The Nervous System

Module Description
This learning material emphasizes the brain as an essential organ of the body. This
chapter highlights parts and structures of the brain and their functions.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you are expected to:
1. Distinguish and discover the anatomic structures and physiologic
mechanisms/processes/ systems involved in the concept of human body.
2. Relate basic anatomical facts and physiological concepts and principles in the nursing care
of individuals.
3. Describe the functions of the nervous system.

Pre-test
Direction: Each question in this section is a multiple-choice question. Read each
question and answer choice carefully and encircle the ONE best answer.
1. The part of the brain that indicates voluntary movement is the:
a. Cerebellum
b. Parietal lobes
c. Frontal lobes
d. Hypothalamus
2. Neurons that carry impulses from receptors to the CNS are called:
a. Sensory
b. Mixed
c. Motor
d. Efferent
3. The cranial nerve that decreases heart rate is the:
a. Vagus
b. Abducens
c. Accessory
d. Hypoglossal
4. The part of the brain that regulates heart rate and blood pressure is the:
a. Cerebrum
b. Hypothalamus
c. Cerebellum
d. Medulla
5. Cerebrospinal fluid is formed by:
a. Dura mater
b. Choroid plexuses
 c. Subarachnoid spaces
d. Pia mater

Module Content
The nervous system has two components known as the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. These two components are crucial in carrying signals to
and from the brain.

Main Function
The Nervous system is known as the master
controlling and communicating system of the
body that:
regulates body activities
responsible for our perceptions, behaviors and
memories and initiates voluntary movements.
3 OVERLAPPING FUNCTIONS OR 3 BASIC FUNCTIONS
1. Sensory input/sensory function
o sensory receptor detects internal stimuli or
external stimuli
2. Integration/integrative function
o NS processes sensory information
3. Motor Output/Motor function
o once sensory info is detected /integrated, NS may
elicit appropriate motor response

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Structural Classification
o Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 nerves
 ganglia
 Central Nervous System
 BRAIN
- Located in the skull
 SPINAL CORD (SC)
- connected to the brain
 Peripheral Nervous System
 NERVES
- are bundles of hundreds to
thousands of axons
 GANGLIA
- “swelling or knot”

 Functional Classification
o Sensory/Afferent Division
o Motor/ Efferent Division
 Sensory/Afferent Division
o nerves that convey
impulses to the CNS
 Motor/Efferent Division
o nerves that convey
impulses from the CNS
o 2 subdivisions:
 somatic NS / voluntary NS
 autonomic NS /involuntary NS
 2 parts:
  Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Sympathetic Nervous System

THE NEURONS
o Called “nerve cells” or “nerve fibers”
 3 parts
1. Cell body
- “Perikaryon”
- metabolic center of the neuron
- neuronal cell body contains free
ribosomes and Nssl bodies
- ribosomes are the sites of CHON
synthesis
- neurofibrils
- microtubules
2. Dendrites
- “little trees”
- receiving / input portion of the
neuron
3. Axon
- transmit nerve impulses
- long , thin, cylindrical, projection

 SYNAPSE
o site of communication
o At synapses, nerve impulse transmission
changes from electrical to chemical and
depends on the release of
neurotransmitters.
o A neurotransmitter carries the impulse
across a synapse and is then destroyed
by a chemical inactivator.
o Synapses make impulse transmission
one way in the living person.

 SYNAPTIC VESICLE
o store neurotransmitter that enable
nerve impulses to cross synapses

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
 Structural Classification
1. Multipolar Neurons
- several dendrites and 1 axon
2. Bipolar neurons
- 1 main dendrite and 1 axon
3. Unipolar neurons
- 1 main dendrite and 1 axon
- may have dendrites and 1 axon that are fused together to form a continuous
process
- dendrites in most unipolar neuron function as “sensory receptors”

 Sensory Receptors
1. Meissner corpuscle
– aka tactile corpuscles; skin
receptor, touch
2. Pacinian corpuscle
– vibratory pressure and touch;
deep pressure
3. Nociceptor
– pain
4. Thermoreceptor
– thermosensors; sensitive to
changes in temperature
5. Merkel cell disk
– respond to very light touch
 Functional Classification
a. Sensory / Afferent
Neurons
- impulse is carried
toward CNS
b. Motor / Efferent Neurons
- convey action potential
away from the CNS
c. Interneuron / Association
Neurons
- integrate or process
incoming sensory info
and then elicit a motor
response

