International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

Fatigue Failure Analysis Of Marine Engine Crankshaft

Amardip Jadhav 11 HOD, Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIETC, Paniv-413113, Maharashtra,

India

Vijaykumar Chalwa 22 Asst Professor & dean of R&D, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
SMSMPITR, Akluj-413118, Maharashtra, India

Pappu Gaikwad 3
3
Asst Professor S B Zadbuke Polytechnic, Barshi, Maharashtra, India

Abstract

A case study of a catastrophic failure of a web marine crankshaft and a failure Analysis under bending
and torsion applied to crankshafts are presented. A microscopy (eye seen) observation showed that the crack
initiation started on the fillet of the crankpin by rotary bending and the propagation was a combination of cycle
bending and steady torsion. The crack front profile approximately adopts a semi-elliptical shape with some
istortion due to torsion and this study is supported by a previous research work already published by the
authors. The number of cycles from crack initiation to final failure of his crankshaft was achieved by recording
of the main engine operation on board, taking into account the beach marks left on the fatigue crack surface.
The cycles calculated by the linear fracture mechanics approaches showed that the propagation was fast which
means that the level of bending stress was relatively high when compared with total cycles of an engine in
service. Microstructure defects or inclusion were not observed which can conclude that the failure was
probably originated by an external cause and not due to an intrinsic latent defect. Possible effects of added
torsional vibrations which induce stresses are also discussed. Some causes are analyzed and reported here but
the origin of the fatigue fracture was not clearly determined.
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Keywords: crankshaft failure, rotating bending, steady torsion, fatigue crack growth
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1.INTRODUCTION arrest lines indicating multiple cracks started growing

from severe stress. Bending fatigue cracks grow from
The fatigue phenomenon is a damage process caused fillet unless oil or lightening holes change their path.
by the growing of cracks due to cyclic stress that Torsional fatigue cracks start in journals and spiral
generate and aggregate micro cracks which can cause around on about 45º angle. Crack initiation sites can
sudden catastrophic failures. In practice, 90% of all be difficult to determine since several sets of arrest
mechanical failure is due to fatigue which occurs lines are often present. Usually, the origin is the point
under repeated application of a stress which is too at which two sets of arrest lines radiate from each
small to cause failure in a single application in the other on 45º angles.
elastic region. Now days the fatigue life prediction
under multiaxial loadings has played a major role in 1.1Approaches of fatigue life prediction
structures and mechanical components design.
Components in metal alloys subjected to cycling Two main approaches have been considered for
loading will fail by fatigue if an appropriate fatigue fatigue life prediction: the crack nucleation approach
life criteria and a maintenance program were not and the crack growth approach. The first was
implemented to prevent their fracture in service. proposed by Wohler [1] and it is still in use today. In
the 30’s of last century Gough et al [2] has performed
Fractures in crankshafts can occur by bending an important research work concerned with fatigue of
fatigue, by torsional fatigue or a combination of both. carbon-steels and cast irons under combinations of
Misalignment raises bending loads on main journals reversed bending and reversed torsional stresses,
fillets and can lead to bending fatigue fractures. All using a special testing machine, which gave a
crankshaft fractures are generally fatigue fractures significant contribution for the understanding of
produced by bending loads on the fillets and or multiaxial fatigue. The second approach considers
torsional loads on main journals. Bending and that a crack preexists in the material and the fatigue
torsional fatigue cracks have similar features: flat life depends directly on the growth of this initial
smooth fracture faces with ductile final fractures and crack. The crack propagation approach can be used
beach marks (arrest lines) radiating away from crack when the crack path is well identified as well as the
initiation site. Ratchets marks at the initiation site are mechanical parameters controlling the fatigue life.

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

Many examples of fatigue crack growth under mode I 2. Main Engine crankshaft
loading have shown that Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics (LEFM) theory is increasingly being
applied to the practical engineering problems,
including material selection, design and analysis of
engineering structures. It is a tool that can
approximate the stresses surrounding a fracture to
better explain damage occurrences, and is used when
a defect, often a crack or corrosive attack, should be
evaluated with regards to allowable dimensions. By
altering the determined model parameters, the analyst
can estimate the magnitude of the mechanical stress
applied to a component at the time of failure.

