BASICS OF

HYDROGEN
TECHNOLOGY
Dr. O.P Agarwal, Pawan Mulukutla and Krishnaveni Malladi

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 1

 CONTENTS
1.0 GLOBAL ENERGY SCENARIO AND THE TRANSITIONING ROLE OF HYDROGEN 5

2.0 INDIA’S IMPORTS AND EMISSIONS 8

3.0 WHY IS IT NECESSARY TO DEVELOP A GREEN HYDROGEN ECONOMY FOR INDIA? 10

4.0 WHAT IS HYDROGEN 11

4.1 DISCOVERY OF HYDROGEN 12

4.2 HYDROGEN AS AN ENERGY CARRIER 12

4.3 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN 13

4.4 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF PRODUCING HYDROGEN USING DIFFERENT PATHWAYS 18

4.5 HYDROGEN VALUE CHAIN 18

4.6 TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVELS W.R.T PRODUCTION PATHWAYS GLOBALLY 20

4.7 STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION 20

4.8 END-USE OPPORTUNITIES OF HYDROGEN 22

5.0 CONCLUSION 25

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. ATR - Auto - Thermal Reforming
2. BG - Biomass Gasification
3. CCS - Carbon Capture and Storage
4. CCUS - Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage
5. CG - Coal Gasification
6. EAF – Electric Arc Furnaces
7. GHGs - Greenhouse Gases
8. GWP - Global Warming Potential
9. MMT – Million Metric Tonnes
10. Mtoe - Million tonnes of oil equivalent
11. PEM - Proton Exchange Membrane
12. POX - Partial Oxidation
13. SMR - Steam Methane Reforming
14. SOE - Solid Oxide Electrolyzer
15. TRL - Technology Readiness Level
 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1: World energy consumption in quadrillion Btu 6
Figure 2: Energy mix of India in 2019 and 2040 (In %) 8
Figure 3:
India’s power generation mix, 2000-2040 9
Figure 4: Energy related CO2 emissions by sectors 9
Figure 5: Cost of production (in INR) of 1000 MJ of energy, WRI India estimates 12
Figure 6: SMR schematic representation 14
Figure 7: Coal gasification 15
Figure 8: Schematic diagram of electrolysis process 16
Figure 9: Four types of electrolysis in hydrogen production 16
Figure 10: Biomass gasification 17
Figure 11: Production cost of hydrogen 18
Figure 12: Hydrogen value chain 19
Figure 13: End use of hydrogen 22

Table 1: Different pathways of producing hydrogen 15

Table 2: Different colour codes of hydrogen, their production pathways 15
Table 3: Comparison of different electrolysers 20
Table 4: Technology readiness level for different pathways of hydrogen production 23
Table 5:
Storage methods of hydrogen 24
Table 6:
Transportation modes of hydrogen and issues 25
SUMMARY
Concerns over climate change are driving the world to
explore viable green alternatives, such as solar and
wind energy, to replace conventional sources such as
fossil fuels. Over the last few years, there has been a
global surge of interest in hydrogen as an alternative
fuel owing to the wide variety of sources from which it
can be produced. Hydrogen provides high-grade heat,
with the energy content being about three times higher
than that of gasoline. Newer technologies are evolving
to produce hydrogen on a large scale, with reduced
carbon footprint. Based on the source of production,
hydrogen is generally labeled as green, gray, and blue.
Efforts are on to improve production efficiency, which
would lead to reduced costs and improved economics.
Hydrogen is also amenable to transportation in the
same manner as fossil fuels, albeit with additional
precautions. These factors make hydrogen uniquely
positioned to be used pervasively as a new pathway for
reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The transition of
hydrogen from an obscure industrial-use gas to an
energy carrier is an exciting prospect that allows for
the remaking of energy markets and a transformation
in our lifestyles in the forthcoming decades. Clearly,
hydrogen is an idea whose time has come.

4
1.0 THE GLOBAL triggering extreme weather changes. According to
projections, the global population is set to increase by

ENERGY SCENARIO about 26%, from 7.9 billion in 2021 to approximately

9.7 billion in 2050, giving rise to the apprehension of

AND TRANSITIONING further unprecedented climate change. The burning of

fossil fuels, the primary source of energy across the

ROLE OF HYDROGEN globe, is the main cause of the rise in GHG levels.
Studies1,2,3,4,5 indicate that between 2018 and 2050,
global energy consumption will rise by nearly 50%.
The increasing levels of emissions of carbon dioxide The industrial sector, which includes refining, mining,
(CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) generated manufacturing, agriculture, and construction,
from human activities have caused global surface and accounts for the largest share of energy consumption
ocean temperatures to rise at unparalleled rates, among all end-use sectors.

INCREASE IN ENERGY CONSUMPTION BETWEEN 2018 AND 2050

30% increase
in global industrial energy consumption, reaching about
315 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) by 2050.

40% increase
in transportation energy consumption during this period.

65% increase
in energy consumption during this period, from 91 quadrillion Btu
to 139 quadrillion Btu, ascribed to urbanization, rising incomes,
and increased access to electricity in the building sector.

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 5

 Figure 1 | World energy consumption (in quadrillion Btu)6

1000
history projections
non-OECD
800
Price (Thousand Yuan)

600

400

OECD
200

0
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Fossil fuels, which are the largest energy source, contributing to at least 5 million7 deaths worldwide
constituted 64% of the global energy consumed in every year. Fossil-based energy consumption must be
2018. In addition to being the largest driver of climate reduced by decarbonizing energy sectors and
change, burning fossil fuels and organic matter is constituting an energy mix dominated by renewable
harmful to human health, with air pollution alone technologies.