NERVOUS TISSUE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Neuroglia
o include many types of cells that:
 Support
 Insulate
 Protect

 Glial cells
o Resemble neurons

a. Astrocytes
o star shaped cell
o numerous projections

b. Microglia
o spider like phagocytes

c. Ependymal cells
o cuboidal to columnal cells arranged in single layer
o these cells line the ventricles in the brain and central
canal of SC
d. Oligodendrocytes
 o resemble astrocytes
o responsible for forming and maintaining M.S. around CNS axons

Neuro
g lia of
the
PNS
a. Schwa
n n cells
o
o
o
encircle PNS axon
o like oligodendrocytes they form a myelin sheath around axon

b. Satellite cells
o these flat cells surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS glia
o structural support

NERVE IMPULSE
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• BRAIN
– Size: about 2 fistfuls
– Color: pinkish grey
– Texture: cold oatmeal, wrinkled like
wallnut
– major parts are the medulla, pons,
and midbrain (collectively called the
brainstem), the cerebellum, the
hypothalamus, the thalamus, and the
cerebrum.

A. Cerebrum/ Cerebral Hemisphere

o “seat of intelligence “
o “most superior part of the brain”
o provides us with the ability to write, read, speak, play music to make calculations
o Outer cerebral cortex
o Internal Region white matter
o Gray matter deep within white matter

A. Cerebral Cortex
- region of the gray matter that forms the outer rim of the cerebrum
o Gyri - -folds /convolusions
o Fissures - deep grooves b/n folds
o Sulci - shallow grooves
o Longitudinal fissure - separates the cerebrum into right and left halves
called the “cerebral hemispheres”
o Corpus callosum - Internal connection b/n 2 hem.
 Lobes of the Cerebrum
o Frontal Lobe
- central sulcus (separator)
separates F.L from P.L
 Precentral gyrus –
before central
sulcus
 Postcentral gyrus -
after central sulcus
- primary motor area
o Temporal Lobe
- lateral cerebral sulcus
separates T.L from F.L
- “auditory area”
o Occipital Lobe
- parieto –occipital sulcus
seperates P.L from O.L
- “visual area”
o Parietal Lobe
- primary somatic sensory
area

 Specialized Cortical Area

o Broca’s Area
- base of the pre central
gyrus : Left
- involves in the ability to
speak
o Wernicke’s Area
- temporal lobe
- responsible in comprehension of speech

B. Gray Matter
 Association Tracts
- conduct nerve impulse b/n
gyri in the same hemisphere
 Commisural tracts
- conduct nerve impulse in 1
cerebral hemisphere to
corresponding gyri in the
other C.H
- GROUPS:
 - Corpus callosum
- anterior & posterior commissure
 Projection Tracts
- conduct NI from cerebrum to the lower parts
of CNS
C. Basal Nuclei / Basal Ganglia
- “islands of gray matter”
- buried deep within the White matter of
cerebral hemisphere
- regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions

B. Diencephalon/Inter-Brain
o located on top of the brain stem
 Structures:
A. Thalamus
- relay station for sensory inpulses and
movement
- role in sensation and movement
- “regulator of sensory info”
- controls the sleep and awake consciousness
B. Hypothalamus
- under thalamus
- size: pearl
- “control center for autonomic fxn of the PNS
“
- endocrine fxn control maintain homeostasis
- food and water intake regulation
- sleep and awake cycle regulation
- “center for many drive of emotion”
- thirst , appetite
- sex, pleasure center, pain
C. Epithalamus
- Pineal body
- secretes melatonin
- regulation of endo function
- causes feeling of sleepiness
- influences sex’l dev’t
 Ventricles
- four cavities within the brain: two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the
fourth ventricle
- contains a capillary network
called a choroid plexus
C. Brainstem
 Medulla oblongata
o contains sensory tract and
motor tract
o Coordinates vomiting,
swallowing, sneezing,
coughing, and hiccupping
o Cardiovascular center -
regulates heart beats and
B.V dm
o Medullary rhythmic
center - regulates
breathing
o Inferior olivary nucleus -
provides instructions
cerebellum uses to adjust
(M) activity when learning
new motor skills

