- Mountains,
Continental Valleys

TRANSFORM Oceanic - Mid-Oceanic Earthquakes, Plates slide Ascension fracture -

Oceanic Ridge, Trench past each other valley
Continental Transform Plate Earthquakes San Andreas Fault
- Boundaries
Continental

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