PARIS
AGREEMENT

Globally, a reduction of CO2 emissions by

25% by 2030 and net-zero by 2070 is
required to meet this goal.

Strategies to keep us on the 1.5°C climate pathway

More than 30 countries, including China,

Japan, South Korea and Canada, have
committed to achieving net-zero levels in
the coming decades.

6
The electrification of end-use sectors that results in While the share of renewables such as wind and solar
increased use of electricity in buildings, industry and in the overall energy mix is expected to rise, several
transport and expanded production and use of green challenges need to be addressed, key among them
hydrogen, synthetic fuels, and feedstocks to pursue being the non-availability of solar insolation for a
indirect electrification are ways of reducing fossil fuel substantial part of the calendar day, the variability
burning. The targeted use of sustainably sourced owing to lack of uniformity in wind and solar
biomass, particularly in place of high-energy density insolation and the barriers in energy storage. Owing
fuels, such as those used in aviation and other to its potential for application in multiple form factors,
transport modes or in greening gas grids, is also hydrogen presents great prospects for meeting the
being discussed. current challenges.

Decarbonised power systems are

dominated by renewables
Worldwide, 176 Gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy capacity was
added in 2019 and 260 GW in 2020, with 115 GW from solar alone8.

90% of all electricity needs by renewable energy

BY 6% of all electricity needs by natural gas
2050
4% of all electricity needs by nuclear

By 2050
electiricity would be the primary energy source with over 50% (direct)
total final energy use, up from 20% today9.

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 7

2.0 INDIA’S IMPORTS 2040. With an annual growth rate of more than 5%,
India's demand for electricity is amongst the highest in

AND EMISSIONS the world. Despite the government actively working to

increase the share of renewables in the energy mix,
fossil fuels would continue to dominate energy
India, with a population of 1.4 billion and growing, is consumption up until 2040 (see Figure 2), making it
witnessing a continuous and robust demand for imperative to look for alternate sources of sustainable
energy, owing largely to a burgeoning middle class energy.
and high targeted growth rates. The demand is only
expected to increase in the future. From 882 Mtoe in A comparative analysis of the projections made for
2017, energy supply is expected to double in 204010. India’s power generation mix for the years 2000-2040
IEA has projected a surge in oil and gas imports in points to an increase in the share of solar and others
India in the coming decades11, 12, with cost rising from and a reduction in coal-based generation.
USD 120 billion in 2020 to about USD 360 billion by

Figure 2 | Energy mix of India in 2019 and 2040 (In %)13

Renewables 13
3.4

3
Hydro 3.9

Nuclear 2
1.09

Coal 50
56

Gas 7
6

25
Oil 29.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percentage

2040 2019

8
Figure 3 | India’s power generation mix, 2000-204014

Share of power generation

100%

75%

50%

25%

0
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040

Coal Solar Other

India’s growing demand for energy, its commitment to emphasize the adoption of clean energy substitutes
the Paris Agreement, and the goal to reduce GHG and increasing efficiencies of the existing energy
emissions by a third by 2030 are areas that require sources, policymakers must also accelerate efforts to
considerable attention. Its current annual GHG derisk import of critical items such as oil and gas,
emissions stand at 3.6 G tons of CO2 equivalent (see given the significant forex outflow and the security
sectoral emissions in Figure 4). While current efforts implications of the projected imports.

Figure 4 | India's energy-related CO2 emissions, by sectors15

Agriculture Other energy-related

3% sectors*
4%
Industrial Sector
31%

CO2
2019 Power Sector
Building Sector
6% 43%

Transport Sector
14%

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 9

 India has pioneered the India plans to generate 450 GW of During 2016-2020 alone, the Large solar parks with an installed
International Solar Alliance renewable energy by 2030, a country’s solar capacity rose from capacity of 100MW or more are
(ISA). Being a tropical country, five-time increase from its 6.8 GW to 34.6 GW, surpassing coming up all over the country,
India has the opportunity to current capacity of 100 GW16. growth anywhere bearing witness to the widespread
harness abundant solar energy. in the world. development and actualization of
solar energy in India.

New models of energy auction have seen rates per unit raises exciting possibilities of using alternate pathways
of electricity hit a rock bottom price of about INR 2 per of storing, using and reusing energy to meet the
kWh unit (~2.67 cents/kWh unit). Although solar demands of various sectors. One such pathway is the
energy is green and has almost zero carbon emissions, utilization of hydrogen as an energy carrier. The
it is an unreliable source. In order to overcome this solar-hydrogen cycle has the potential to lead the
limitation, the multiple uses of hydrogen generated country to a more sustainable energy future. Hydrogen
from green sources of energy can be explored technology promises to be a solution for various
alongside the existing low carbon hydrogen streams. sectors. Owing to its application in the transportation
This would also help lower the import bill. sector as fuel and storage of energy, hydrogen must be
explored as a policy tool for strategic investment as

3.0 WHY IS IT also for derisking the exposure to increasing imports

of fossil fuels. Hydrogen can also be used to produce

NECESSARY TO intermediate energy sources, such as methanol,

ammonia, synthetic and natural gas. With the right

DEVELOP A GREEN pricing and other economics in place, hydrogen has the
potential to replace fossil fuels to a large extent and

HYDROGEN protect the economy from the vagaries of international

oil markets. For the enormous scale at which it is

ECONOMY FOR required in India, a hydrogen economy must be

initiated in which hydrogen technology is applied in

INDIA? local solutions, making India self-reliant in its energy

needs. This will also provide to the country the
Solar energy is a highly cost-competitive alternative to flexibility to make choices on the global stage and
fossil fuels and increasing the availability of solar heighten the interest of multiple stakeholders in the
energy and its share in the overall energy mix of India hydrogen ecosystem.