1.2 loading conditions

Figure 2 3-D full crank-throw model

Yang and Kuang [10] have studied the

fatigue crack growth for a surface crack in round bars
under multi-axial loading conditions and have shown
the influence of the static compression/tension
loading combined with cyclic torsion: the crack
growth rate is dependent on the superimposed tension
loading and the compression loading has not
significant effect on the crack growth rate.
Investigations in fracture mechanics in the last three
decades could explain the effect of steady torsion
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Fig1 loading modes when combined with rotary bending, and have shown
that the Von Mises criterion cannot valid when
Often a defect discovered during routine, a applied to fatigue under multiaxial fatigue [11].
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non destructive testing can set of an alarm, leading to

the close down of an installation or plant, and
removal or repair the component. This is not always
required, and this can be evaluated by performing
calculations with parameter such as crack size,
material properties, loading conditions, etc. Fatigue
life prediction in metallic materials has been largely
investigated over the past decades. Cracks in power
shafts, such as crankshafts, generally start at surface
and growth under mixed-mode (_KI + KIII): cycle
bending, mode I (_KI), combined with steady torsion,
mode III (KIII). This results from the cyclic bending
stresses, due to the self-weight bending during the
rotation of the crankshaft or possible misalignment
between main journals and the steady torsion arises
from the power transmitted by the shaft. However
axial and torsional resonant vibrations can also Figure 3 fillet model for residual stress
appear under some particular operating conditions of
the engine and therefore must also deserve special An important requirement for solid type
attention for determining the causes of damage. crankshafts is the strength, and therefore some of
them employ materials with strength as high as 800
MPa. Crankshafts were cold straightened after
production, which causes internal residual stress.
These stresses, in combination with the inclusions or
other defects, can cause crack initiations. An
exhaustive and important research work can be found
in the literature by S. Archer [12]. One maintenance
procedure with marine main engines is the strain
measuring of static deflections of the crank webs.

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

These measurements are made at regular crank angles alignment is to measure static web deflections, see
and historical limits have been defined, which relate Figure 1. Deflection measurements at each crank web
observed deflation values to crack stress levels are until now an empirical process to assess and
associated with once per revolution bending stresses. control the misalignment of crankshafts. Indeed this
The effects of dynamic loads have largely been is a static and not a dynamic measurement. As a
ignored. These loads, resulting from inertia and gas consequence of rotating bending and torsion
forces will add to the stress field generated by the generally also appear dynamic forces which can
static misalignment. Furthermore, the location of the induce torsional or axial vibrations on crankshafts.
rotating shaft in the bearing will affect the estimate of Several observed catastrophic failures have shown
stress field based on the static web deflation that the crack initiation generally starts closed to the
measurements. web crankpin where the stress bending is higher.
These measurements are made at regular crank angles
The vibrations are generally ignored for and historical limits have been defined, which relate
failure analysis but, indeed, they have an important observed deflection values to crack stress levels
role. Torsional vibration is the speed change of a associated with once per revolution bending stresses.
rotating shaft within one rotating period. An engine
crankshaft itself is deflecting (rotationally) forward However the effects of dynamic loads have
and backward while it is operating, like a balance of a largely been ignored but are also of the significant
block. A crankshaft, like a plain torsion-bar, has mass importance. In spite of the industry use of the
and a torsional spring rate which causes the deflection measurements as a Condition assessment
crankshaft system to have its own torsional resonant tool, this measurement is less than satisfactory. It is
frequency. The torque peaks and valleys of the difficult and uncomfortable to take and indeed
variation loading cause the engine crankshaft itself to doesn’t reflect operating conditions of load or
deflect (rotationally) forward and backward, and temperature. Cracks caused by bending generally
when those pulses (excitations) are near the start at the crankpin fillet and progress diagonally
crankshaft resonance frequency, they can cause the across. Sometimes abnormal bending forces are
crank to vibrate uncontrollably and eventually can generated by main-bearing bore misalignment,
lead to breaking. During the engine operation are also improperly fitted bearings, loose main-bearing caps,
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induced resonant axial and torsional vibrations (is the unbalanced pulleys, or over tightened belts. The
speed change of a rotating shaft within one rotating distribution of cracks caused by torsional (or
period) which can also contribute to an eventually twisting) forces is the same as for bending forces. All
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catastrophic crankshaft failure. A vibration damper crankshafts have a natural period of torsional
(absorber) can avoid such damages for protecting the vibration which is influenced by the length/diameter
engine. Therefore a torsional vibration measurement ratio of the crank, the overlap between crankpins and
will made and will install a flywheel and a vibration main journals, as well as the material used
damper accordingly. If the damper was not adequate
(measuring torsional vibrations allows determinations 3. Experimental Procedure
of the proper damping required) or the regular
maintenance was not done, crankshaft damage can
occur during its normal expected crankshaft life. A 3.1 Material and chemical composition
vibration damper in poor conditions will have a
reduced performance and high torsional stresses can The crankshaft damaged was assembled in a main
occurs in the crankshaft. engine container ship, with controllable pitch
propeller, diameter 3800 mm and 4 blades. The
crankshaft material: 42 CrMo 4 + Ni + V (chemical
2.1Deflection measurement
composition, %: C=0.39; Si=0.27; Mn=0.79;
P=0.015; S=.014; Cr=1.14; Mo=0.21; Ni=0.45;
V=0.10); ReH=590 MPa and Rm=780 MPa;
HB=285; grain flow forged, quenching and tempered.
Main engine: 8 cylinders in line; 4-stroke; fire order:
1-3- 5-7-8-6-4-2. Rated power: 3520 kW, 600 rpm;
crankshaft diameters: 280 mm (crankpin) and 300
mm (main journal). Counter weights: 12; flexible
coupling and damper. Equipped with a reduction
Figure 4 – Crank web deflection measurement gearbox (ip =0.2683).

