Bilingualism Problems in Nigeria

Journal of Languages, Linguistics and Literary Studies (JOLLS) Http://www.jolls.com.
ng
Vol. 8. March 2019 ISSN : 2636-7149-6300 (online & print)
Bilingualism Problems in Nigeria: Implications for ESL Pedagogy
B.F. Ovu1 and Q.E. Anyanwu2

1
Department of English Language and Literature, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri
2
Teaching Practice Department, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri.
Abstract
In this paper, we discuss some of the conceptual and ontological problems that bilingualism raises for ESL
pedagogy in Nigeria. We critically review the various classifications of bilingualism which have
accumulated in the literature over the years, taking note of the implications of each classification for
second language pedagogy particularly within the Nigerian linguistic environment. Specifically, we x-ray
the theoretical and empirical challenges that bilingualism holds for a generative theory of second language
acquisition with special reference to the nature of bilingual competence. We also discuss the pattern and
reality of bilingual language attrition using data from twenty Igbo children whose proficiency in English is
relatively high even though some of them can hardly speak a word of Igbo. In analysing the results, we were
guided by four variables: Language Facility (LF), where we assessed each member of the population based
on whether he or she speaks more than one language; Degree of Proficiency (DP), where we grouped the
research subjects based on different levels of proficiency in the languages spoken with emphasis on both
productive and receptive language skills as well as their mode of using the languages (i.e. whether or not
they can write and speak them); Parental Background (PB), where we concentrated on knowing whether
there would be any significant difference between children whose parents are literate and those whose
parents are illiterate in the use of the languages, and Attitude and Value Attached to the Language (AVL),
where we assessed the social-economic variables that may affect their proficiency or general ability to use
the languages. After these, we discuss the results and draw our conclusion.
Key Words: bilingualism, language attrition, minimalism, second language acquisition
1. Introduction in children (Francis, 2012); cognitive aspects of
One of the operational definitions of bilingualism (Kecskes & Albertazzi, 2007);
bilingualism is that it is “the natural consequence research methodologies in bilingualism (Wei &
of the human language faculty realising its full Moyer, 2008); bilingualism and learning
potential to acquire more than one language on modelling (Schmid & Lowei, 2011); bilingualism
the basis of input from the linguistic and psycholinguistic variables (Kroll & de Groot,
environment” (Ovu, 2017, p.46). Thus, human 2005); bilingualism and bilingual literacy
beings have either actual or potential capacity to development (Leiken, Schwartz & Tobin, 2012);
acquire more than one language depending on the bilingualism and language attrition (Chin &
linguistic input available to them (Cook & Wigglesworth, 2007); bilingual competence in
Newson, 2007 p.220). Generally, bilingualism youths and young adults (Potowski & Rothman,
should be considered as the rule rather than the 2011); bilingualism psychometrics and evaluation
exception. For instance, it is estimated that two- (Menken, 2008); bilingualism and
third of world children grow up in bilingual metrolingualism (Pennycook & Otsuji, 2015);
environments (Bhatia & Ritchie 2006 p.1). emotive aspects of bilingualism (Pavlenko,
Secondly, about 440 million out of the estimated 2006), bilingualism and language contacts (Appél
760 million users of English worldwide do so & Muysken, 2005). These works reveal the
with at least one other language while about half multidisciplinary, multi-factored and
of the Nigerian population uses English with at multidimensional nature of bilingualism.
least one indigenous language (Crystal, 2005). However, none of them has done much in
Consequently, a large body of research terms of looking at the problems that bilingualism
has discussed diverse issues around bilingualism poses to language teaching and learning in
such as the development of bilingual competence Nigeria. This paper is, therefore, a modest
B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 13
CC BY-NC-ND Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