10
4.0 WHAT IS HYDROGEN?

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the

universe. On Earth too, hydrogen is abundant in the
form of water and as gas in the atmosphere.

1 Atomic Number

Element Symbol
H
Hydrogen
1.00794 Atomic Weight

Melting Point: 13.81 K (-259.34°C or -434.81°F)

Boiling Point: 20.28 K (-252.87°C or -423.17°F)
Density: 0.00008988 grams per cubic centimetre
Phase at Room Temperature: Gas
Element Classification: Non-metal
Period Number: 1
Group Number: 1

Hydrogen is colourless and odorless17, with the lowest density among all gases. It is a gas at normal
temperature and pressure but condenses to liquid at -423° Fahrenheit or -253° Celsius. Hydrogen
combines with other elements to form compounds, including common ones such as water (H2O),
ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), glucose (C6H12O6), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Hydrogen has three isotopes, namely protium (commonly called hydrogen), deuterium and tritium.

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 11

4.1 DISCOVERY OF HYDROGEN highest energy content as compared with other
commonly used fuels by weight, about 3x as compared
to gasoline. However, it also has the lowest energy
In the 1500s, alchemist Paracelsus discovered that content by volume, about 4x lesser than gasoline. With
iron filings on reacting with sulfuric acid produced an average worldwide consumption of about 70 million
bubbles that were flammable18. This was observed by tons20, its primary use remains in petroleum refining,
Robert Boyle too in 1671. In 1766, Henry Cavendish ammonia production, metal refining, and electronics
collected such bubbles and demonstrated that they fabrication.
were different from other gases. He later observed that
when hydrogen combines with oxygen (combustion Figure 5 illustrates the basic cost of generating 1,000
reaction), it results in the formation of water and heat MJ of energy from different fuels after accounting for
(exothermic reaction). Later, scientists observed that the market rates of these fuels and assuming the rate
hydrogen also acts as a fuel for nuclear fusion reactions of coal to be INR 10 per kg. The cost of carbon
that cause light and heat in celestrial bodies. As hydrogen emissions from each fuel was calculated at the rate of
is less dense (lighter) than air, it can be used in lifting INR 6.45 per kg (86 USD per ton) of CO221. It was
objects such as balloons. observed that in terms of energy content (1,000 MJ),
hydrogen is reaching cost parity with conventional
fuel. Although green hydrogen is currently the
costliest, once mass deployment takes place and the
4.2 HYDROGEN AS AN ENERGY economies of scale begin operating, a sharp reduction
CARRIER in the prices along with cost competitiveness with the
other fossil fuels can be expected. For example, a 50%
Hydrogen does not exist freely in nature, is an energy reduction in the price of green hydrogen makes it
carrier that can only be produced from another energy cheaper for use in transport, heating, and other niche
source such as water, fossil fuels, or biomass and can
19 applications than fossil fuels, and more so, when the
be used as a source of energy or fuel. Hydrogen has the environmental impact is taken into account.

Figure 5 | Cost of production (in INR) of 1,000 MJ of energy, WRI India estimates

Basic + CO2 emmisions Cost

Basic Cost

0.00 1000.00 2000.00 3000.00 4000.00 5000.00

Coal Blue H2 Grey H2 Green H2 LPG Diesel Petrol

12
4.3 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN gas accounts for 48% of the production of hydrogen, oil
30%, coal 18%, and electrolysis 4%. The different
processes used for producing hydrogen are
The global demand for pure hydrogen increased, from
thermochemical, electrolytic, direct solar water
less than 20 million metric tons (MMT) in 1975 to
splitting, biological process, and nuclear23.
more than 70 MMT in 2019. The current demand for
hydrogen is fulfilled mainly by fossil fuels, including
Although colorless and invisible, hydrogen has been
natural gas, oil and coal. These fuels represent the
color-coded by the energy industry to differentiate it
cheapest pathway, allowing the cost of hydrogen to
on the basis of the source or process by which it is
vary between USD 2 and 4 per kg22. Of these, natural
produced24.

Table 1 | Pathways to produce hydrogen

Process & Technology Source

Thermochemical Process Steam Methane Reformation Natural gas

(Catalyst)
Coal Gasification Coal

Biomass Gasification Incomplete combustion of biomass, including biowaste, agricultural waste

and municipal waste
Electrolytic Process Alkaline Aqueous solution (KOH/NaOH) as the electrolyte
(Splitting of water using electricity)
Polymer electrolytic membrane Polysulphonated membranes are used as the proton conductor

Solid oxide electrolysis Solid ceramic material as electrolyte

Anion Exchange Membrane Solid polymer membrane made of polymer backbone and cationic groups

Photolytic Process (Splitting of a Photoelectrochemical Using semiconductor light absorbers

water molecule using sunlight)
Photobiological Microorganisms, such as green microalgae or cyanobacteria, use sunlight