 Pons
o contains sensory and motor tracts
o Pneumotaxic area and apneustic
 help control breathing

 Midbrain
o extends from the pons to the hypothalamus and encloses the cerebral
aqueduct
o Superior Colliculi
 Movement of head , eyes and trunk in response to visual stimuli
o Inferior colliculi
 Head, eyes and trunk auditory
o Substantia Nigra and Red Nucleus
 control movement

 Reticular formation
o diffuse mass of gray
matter
 o Reticular Activating System
 plays role in consciousness and sleep and awake cycle
 Damage: permanent unconsciousness

D. Cerebellum
o smooth and coordinates contracions of
Skeletal muscle
o regulates posture and balance
o play role in cognition and language
processing
o Responsible for coordination, regulation
of muscle tone, the appropriate
trajectory and endpoint of movements,
and the maintenance of posture and
equilibrium.

PROTECTION OF THE CNS

o the nervous tissues are soft and delicate

A. Meninges
1. Dura Mater
- Outermost leathery layer
- double layered membrane
- Layers:
a. Periosteal Layer
b. Meningeal Layer
o Folds:
a. Falx cerebri (sickle shape)
- fold in the dural membrane that
attaches the brain to the cranial cavity
b. Tentorium Cerebelli
- separates the cerebrum to the
cerebellum
c. Falx cerebelli
- separates 2 hemisphere of the
cerebellum

2. Arachnoid Mater
- “weblike structure”
- thread like extensions span the subarachnoid
space to attach it to the innermost membrane

o Subarachnoid Space
  Arachnoid villi
- projection of Arachnoid membrane that protrudes through the dura
matter

3. Pia Mater
- clings tightly to the surface of the brain and SC and following every fold
B. Cerebrospinal Fluid
- protects the brain and SC form chemical and physical injuries

 Functions:
 Mechanical protections
- Shock-absorbing medium of brain and SC from jolts
that would cause them hit the bony walls of cranial
cavity and vertebral canal
 Homeostatic Function
- pH of CSF affects pulmo vent. and cerebral blood
flow is important in homeostatic controls from brain
tissue
 Circulation function
- CSF is a medium for minor exchange of nutrients
and waste products b/n the blood and other adjacent
nervous tissue

 Formation of CSF:
 Choroid plexus
 site where majority of CSF being produced
 four choroid plexuses in the human brain:
- two lateral ventricles
- the third ventricle
- the fourth ventricle

 Blood-CSF Barrier
 permits certain substances to enter the CSF

 Circulation of CSF:
Lateral and 3rd Ventricle

4th ventricle

Central canal of the SC

Cranial and Spinal Subarachnoid process

  Reabsorption of CSF:
Cranial subarachnoid space

Arachnoid villi

Blood in cranial venous sinuses

CSF becomes blood plasma again

C. Blood-Brain Barrier
- is a dynamic interface that separates the brain from the circulatory system
protects the central nervous system (CNS) from potentially harmful chemicals while
regulating transport of essential molecules and maintaining a stable environment.

- Substances that can pass easily:

 H2O
 Glucose
 Ess. Amino acids
- Substances that are prevented from
entering:
 Metabolic waste
 Urea
 Toxins
- useless against:
 Fats
 Respiratory gases
 Other fat soluble molecule

 SPINAL CORD
 17 inches long 42 cm
 enclosed by vertebral column from foramen magnum of the skull to
the first or second lumbar vertebrae
 transmits impulses to and from the brain and is the integrating
center for the spinal cord reflexes
 Protected and cushioned by meninges

 Structures:
 Cauda Equina
 collection of spinal
nerves at the
interior end of the
vertebral canal
 Gray Matter of Spinal Cord
- looks like a
butterfly or letter H

 Projections:
o 2 posterior / dorsal horns
o 2 anterior / ventral horns
o central canal
- Neurons
of gray
matter
o dorsal horns
o dorsal root / dorsal root ganglion
o ventral horns

 White Matter of Spinal

Cord
o contains myelinated tract
o 3 regions: sensory impulses
 dorsal region
 lateral region
 ventral region

 SPINAL
NERVES:

- 31 pairs:
 8 cervical pairs
 12 thoracic pairs
 5 lumbar pairs
 5 sacral pairs
 1 very small coccygeal pair