Journal of Languages, Linguistics and Literary Studies (JOLLS) Http://www.jolls.com.ng
attempt to address some bilingualism problems functional bilinguals are in the main those who
within the Nigerian linguistic landscape. The make use of their bilingual repertoires on regular
paper is divided into five sections. Section two bases while dormant bilinguals are those who no
discusses the conceptual and ontological issues longer use their bilingual skills owing to
involved in characterising individual or group relocation to a new environment or other factors
bilingualism, which for the purpose of the present that make it impossible for them to still use both
discussion also subsumes multilingualism. languages. One may then ask if a person who
Section three provides the theoretical and studied French in the secondary school as part of
analytical framework for measuring bilingual fulfilling the requirements of the Nigerian
competence. Section four presents a case study National Policy on Education qualifies as a
report of bilingual language attrition in functional or dormant bilingual.
Amakohia, Owerri North L.G.A., Imo State while Another issue is the pattern of organising
sections five and six discuss the findings of the meaning in the languages. Weinreich (1953) has
case study and conclusion respectively. used this criterion to distinguish three types of
2. Bilingualism in Nigeria: Some Conceptual bilingual individuals viz: compound, coordinate
and Ontological Problems and subordinate bilinguals. Compound bilinguals
The first problem of bilingualism in are said to store two sets of linguistic codes as
Nigeria may be described as both conceptual and one meaning unit while coordinate bilinguals
ontological. For instance, there is a polarity of store them as separate meaning units and finally
camps holding divergent opinions as to what subordinate bilinguals interpret linguistic codes in
should be emphasised when discussing bilingual their second or additional language through their
individuals. This ranges from those who L1. Thus, whereas the compound bilinguals have
emphasise minimal competence (e.g. Haugen two sets of linguistic codes that are stored as one
1953) to those who emphasise native-like meaning unit, coordinate bilinguals have two sets
competence in the languages (e.g. Bloomfield, of linguistic codes stored and accessed separately
1935). However, the general tendency is to as two different meaning units, subordinate
discuss bilingualism and bilingual competence bilinguals store theirs as one meaning unit which
using specific descriptors such as degree of use, can only be accessed through the first language
context of acquisition, age of acquisition, domain (Ovu, 2017, p.49). While these distinctions are
of use and social orientation (cf. Beardsmore, conceptually relevant, they still remain difficult
1991). to establish in practical terms. For instance, there
In terms of degree of use, bilingual are those whom English is not just their primary
individuals are classified into functional and language but also their first language such that
dormant bilinguals (Grosjean, 1982) as well as they possess full productive competence in the
balanced and dominant bilinguals (Peal & language with marginal perceptive competence in
Lambert, 1962). In Nigeria, functional bilinguals one or more indigenous languages. There is a
include school children and adults who can case of 28 year old Mirabel who simply replied
reasonably and consistently use English with at that her mother told her she is from Abia State.
least one Nigerian language. However, there is Mirabel has only visited her hometown four times
yet to be any demographic and linguistic data to and she bears an Igbo name. Though she
establish the bilingual profiles of the citizens. understands many Igbo expressions, she can
Thus, the number of individuals who fall under hardly make a sentence in Igbo and her accent
functional and dormant bilinguals in Nigeria is sounds very funny. To Mirabel, Igbo is nothing
not clear. Secondly, there is no yardstick for but a heritage language with English as her
measuring the extent of functionality in the primary language. Yet, should Mirabel travel
language for one to pass as a dormant or outside the shores of Nigeria she will face a hard
functional bilingual except for the fact that time coping with spoken British or American
English. Her vocabulary is limited to what is Generally, there is a marked difference in