Biological Process (Using Microbial mass conversion Hydrolysis and fermentation of biomass
microbes, the organic matter
is decomposed in presence of
Photobiological Microorganisms, such as green microalgae or cyanobacteria, use sunlight
sunlight)

Table 2 | Color codes of hydrogen and their production pathways

Colour Production pathway

Grey: natural gas reforming without CCUS
Brown: brown coal (lignite) as feedstock
Blue: natural gas reforming with CCUS
Green: electrolysis powered through renewable electricity
Pink: electrolysis powered through nuclear energy

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 13

A few significant methods of producing First, natural gas - which contains hydrocarbons such
hydrogen are presented in the following as methane - is made to undergo a thermochemical
subsections: reaction in the presence of a catalyst (nickel) using
high temperature steam (700-1000°C under 14-20
atmosphere of pressure) to produce hydrogen, CO, and
4.3.1 STEAM METHANE REFORMING CO2. Then, a water-gas shift reaction takes place, and
CO and steam are reacted using a catalyst to produce
Steam methane reforming (SMR) was the first
CO2 and more hydrogen.
industrial method of producing hydrogen production
and has been used since 193025. Today, most of the
CO2 and other impurities, such as sulphur (S), chlorine
commercially available hydrogen is produced through
(Cl) and carbon oxides, are removed from the gas
this matured process which has an efficiency of
stream through the pressure swing adsorption process
70-80%. Steam reforming is endothermic, i.e., heat
to produce 99.99% pure hydrogen. Steam reforming
must be supplied for the reaction to take place. The
can also produce hydrogen from other fuels, such as
process takes place in two steps: SMR reaction and
ethanol, propane, and gasoline.The challenges
water-gas shift reaction, with the release of four
associated with SMR are the energy intensiveness of
hydrogen molecules from a single molecule of
the procedure and the ratio of CO2 emissions to
methane26.
hydrogen produced. A hydrogen production of 1 ton
produces anywhereg between 9 and 12 tons of CO2, a
greenhouse gas that can be captured27.

Figure 6 | SMR schematic representation

3 CO2 removal 90%

CO2 removal 99%

NG feed SMR H2
WGS 1 PSA
reactor

Fuel gas
Tail gas
2

CO2 removal 90%

14
4.3.2 PARTIAL OXIDATION 4.3.3 COAL GASIFICATION
Hydrocarbons, especially methane, in natural gas Carbon-based feedstock, or coal, is converted into
react with oxygen to produce CO2 and water. This syngas - a mixture of CO, hydrogen steam and oxygen
process is non-catalytic and exothermic. The reaction - in a gasifier in the presence of steam and oxygen at a
occurs in two steps at a temperature of 1300-1500°C 28
very high temperature and moderate pressure.
with partial oxidation of methane and water-gas shift. Depending on the gasification technology used, some
This process is much faster than steam reforming and quantities of water, CO2 and methane can be produced
requires a smaller reactor vessel with the production alongside syngas30. For the production of hydrogen,
of heat. This reaction produces three molecules of syngas is moved to a water-gas shift reactor, whereby
hydrogen for every molecule of methane. This process CO in the gas is reacted with water to produce
is commercially available and has an efficiency of additional hydrogen and CO2, which are then
60-70%. As compared with SMR (H2: CO = 3:1), more separated, producing about two hydrogen molecules
CO is produced (H2: CO =1:1 or 2:1) than hydrogen . 29
and three molecules of carbon.

Figure 7 | Coal gasification

Gasifying agent:
air, steam, oxygen

Feedstock: coal Gasifier Pure H2

(700˚- 1000˚C)

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 15

4.3.4 ELECTROLYSIS There are four types of technologies that provide
readiness levels - alkaline (AE), polymer electrolyzer
Electrolysis is the breaking down of water molecules membrane (PEM), solid oxide (SOE), and anion
into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity and has exchange membrane (AEM). AE, PEM32, and AEM33
been applied since 1890. It offers a promising option to are low temperature technologies that provide high
produce hydrogen using renewables. The process takes technology readiness levels whereas SOE is a high-
place in an electrolyzer that consists of anode and temperature technology34, 35.
cathode electrodes separated by electrolytes.
Depending upon the electrolyte used, either the OH- or The purity, hydrogen output, stack lifetime, and capital
the H+ ions move across the membrane, following cost of the various electrolyzer types are presented in
which the splitting of water molecules takes place. Table 3.

Figure 8 | Schematic diagram of electrolysis process31

Cathode Anode
– +

Hydrogen Oxygen

Hydrogen Oxygen
Bubbles Bubbles

Electrolyte Solution

Figure 9 | Four types of electrolysis in hydrogen production

Alkaline Polymer Electrolyzer Solid Oxide Cell Anion Exchange

Electrolysis Membrane Electrolyzer Membrane

■ Uses aqueous KOH / NaOH ■ Uses polysulphonated ■ Uses solid ceramic ■ Uses ionsomer membrane
solution as conduting membrane for proton exchange membrane ■ @ Demonstration scale
membrane and platinum, iridium oxide as ■ @ R & D scale ■ Operates at 50–60°C
■ Matured technology and electrocatalyst ■ Operates at 500–850°C ■ Efficiency of 55-69%
commercially available ■ Operating at small pilot ■ Efficiency of 74-80%
■ Operates at 30–80°C plants
temperature ■ Operates at 30–80°C
■ Efficiency of 63-70% temperature
■ Efficiency of 55-60%