- Each spinal nerve has two roots

 Dorsal root
 Ventral root

 SPINAL CORD REFLEXES

- are those that do not depend directly
on the brain, although the brain may
inhibit or enhance them
  REFLEX ARC
- is the pathway that nerve impulses travel
when a reflex is elicited
5 parts:
 Receptors - detect a change (the stimulus) and generate impulses.
 Sensory neurons - transmit impulses from receptors to the CNS
 Central nervous system - contains one or more synapses (interneurons
may be part of the pathway)
 Motor neurons - transmit impulses from the CNS to the effector
 Effector - performs its characteristic action

CRANIAL NERVES
- emerge from the brainstem or other parts of the brain
The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. Endoneorium
- connective tissue sheath that surrounds
each fiber

B. Perineurium
- coarse connective tissue wrapping a
group of fibers to form a bundle of fibers /
fascicles

C. Epineurium
- tough fibrous sheath wherein fascicles
are bound together

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
 Sensory
- carry impulses toward CNS
 Motor
- carry impulses away from the CNS
 Mixed
- both

The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 -
is actually part of the peripheral nervous system in that it consists of motor
portions of some cranial and spinal nerves
 COMPOSITION:
o Visceral motor neurons to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
(visceral effectors) muscle will either contract or relax, and glands will either
increase or decrease their secretions
o An ANS pathway consists of two neurons that synapse in a ganglion:
 Preganglionic neurons—from the CNS to the ganglia
 Postganglionic neurons—from the ganglia to the effectors

 TWO DIVISIONS
- they function in opposition to each other

o SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- aka thoracolumbar division
- “fight or flight response.”
- dominant in stressful situations

o PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- aka the craniosacral division
- dominates in relaxed (non-stress) situations to promote normal functioning
of several organ systems
 POST TEST
Direction: Each question in this section is a multiple-choice question with four answer
choices. Read each question and answer choice carefully and encircle the ONE best
answer.

1. The gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemisphere is called:

a. Cerebral cortex
b. Interneurons
c. Nerve tract
d. Gray stuff
2. Neurons are electrically insulated by the presence of the:
a. White matter
b. Myelin sheath
c. Astrocytes
d. Interneurons
3. The part of the brain that regulates body temperature and the autonomic nervous
system is the:
a. Thalamus
b. Cerebrum
 c. Medulla
d. Hypothalamus
4. During the depolarization of a neuron, sodium ions:
a. Stay outside the cell
b. Rush out of the cell
c. Stay inside the cell
d. Rush into the cell
5. The spinal nerve root that is made of sensory neurons is the:
a. Internal root
b. External root
c. Ventral root
d. Dorsal root
6. The part of the neuron that carries impulses away from the cell body is the:
a. Myelin sheath
b. Dendrite
c. Axon
d. Schwann Cell
7. At the synapse, a nerve impulse is carried by:
a. Depolarization
b. The myelin sheath
c. A neurotransmitter
d. Repolarization
8. Which of these is not a sympathetic response?
a. A decrease peristalsis
b. Dilation of the bronchioles
c. Decrease heart rate
d. Dilation of the pupils
9. The lobes of the cerebral cortex that contain the areas for cutaneous sensation are
the:
a. Frontal lobes
b. Parietal lobes
c. Temporal lobes
d. Occipital lobes
10. Within the spinal cord, the cell bodies of the motor neurons are contained within
the:
a. Dorsal root ganglion
b. White matter
c. Ventral root
d. Gray matter
11. The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by the:
a. Frontal lobes
b. Corpus callosum
c. Hypothalamus
d. Medulla
12. The correct description of the location of a layer of the meninges is:
a. Middle – dura matter
 b. Inner – pia matter
c. Outer – arachnoid membrane
d. Middle – pia matter
13. Which spinal nerve group is matched with its correct number of pairs?
a. Cervical -7
b. Thoracic – 5
c. Lumbar – 5
d. Sacral – 12
14. Preventing prolonged contact with harmful stimuli is the function of:
a. The cerebrum
b. Stretch reflexes
c. The cerebellum
d. Flexor reflexes
15. The myelin sheath of CNS neurons is made by:
a. Astrocytes
b. Schwann Cells
c. Oligodendrocytes
d. Microglia