available in her environment. For instance, the pattern of acquisition of bilingual competence
Mirabel does not know the meaning of across the country. Although the majority of the
„jaywalking‟ and a host of other English idioms. population acquired a first language before going
Consequently, one major problem that on to acquire a second and third language
comes with any attempt to relate Weinreich typically in a school environment thereby earning
(1953)‟s classification to the Nigerian linguistic themselves the label sequential bilinguals, there
experience is that even a language like English are a number of others who acquired their
which plays several significant roles in our bilingual repertoires simultaneously (See Amadi,
national and everyday lives is not infused with all Anyanwu & Izuagba, 2001). A typical example is
the cultural nuances found in a typical native found in some parts of Owerri where parents use
speaker setting. Yet many people have English as both English and Igbo to talk with their children
their first or most dominant language but without and these children later grow up to use the two
the cultural nuances that come with using English languages interchangeably although with
in a native speaker setting. Thus, balanced disproportionate proficiency. Furthermore, social
bilingualism in English and one Nigerian pressures especially from the major languages
language is not possible. What exist are upon the minority languages have given rise to
coordinate and subordinate bilinguals. However, folk and elite bilingualism (Fishman, 1977) as
the primary source of data for measuring well as circumstantial and elective bilingualism
bilingual competence in Nigeria is usually test in Nigeria (Figueroa, 1994). Folk bilingualism
instruments from examination bodies like refers to what is found among minority language
WAEC, JAMB, etc which are in most cases not groups and the latter refers to those who speak
reliable. There is little or no sociolinguistic field the dominant language with the use of another
research to support most of the assumptions language giving them an additional value. For
found in textbooks. example, in Adamawa State almost all the people
In the case of early and late bilinguals, are bilingual in Hausa and one other minority
the major considerations are age, language usage language. Similarly, in Bayelsa and River states,
and cultural identity. Looking at age of most people are bilingual in the Nigerian Pidgin
acquisition, one may draw a distinction between and one indigenous language (see also Obikudo,
early and late bilinguals (Genesee, Hamers, 2008). In other words, folk bilinguals are under
Lambert, Mononen, Seitz & Starck, 1978). Early serious social pressures to learn the dominant
bilinguals are common in urban areas especially language such that they have little or no choice in
Lagos where children can easily acquire both acquiring the other language in addition to theirs.
Yoruba and the Nigerian pidgin. But due to In terms of attitudes, the only motivating factor is
parental attitude most children lose this ability in survival on the side of folk bilinguals while
later life. For instance, most parents of Igbo solidarity and finesse play a big role in
origin accuse their children of speaking ngbati determining elite bilingualism. This has informed
ngbati. As a Yoruba expression, ngbati is often the classification of bilingual individuals into
used with reference to time. But in the present circumstantial and elective bilinguals respectively
context, it is used as a derogatorily to describe (Butler & Hakuta, 2006 p.118).
those Igbo children who speak mainly Yoruba but The effect of acquiring an additional
know little to nothing of her own language. These language on the existing language brings about
people are often seen as traitors who have chosen the distinction between additive and subtractive
to adopt other people‟s language instead of bilinguals. Additive bilinguals refer to those who
mastering their native Igbo language. This makes can enhance their L2 without losing their L1 and
it difficult for the children to eventually develop the latter refers to those whose knowledge of
healthy bilingual repertoires in adulthood. their L1 diminishes with increased proficiency in
the L2. What is not clear, however, is the role considering the roles of lexical features in the two
which age plays in enhancing the retention or loss languages while holding cross-linguistic
of one‟s L1 as a result of learning an L2 as well variations to be sensitive to the grammatical
as what aspect of the L1 is usually mostly properties of the lexical items, articulated in
affected such as whether the individual loses terms of feature strength. Thus, most bilinguals
productive skills in the L1 faster than receptive already have knowledge of a specific language
skills and vice versa or where the L1 has both (usually the L1) at the point when they begin to
written and spoken forms the one that is mostly acquire some measure of proficiency in the
affected. While additive bilingualism is hard to additional language, and probably have made all
establish in Nigeria, most studies on the effects of of the parametric choices in the first language
bilingualism have been somewhat subtractive. which they clearly transfer to the new language.
Among the Igbo speaking populace for instance, This position is particularly true of sequential
functional ability relative to the four language bilinguals but exactly which features may be
skills is greatly diminishing. Most speakers of transferred and to what extent they are transferred
Igbo language have mainly productive and is still open to debate (Francis, 2012). However,
receptive oral skills but lack the general literacy it appears that only the functional features are
skills in the language. This has led Amadi, transferable and the extent in which they can be
Anyanwu and Izuagba (2001) to group Igbo transferred depends on the relationship between
children into incipient, receptive and productive both languages (Saville-Troike, 2014 p.50). Thus,
bilinguals. to determine how bilingual individuals eventually
In summary, for one to approach arrive at their different bilingual states, one has to
bilingualism problems in Nigeria, one must know consider the different hypotheses relating to the
that bilingualism or bilingual competence is a role of UG from the initial to the final state of
relative term, and its meaning as well as bilingual development so as to predict what
theoretical relevance depends on some social, constitutes the nature of interlanguage
psychological, neurological and environmental competence of bilingual individuals such as:
variables (Butler & Hakuta, 2006 p.115). These
things are, however, very hard to establish  No Access Hypothesis;
because of limited funding, expertise and  Full Access Hypothesis;
research skills on the part of the investigators.  Full Transfer Hypothesis;
Bilingual competence is different from  Full Access Hypothesis
monolingual competence in that while  Partial Access Hypothesis.
monolingual competence is uniform among The above hypotheses show that the
individuals who share the same linguistic codes; development of bilingual competence takes the
bilingual competence varies between individuals form of intermediate language developmental
in that they function with different degrees of states formalised as follows: IL1...ILn, where IL
proficiency in the various linguistic domains refers to the various interlanguage grammars
regardless of their bilingual repertoire. constituting individual bilingual repertoire. The
argument, therefore, is that if some part of UG is
3. Bilingual Competence: Theoretical and accessible during the acquisition of an additional
Analytical Considerations language then the process of bilingual
The problem of bilingualism in Nigeria is development is essentially that of “resetting
such that can be approached from different parameters on the basis of input in the new
linguistic perspectives. One of such perspectives language” (Saville-Troike, 2012 p.52). The
is the generative linguistic especially foregoing discussions are summarised in Table 1
minimalism. Minimalism takes a generative below.
perspective to bilingual competence by
Table 1: UG Accessibility Hypotheses in Bilinguals