16
Table 3 | Comparison of types of electrolyzers

Sl. no. Type of Electrolyzer Purity of H2 gas (%) Hydrogen output (kgh-1) Stack lifetime ('000 hours) Capital cost (Euro/ kW)

1 Alkaline Electrolysers 99.50 <68.3 60 –90 1000-2000

2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane 99.9999 <3.59 20-60 1860-2000

3 Solid Oxide Electrolyser 99.90 <3.59 <10 >2000

4 Anion Exchange Membrane 99.99 <0.089 >5 -

4.3.5 BIOMASS GASIFICATION 4.3.6 OTHERS

Biomass gasification (BG) allows the conversion of Photolysis: Photolysis is the process of splitting
organic feedstock into useful energy form, such as heat water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen using light.
and electricity. In BG, the combustion of organic Photolysis can be brought on either by a photobiologi-
matter under controlled oxygen results in the cal or photoelectrochemical process. The photobiologi-
production of combustible gases, such as CO, hydrogen cal process involves the production of hydrogen using
and traces of methane. This mixture is called syngas . 36
microorganisms such as green algae in the presence of
Biomass is available from a wide range of sources, such light, whereas in the photoelectrochemical process, a
as animal waste, municipal solid waste, crop residue, catalyst is used.
short-rotation woody crops, agricultural waste,
sawdust, aquatic plants, short-rotation herbaceous Auto Thermal Reformation: Auto thermal reform-
species, waste paper and corn. Approximately 13-14 Kg ing (ATR), a combination of steam reforming and
of bone dry biomass is required to produce 1 Kg of partial oxidation, is a promising technology for the
hydrogen . The gasification process typically suffers
37 production of low-cost and highly reliable hydrogen.
from low thermal efficiency because The operational temperature is 950-1050oC, and a
of high moisture content. pressure of 30-50 bar is required. ATR can also be
shut down and started rapidly while producing more
hydrogen than POX alone.
Figure 10 | Biomass gasification

Biomass High purity

hydrogen

Syngas
Gasifier
Oxygen rich steam

Memberane
separator

Wastes
(ash, inorganics, tar)
BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 17
4.4 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF 4.5 HYDROGEN VALUE CHAIN
PRODUCING HYDROGEN USING
DIFFERENT PATHWAYS There are four main stages in the hydrogen value
chain: production, storage, transportation, and
utilization. These four states interconnect the entire
The costs of producing hydrogen vary significantly
hydrogen energy system. The selection of the hydrogen
between regions due to the variability in the cost of the
production process depends on the availability of
resources required. Natural gas and coal are abun-
feedstock, the type of energy and the end-user
dantly found only in select areas, where it is cheaper.
requirements.
Similarly, costs for generating electricity vary from
region to region, thereby influencing the cost of raw
material required for the production of hydrogen.
Presently, producing hydrogen using natural gas
without carbon capture technology is the most eco-
nomical route worldwide. Production through electrol-
ysis depends on the cost of electricity and electrolyzer
used. These methods are currently expensive as
compared with the natural gas-based production
process without carbon capture storage (CCS). Figure
11 illustrates the cost of hydrogen when produced
using different methods38.

Figure 11 | Production cost of hydrogen

1000

800

600

400 813

200 433
245 258
150
0
Steam Methane Coal Biomass Biomass Electrolyzer
Reforming Gascification Gascification Microbial Alkaline
Rs/kg

18
Figure 12 | Hydrogen value chain

Electrolysis Membrane

Green pathway

Temp: 80-90 degree C

SOLAR

High Temperature
WIND
ELECTRICITY

Biomass Gascification
Hydrogen Gas (H2)
(WET)
HYBRID

High Temperature
GRID Grey, Blue
Pathway

Steam Methane
Reforming (SMR)

Conventional Methods

Coal
Gascification (CG)

H2 Gas (99.90% purity)

Mobility Applications

NH3/Liquified Hs
Chemicals & Fertilizers

Storage & H2 gas

Steel
Distribution

H2 Gas
Cement

H2 Gas
Power

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 19

4.6 TECHNOLOGY READINESS technologies. Hydrogen has very low volumetric
density and volumetric energy despite having high
LEVELS W.R.T PRODUCTION mass energy content, which makes storage difficult.
PATHWAYS, GLOBALLY When produced through electrolysis, it has a pressure
of 1-bar, and roughly 20-30 bar from the SMR route40.
Technology readiness is a measure of assessing For easy transportation, the volumetric density of
customer use-ready products. Technology readiness hydrogen can be increased by compressing hydrogen
levels (TRLs) cover the entire development process, and then storing it in pressurized cylinders. An
from assessing whether or not the basic principles alternative method to increase the density of the fluid
underpinning the concept have been observed through is to liquefy the gas at a temperature of -253°C.
the proof of concept, to prototyping, to demonstrating However, liquefaction is an energy-intensive process
operational effectiveness. Table 4 presents TRLs of the and consumes around 30% of the total energy content
different production pathways along with the pathway of hydrogen. Due to heat gain and boiloff, transporta-
efficiency, the global warming potential (GWP), and tion of liquid hydrogen results in energy losses. Addi-
the cost per kg of hydrogen . 39
tionally, storage tanks need to be made of materials
that can withstand extremely low temperatures.
Research on developing storage for hydrogen in solid

4.7 STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION form by using metal hydride compounds is ongoing.
Table 5 presents a comparison of the different storage

