APA’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
In December of 1995, the American Psychological Association’s Board of Educational Affairs
circulated a draft of its Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: A Framework for School
Redesign and Reform. (Revision prepared by a Work Group of the American Psychological
Association’s Board of Educational Affairs [BEA], 1995). The document was met with both praise
and criticism. In fact, discussions and debate continue even as I write this paragraph. The authors
of the document plan to continue revisions, but this draft is a concise statement from advocates of
student-centered learning and motivation. The principles are:
Principle 1: The nature of the learning process. There are different types of learning—from
learning habits in motor skills, to generating knowledge, to learning cognitive skills and strategies.
Learning of complex subject matter in schools is most effective when it is an intentional process of
constructing meaning from information and experience. Successful learners are active,
goal-directed, self-regulating, persistent, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to
their own learning.
Principle 2: Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support
and guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. To learn, students
must have a goal. To construct useful knowledge and acquire learning strategies for life-long
learning, students need to pursue personally relevant goals. Teachers can help students set short-
and long-term goals that are both personally meaningful and educationally sound.
Principle 3: The construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information
with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. Because each student has different experiences and
because the mind works to link information meaningfully, each student will organize information
in a way that is unique. Teachers can help students develop shared understandings about important
knowledge and skills. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner’s prior
understandings, the new knowledge remains isolated and difficult to apply to new situations.
Principle 4: Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a range of thinking
and reasoning skills to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in
learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They can use a variety of strategies and
continue to expand their repertoire by reflecting on and changing their current strategies, observing
others, and benefiting from instruction.
Principle 5: Thinking about thinking. Higher-order strategies for “thinking about thinking
and learning”—for overseeing and monitoring mental operations—facilitate creative and critical
thinking and the development of expertise. Successful learners can reflect on how they learn, set
reasonable goals, select appropriate strategies, monitor progress toward goals, and change
strategies when necessary. These abilities can be developed through instruction.
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Principle 6: Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instruction. Teachers play major interactive roles with both learners and
the learning environment. Instruction must fit the students’ level or prior knowledge, cognitive
abilities, and ways of thinking. The nurturing qualities of the classroom environment are
particularly influential in student learning.
Principle 7: Motivational and emotional influences on learning. The depth and breadth of
information processed, and what and how much is learned and remembered, are influenced by (a)
self-awareness and beliefs about personal control, competence, and ability; (b) clarity and saliency
of personal values, interests, and goals; (c) personal expectations for success or failure; (d) affect,
emotion, and general states of mind; and (e) the resulting motivation to learn. The inner world of
beliefs, goals, and expectations can enhance or interfere with learning. Intense negative cognitions
and emotions (e.g., feeling insecure, worrying about failure, being self-conscious or shy, and
fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) thwart complex learning.
Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation, creativity, and higher-order
thinking are stimulated by relevant, authentic learning tasks of optimal difficulty and novelty for
each student. Students need opportunities to make choices about learning in line with their personal
interests. Students are more likely to be creative and think deeply about projects that are as
complex as real-world situations.
Principle 9: Effects of motivation on effort. Learning complex skills and knowledge requires
extended effort, persistence, and practice (with guidance and feedback). Learning of complex
subject matter requires considerable investments of time and energy. Unless students are motivated
to learn, they are unlikely to expend the needed effort without being coerced.
Principle 10: Developmental constraints and opportunities. Individuals progress through
stages of physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development that are a function of unique
genetic and environmental factors. Students learn best when materials are developmentally
appropriate. Overemphasis on one kind of developmental readiness—such as reading readiness, for
example—may interfere with development in other areas.
Principle 11: Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions and
communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when students have the opportunity to
interact and collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning situations that allow for and
respect diversity encourage flexible thinking, social competence, and moral development. Learning
and self-esteem are heightened when individuals are in respected and caring relationships with
others who see their potential, appreciate their unique talents, and accept them as individuals.
Self-esteem and learning are mutually reinforcing.
Principle 12: Individual differences in learning. Individuals have different capabilities.
These differences are a function of environment (what is learned and communicated in different
cultures or other social groups) and heredity (what occurs naturally as a function of the genes).
Through learning and social acculturation, learners have acquired preferences for how and at what
pace they like to learn. But these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their
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goals. Teachers need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them if necessary, while respecting individual differences.
Principle 13: Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural, and social behaviors are taken into account. Although basic principles of
learning, motivation, and effective instruction may apply to all learners, language, ethnic group,
race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. When learners see that their
individual differences in abilities, background, and cultures are valued and respected, then
motivation is enhanced and learning supported.
Principle 14: Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging
standards and assessing both the learner and the learning process are integral parts of successful
learning. Assessment provides important information to both the learner and the teacher at all
stages of the learning process. Ongoing assessment can provide feedback of progress toward goals.
Standardized, performance, and self-assessments—used appropriately—can guide instructional
planning, support motivation, and provide necessary corrections to guide learning.
Teaching based on these learner-centered principles would make sure that students are active in
solving problems, practicing learning strategies, making choices, and discovering important ideas.
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