S/ Hypothesis L1 Ss Involved UG Involved Initial State Constitution
N
1 No UG Access √ Χ L1
2 Full Access Χ √ All UG
3 Full Transfer/Full Access √ √ UG plus L1 Ss
4 Partial Access
(a) Minimal Trees Χ √ L1 minus functional categories
(b) Valueless Features χ √ L1 minus features strength
(c) Failed Functional √ Χ UG principles and L1 minus
Features parameters setting
Adapted from Cook & Newson, 2007 p.238)
From the UG-accessibility stand point, parameter inflectional errors have been considered a regular
resetting in individual bilingual language feature in most bilingual individuals‟ linguistic
development is usually done unconsciously under performance (White, 2003 p.194); Slabakova,
the influence of data from the new language. This 2013, 2014). According to Spradin, Tod and
implies that if there is access to UG, it will also Fuertes (2003), lexical items usually have feature
ensure that learners of the new language limit compositions which account for their derivation
their choices in such a way that certain errors in such that where the bilingual individuals fail to
the new language are practically impossible match these features appropriately, the derivation
(Sadeghi, 2006 p.47). Thus, if the learning crashes (29). Thus, Minimalism holds that while
principles constituting part of FL are also formal features are deleted before they reach the
available to L2 learners, then there should be interface systems, phonological and semantic
sufficient information for them to make the features are available to the interfaces. Hence, the
required changes that will conform to the L2 data argument is that failure to reach a state of full
in the form of positive evidence based on natural feature specification in the lexicon is one of the
discovery or from formal instructions while primary reasons why bilingual individuals fail to
negative evidence by means of explicit attain native-like competence in the two
corrections may also help in the resetting process. languages (Slabakova, 2016). In this case, the
Individual bilingual development is essentially existence of balanced bilingual individuals is held
“the progressive mastery of L2 vocabulary along to be rare if not impossible (Beardsmore, 1991
with the morphological features...that are part of p.130); Butler & Hakuta, 2006 p.122).
lexical knowledge” (Saville-Troike, 2012 p.52). 4. Bilingual Language Situations in Amakohia
Taking into consideration the fact that in Owerri-North
Minimalism advocates the progressive easing of This section provides a preliminary case
the burden on FL and locates parametric study report of bilingual language situations in
variations among languages to the lexicon Amakohia, Owerri North. The choice of
(judging them as a function of the feature Amakohia is predicated on the fact that the
inventory of the individual lexical items of the researchers have a very extensive knowledge of
languages in question), it is can be argued that the area and have spent a considerable number of
while the general principles and parameters that times studying the bilingualism situation there.
constrain UG may not need to be learnt by say The section is divided into the following
the sequential bilinguals. For instance, subsections: method of data collection;
morphological features must be consciously population of the study; sample techniques and
learnt and practised by the individual to attain data analysis.
high proficiency in both languages since
4.1. Method of Data Collection Under this heading, the researchers grouped the
The paper adopts a qualitative research method research subjects based on different levels of
which relies on both primary and secondary proficiency in the languages spoken with
sources. Evidence of language attrition resulting emphasis on both productive and receptive
from bilingualism is established based on data language skills as well as their mode of using the
collected using a self-administered instrument. languages (i.e. whether or not they can write and
4.2. Population of the Study speak them).
The population comprised mainly Igbo children 4.5.3. Parental Background (PB)
between the ages of 4-10 some of whom were Here, the researchers concentrated on knowing
proficient in English but hardly speak a word of whether there would be any significant difference
Igbo. between children whose parents are literate and
4.3. Instrument for Data Collection those whose parents are illiterate in the use of the
The researchers conducted an oral interview languages. Added to this, is the consideration of
where they asked the research subjects questions both social economic variables that may affect
about how they communicate at home with their their proficiency or general ability to use the
parents, in school with their teachers and mates, languages.
in churches and among their peers. 4.5.4. Attitude and Value Attached to the
4.4. Sampling Technique Language (AVL)
The researchers adopted a simple random The research subjects were divided into
technique which gives each member of the integrative and instrumental language users based
population equal opportunity of being selected on their attitudes towards the languages. Efforts
with age as the only factor considered in were made by the researchers to ascertain how
accepting or rejecting each member. A population the subjects value the language as regards social
of twenty children was used as sample, selected interactions.
from five families to find out the causes and 5. Discussion of Findings
patterns of bilingual language attrition. In the course of this research, the
4.5. Method of Data Analysis researchers used a four point scale of very high
Data collected were analysed under the following (VH), High (H), Low (L) and very low (VL) and
headings: its percentage equivalents to analyse the data and
4.5.1. Language Facility (LF) write the findings. These have been presented in
Here, each member of the population is assessed the tables below. Table A shows the degree of
based on whether or not he or she speaks more proficiency possessed by the research subjects in
than one language. Igbo while Table B shows their degree of
4.5.2. Degree of Proficiency (DP) proficiency in English.
Table A: Degree of Igbo Language Proficiency
S/N ITEMS VH(4) % H (3) % L(2) % VL(1) %