Hydrogen is a highly flammable fuel, making safety a methods:

crucial aspect in hydrogen storage and distribution

Table 4 | TRL for different pathways of hydrogen production

System Source Readiness Level Efficiency (%) Cost USD/Kg of H2 GWP (Kg CO2 /Kg H2)

Steam reforming without CCS Fossil fuel (Hydrocarbon) 9 70-80% 1.5 - 2.5 9 -10

Partial oxidation Fossil Fuel (Hydrocarbon) 9 50-55% NA 9 – 10

Autothermal reforming Fossil fuel (Hydrocarbon) 8 60-75% NA 9

Coal gasification without CCS Coal 8 60-70% 3-4 18-20

Biomass gasification Biomass (Hydrocarbon) 9 35-50% 3-5 4.6

Water electrolysis alkaline Water 9 63-70% 6-7 YTD

PEM Water 5-7 55-60% 8 -10 2.2

SOCE Water 3-5 74-80% YTD YTD

Photolysis 1-3 0.5% YTD YTD

20
Table 5 | Storage methods for hydrogen

Storage Methods Advantages Limitations

Pressurized storage Matured technology, high efficiency Specialized materials required to withstand high pressure

Cryogenic Higher liquid density, suitable for large quantities High liquefaction costs, boiloff gas management and expensive
materials required
Metal hydride Relatively high density, modular operation Emerging technology, not commercialized, heavier to handle

Hydrogen can be made available at the retail point Pipelines (existing or new), although a sophisticated
using distribution options such as pressurised technology, requires more capital expenditure and is
containers, liquified containers, pipelines, and onsite more suited for large volumes. A simpler option is to
production. Road transport using pressurised have onsite hydrogen generation, which eliminates the
containers is the normal way of transporting cost of transportation. Water electrolysis is most
hydrogen, but liquefaction of hydrogen for transport suitable for onsite production as it is more scalable and
results in a significant increase in its energy density emission-free.
and allows for carrying upto 10 times more hydrogen.

Table 6 | Transportation modes of hydrogen and related Issues

Transportation mode Issues Limitations

Pressurized container or cylinders Limited quantity can be transported Specialized material to withstand the pressure and weight

Cryogenic Liquefaction costs are high Require special material to carry and to boiloff to be addressed

Pipelines Safety such as leak detection Construction material cost is high

Onsite production Economical technology Electrolyser and electricity cost to be reduced

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 21

4.8 END-USE OPPORTUNITIES
OF HYDROGEN
The current annual demand for hydrogen in India, of
about 6 MMT41, is dominated by the industrial sector
where it is used predominantly as feedstock for
ammonia-based fertilizers and in refineries. In this
section, we explore the opportunities for increasing the
footprint of hydrogen usage in different sectors.

Figure 13 | End-use of hydrogen

HYDROGEN FOR FUEL FOR FUEL FOR FUEL FOR

INDUSTRIES TRANSPORTATION POWER INDUSTRIAL AND
Steel RESIDENTIAL HEAT
Cement
Chemical & Fertilizer
Refineries

4.8.1 FEEDSTOCK FOR INDUSTRIES 837 MMT43. A significant reduction in these emissions

As more industries plan to decarbonize and reduce is required to meet the global carbon reduction targets

their associated process-related industrial emissions and India’s own NDCs. With more than 970 steel

by 2050, the demand for hydrogen, especially green, is plants, India is currently the world’s second-largest

expected to increase. The following sub-sections producer and third-largest consumer of steel. Steel can

present the scope for hydrogen usage in harder-to- be produced either by using an integrated blast

abate industries. furnace (BF)/basic oxygen furnace (BOF) or an electric

arc furnace (EAF). In the former, steel is produced
from iron ore, with coal as a reductant. EAF producers
4.8.1A STEEL use steel scrap or direct reduced iron (DRI) as their
The iron and steel industry accounts for about 7% of
main raw material. In a slightly modified process
all carbon emissions globally. Producing a ton of crude
termed h2-DRI, fossil fuels are replaced with green
steel produces 1600 kg of CO2 emissions42. As per
hydrogen. Hydrogen can also be used as the sole
projections, by 2050, the demand for steel would
reducing agent in traditional DRI, enabling nearly
increase by more than four times and CO2 emissions to
emission-free steel production. Each kilogram of

22
hydrogen used in the production of crude steel in the carbon footprint significantly.
DRI method results in a reduction in CO2 emission by
24 kgs44. Currently, only ~7%45 of primary steel is Methanol too is an important chemical, which can be
produced using the DRI method and hydrogen must be produced by hydrogenating hydrogen (sourced from
used as substitute and its share increased over time to fossil fuel) with CO2 (biomass or organic matter).
reduce the carbon footprint in steel production. Green hydrogen oxygenated with biomass CO2
produces green methanol, which is used for
formaldehyde and fuel applications and as an
4.8.1B REFINERIES
intermediary in the production of high-value
Crude oil accounts for approximately 30% of the
chemicals.
primary energy demand in the country, with more
than 80% of it being imported (IEA, 2020). Hydrogen
is used primarily to remove impurities such as sulphur 4.8.1D CEMENT
from crude oil. Stricter regulations on sulphur has led The cement industry is highly energy-intensive and a
to increased demand for hydrogen even as demand for major emitter of CO2 globally. India’s cement industry,
diesel and petrol has increased. Going by the existing on the technological front, has largely adopted modern
policies, by 2030, the demand for hydrogen is expected manufacturing technologies for the burning of
to increase by 7%. Thus, the demand currently being limestone for cement production, with 1 ton of cement
met within refineries by gray hydrogen can be replaced emitting an equal amount of CO2. 47
with green hydrogen (10% green hydrogen mandate) in
the initial stages. In addition, refineries that use fossil Cement is a mixture of limestone and clay and is one of
fuels instead of hydrogen can be mandated to use the the ingredients in concrete production along with
latter and shift to green hydrogen in the later stages. water, sand and gravel. To produce concrete, the
mixture is heated to a temperature of 1500oC.
Hydrogen can be used for such high temperatures and
4.8.1C CHEMICALS AND FERTILIZERS
to replace natural gas used in the production of cement.
The chemical sector is the largest industrial consumer
of oil and gas and ranks third in CO2 emissions, behind
cement, iron and steel46. Ammonia is one of the prime 4.8.2 FUEL FOR TRANSPORTATION
materials used in the production of synthetic nitrogen The transport sector is a major CO2 emitter,
fertilizers and India is the fourth-largest producer of contributing 25% to the global and 14% to national
nitrogenous fertilizers in the world. Conventionally, emissions caused by fuel combustion48. The Indian
ammonia is produced by mixing hydrogen (typically transport fuel mix is dominated by 96% oil %, followed
produced from fossil fuels) with atmospheric nitrogen, by 3% gas and 1% electricity. Diesel vehicles contribute
which is a highly CO2 intensive process. As ammonia is significantly (61%) to these emissions, followed by
not flammable, remains liquid at room temperature petrol vehicles (37%). Freight vehicles that use diesel
and is easy to transport, green ammonia can be used and passenger vehicles (two-wheelers and cars) are the
in lieu of hydrogen. This means hydrogen can be major segments that contribute to the emissions, given
converted to ammonia for transportation and then their large numbers49. Emissions from aviation and
reconverted to hydrogen at the destination. Although shipping too are increasing, with increase in air travel
this entails some energy loss, it presents a solution for and shipping becoming the backbone of global supply
the barriers in transporting and handling hydrogen. chains. Studies50 indicate that by 2050, the share of
Ammonia is also used in the production of nitrogenous low carbon fuel should increase to 60% in the
fertilizers, such as urea, ammonium sulphate, transport fuel mix to be compatible with the 1.5oC
ammonium sulphate nitrate, and ammonium chloride. limit.
Producing these from green hydrogen can help reduce

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 23

Some countries have banned all diesel powered cars
4.8.3 FUEL FOR POWER
and trucks owing to the high levels of pollution these
Power generation is the largest contributor to India’s
generate51 and have tightened emission standards so as
carbon emissions, accounting for 43% of the total
to reduce vehicular pollution. There are issues with
emissions. More than 70% of the country’s power
alternatives such as biofuels and battery electric
generation is coal-based. Each unit of electricity
vehicles. The environmental impact of biofuels
releases 684 g of CO256. India has set a 40% non-fossil-
includes issues of land use for production and air
based power capacity target for 2030, with a
quality, whereas battery electric vehicles have range
predominant share of solar energy. Several hydrogen
anxiety issues, although the number of refueling
power projects have been initiated to supply power to
stations is being increased. Hydrogen can play a
the grid over the last two decades, and these involve
significant role in the transportation sector as it
low volume hydrogen combustion in gas turbines using
addresses these issues more efficiently.
gray hydrogen, which is a by-product in the utilization
of fossil fuels. New green hydrogen gas turbines are
Hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs), which use PEM fuel cells,
being developed, which can burn hydrogen more
can be used as an alternative in transportation. PEM
efficiently and be used for serving peak loads and base
cells have better efficiency and high power density52 as
loads. This has the potential to reduce the dependency
compared with the existing power train. Currently,
on natural gas. Niche applications such as
although the capital cost of the fuel cell drive train is
replenishable hydrogen fuel cells can replace diesel
high as compared with the internal combustion engine
generators in household/small industrial applications
and battery electic vehicle drive trains, it has lesser
and as a short-term source of energy.57
emissions and maintenance costs, is faster to charge
and has more longevity and range. Also, its capital cost
is expected to decrease when production is scaled up. 4.8.4 FUEL FOR INDUSTRIAL AND
It is expected that by 2030, the total cost of ownership RESIDENTIAL HEAT
(TCO) of fuel cell power trains would converge with A large share (~66%) of industrial energy is used for
other existing power trains53. According to IEA heating requirements, and its growing demand will
estimates, sales of fuel cell-driven electric vehicles result in increasing CO2 emissions, accounting for a
could reach 8 million by 2030 in developed nations, quarter of the global emissions in 204058. Industrial
and 150 million by 2050 along with a 25% share of heating systems depend mainly on fossil fuels, biomass
road transport.54 (wood or dung), and electricity for producing heat,
most of which is produced onsite. These systems could
Refueling hydrogen cells is much faster as compared be decarbonized either by switching to alternative
to battery cells, with 15 hydrogen refilling stations fuels or by increasing electrification with the help of
generating throughput equivalent to 900 battery cell substainable heat pumps. Emissions could be reduced
fast-chargers55. This can be leveraged in the initial by blending up to 20% hydrogen into the exiting
stages to roll out the return-to-base fleets, such as natural gas supply and kick-starting the transition.
delivery vans and point-to-point buses. The However, the commercial exploitation of hydrogen in
deployment of fuel cell buses has begun in Europe, the core industrial sectors would need to wait, owing
North America, and China in a small way. The long to low maturity, uncertain costs and the need to
distance heavy trucks domain will open up once the change the existing plant designs.
refueling stations proliferate and the capital cost of the
drive trains decreases owing to advancements in
technology and the activation of the economies of
scale.