1. Degree of proficiency 3 15 2 10 7 35 8 40
2. Parental literacy level 8 40 7 35 2 10 3 15
3. Language facility 2 10 1 5 8 40 9 45
4. Positive attitude towards Igbo 3 15 2 10 7 35 8 40
Table B: Degree of English Language Proficiency
S/N ITEMS VH (4) % H (3) % L (2) % VL (1) %

1. Degree of proficiency 8 40 7 35 3 15 2 10
2. Parental literacy level 9 45 8 40 1 5 2 10
3. Language facility 2 10 1 5 8 40 9 45
4. Positive attitude towards English 8 40 35 1 5 2 10
The result in table (A) shows that the like parental literacy level and attitude towards
degree of proficiency in Igbo language among the the language. Also by measuring their language
children between the ages of 4-10 is just 25% facility, the table shows that 85% of children
which is rather poor. There is also another within the population have English as their usual
indication from the table that children from better and only language of communication both in
homes, living in urban areas are not very familiar school and at home.
with Igbo language due to the type of exposure 6. Conclusion
they have had where the mother tongue is often This paper set out to discuss the
relegated. Because of their parental status, those conceptual issues surrounding bilingualism in
who spent more time in the rural areas before Nigeria and the number of problems that
moving into the city still hold to their mother bilingualism raises for language research in
tongue with very minimal proficiency in English. Nigeria. From the review of available literature, it
These situations tally with Hudson (1980, is obvious that there is no end to the classification
p.232)‟s contention that in children‟s acquisition of bilingualism and bilingual individuals. The
of language, they end up acquiring the language paper has demonstrated that bilingualism is an
of their models i.e. their parents and teachers. inevitable consequence of languages in contact.
Relating the findings to the language Some of the issues the paper has raised are the
facility, which deals with whether the children existence of bilingual individuals who speak
can speak one or two languages, the table shows English as their primary or at least first language
that lower percentages of children speak English but yet lack the requisite or commensurate
and Igbo language. This situation is facilitated by competence of monolingual native speakers.
their attitude towards either of the two languages Secondly, the paper has shown that bilingual
where those with low proficiency in Igbo also language attrition is real at least in Igbo land
show poor attitude towards the language. In this where children or younger generation of Igbo
case, their responses showed that they have been may end up using it merely a heritage language
made to believe and practice what their parents such that the language may not perform any
and teachers do. Thus, a situation where one special function beyond that of helping the
language is taken to be more prestigious than the individual users to establish ethnic and cultural
other affects the attitude that one will have identity. What this implies for ESL teaching and
toward the less prestigious language. Table (B) learning is that teachers should be mindful of the
presents the degree of proficiency of children in linguistic input being introduced to the learners in
the English language and other variables. Results order not to lead to cases of semi-lingualism (i.e.
from the table reveal that the children have up to a situation where an individual ends up not
75% degree of proficiency in English put mastering any language at all due poor input from
together, which is promoted by certain variables both first and second languages).
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Journal of Languages, Linguistics and Literary Studies (JOLLS) Http://www.jolls.com.

Bilingualism Problems in Nigeria: Implications for ESL Pedagogy

B.F. Ovu1 and Q.E. Anyanwu2

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 13

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 14

English. Her vocabulary is limited to what is Generally, there is a marked difference in

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 15

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 16

Table 1: UG Accessibility Hypotheses in Bilinguals

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 17

S/N ITEMS VH(4) % H (3) % L(2) % VL(1) %

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 18

Table B: Degree of English Language Proficiency

S/N ITEMS VH (4) % H (3) % L (2) % VL (1) %

Amsterdam University Press.

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 20

(Ed.). Toronto: Multilingual Matters.

B.F. Ovu and Q.E. Anyanwu 21

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