24
5.0 CONCLUSION technology, infrastructure, and capacity building,
both from the public as well as private sectors.
Essentially, this implies kick-starting the hydrogen
Reducing carbon emissions as well as the dependence economy by creating an enabling policy and regulatory
on fossil fuels are the foremost considerations that framework covering all aspects - production, safe
propel us towards hydrogen as a source of energy and storage, refuelling of stations, hydrogen-ready design
increasing its share in the country’s energy mix. There of transport vehicles, redesigning/reimagining
are multiple hydrogen production pathways and end-user applications to follow the hydrogen pathway
compelling economics for each category of hydrogen, and incentives for increasing the usage of hydrogen as
viz. blue, gray, and green. Hydrogen as an energy a fuel. A strategic alliance to unlock the potential
carrier can be used for a broad range of applications in synergies between the government and the private
different sectors and requires the setting up of suitable sector to address these aspects would help us meet
infrastructure. This calls for large investments in our climate goals.

Energy in terms of weight

1 Btu(IT)/lb = 2.3278 MJ/t = 2327.8 J/kg = 0.55598 kcal/kg = 0.000646 kWh/kg

1 kcal/kg = 1 cal/g = 4.1868 MJ/t = 4186.8 J/kg = 1.8 Btu(IT)/lb = 0.001162 kWh/kg
1 MJ/kg = 1000 J/g = 1 GJ/t = 238.85 kcal/kg = 429.9 Btu(IT)/lb = 0.2778 kWh/kg
1 kWh/kg = 1547.7 Btu(IT)/lb = 3.597 GJ/t = 3597.1 kJ/kg = 860.421 kcal/kg

Volume in terms of litre

1 imperial gallon = 4.54609 L

1 US gallon = 3.785411784 L
1 imperial pint = 0.56826125 L
1 US pint = 0.473176473 L
1 barrel of oil = 158.987294928 L

Energy in terms of power

1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
1 Btu = 1055.056 J
1 MMBtu = 293.07 kWh
39.4 kWh ( 1 kg of hydrogen ) = 0.1344 MMBtu
1 therm = 105.5056 MJ
1 calorie = 4.1868 J
1 tonne of oil equivalent (toe) = 41.868 GJ (LHV)
1 barrel of oil ≈ 5.70 GJ (IEA def.)
(LHV) 5.86 GJ (global avg.)

BASICS OF HYDROGEN TECHNOLOGY | 25

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AUTHORS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. OP Agarwal is CEO at WRI India and leads the The authors give their thanks to Soham Kshirsagar for his support in
organization’s ongoing efforts around cities, energy, various stages of writing the paper. The authors give their heartfelt
climate, landscape restoration, water, and government thanks to Dr. Parveen Kumar and Shyamasis Das for their timely
and business engagement. He has served as a member of review of the paper. The authors are grateful to Dr. Shahana Chattaraj
the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) and held several and Sudeshna Chatterjee for their guidance in developing the paper.
positions from 1979 to 2007. As the head of the Urban They are thankful to Rohan Rao and Anuraag Nallapaneni for their
Transport division of the Government of India, he authored discerning insights. In addition, the authors also thank Garima Jain,
India’s National Urban Transport Policy, a document that Neeraja Dhorde, Rama Thoopal, Dnyanada Deshpande, Uma Asher,
outlines the priorities for sustainable urban transport at all Anindita Bhattacharjee, Bodhisattva Sen Roy and Karthikeyan
levels of government. He was the Executive Director at the Hemalatha who led the copy-editing, designing and final production
Indian School of Business and chaired the US Transport of this paper. The findings and suggestions in the paper are the sole
Research Board’s Committee on Transportation in responsibility of the authors.
Developing Countries. He is a highly respected thinker and
practitioner with a wealth of experience in cities, urban
transport, climate change and related development and
environment issues. Dr. Agarwal holds a PhD from the
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi, a Master’s
degree in Transportation from the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, Cambridge, USA and a Bachelor’s degree in
Electrical Engineering from IIT, Chennai.

Pawan Mulukutla is the Director of Clean Mobility and

Energy Tech at WRI India. He is responsible for shaping
WRI India's Hydrogen and Electric Mobility Programs. He
is in-charge of the overall strategy and its implementation,
partnerships and engagement. Pawan’s areas of focus
include EV Industrial Evolution, Hydrogen Value Chain,
India's pathway to Hydrogen economy, EV Industrial
Evolution, Skill Development, Energy Storage, Charging
Infrastructure planning framework, Vehicle to Grid
Integration, and EV Asset financing. He holds a degree in
Advanced Management from IIM-Bengaluru and an MS in
Transport Engineering and Planning from Clemson
University, South Carolina, USA.

Krishnaveni Malladi is a Consultant in Hydrogen Energy

at WRI India. She leads research and analysis on emerging
hydrogen technology. Krishnaveni holds an M. Tech in
Biotechnology from Andhra University, Visakhapatnam,
India. Krishanveni has several publications including one in
the journal of American Chemist Society. She has also
worked on enzyme research at SPIC Biotechnology,
Chennai.

For any queries about this document, contact Pawan.Mulukutla@wri.org