As it is well-known, all crankshaft bending

failures are usually related with the misalignment,
aggravated by deterioration of the foundation. The
current industry approach to document crankshaft

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

3.2 Experimental Procedure assembly would continue to decrease because of the

change in stiffness from cracks. The constant upper
vision of a technician was needed to oversee the
resonance frequency of the assembly, the drive loads,
and the feedback loads during testing so that bending
fatigue testing could be preserved at a resonant
frequency and at the targeted load. An updated
bending resonance of the assembly was determined
by the peak feedback load after sweeping through the
frequencies of +/_0.5 Hz from the previous resonant
frequency. After the new resonance was attained, the
function generator would be adjusted until the
feedback load matched the targeted load.

4. Results

4.1 System and failure description

Figure 5 Test sample cut from a crankshaft
The crankshaft of the main engine has damaged.
The crank web nº4 has broken. The facts:
The focus of this study was on a rolled, ductile
crankshaft. Crankshaft test samples were coupons cut
from main to main, as shown in Figure 5. The 1)The crankshaft failed after over 32,834 hours in
symmetry of the mains allowed for resonant ending service. It has broken on the web Crankpin nº4, in the
fatigue testing since the masses that would be in transition to the main journal nº5.
resonance could be centered to each main. The
orientation of the bending moment to crankshaft 2)The main journal bearing shells were changed by
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sections was across the cheek from main to pin new ones after 29,952 hours according the
journals. This resulted in the highest stress maintenance plain. ACCEPTED
concentration points in the fillet region.
3)Deflection measurements, before and after the
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bearing shells change, were in satisfactory

conditions.

4)Deflection measurements were also obtained after

31,687 hours, i.e. 1,147 hours before damage and
were in accordance with the allowable mean values.

5)All shell bearings were in normal wear after

damage, except the shell bearing of the crankpin nº 4
because the some material was desegregated in
consequence of the fracture.

6)The crack initiation started in the fillet of the crank

web nº4.

Figure 6 Crankshaft resonant bending fatigue test

7)The fatigue crack surface shown the beach marks
apparatus
or arrest lines left from the last voyages and could be
identified through the voyage book on board.
Figure 6 showed a crankshaft resonant bending
fatigue test fixture for testing. This was the same
8)In vibration damper a significant number of springs
fixture used in previous fatigue strength studies [1]
were found broken or damaged, and many of the
using the surface crack failure criterion. This fixture
pockets for the spring packs showed unusual high
had an adjustable function generator for a drive load
wear rates.
and a pair of every tine attached to the crankshaft
section and instrumented with a bending load cell or
a feedback. The assembly was excited at its resonant
frequency through the function enervator attached to
one of the tines. The resonant frequency of the

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

4.2 Fractographic features and visual bending and the crack propagation was by rotating
inspection bending combined with torsion. The cause of failure
will be analyzed in the following.

The morphology of the failure surface shows

that the fracture presents two different surfaces: one
almost perpendicular (with some deviation) to the
crankpin section and other in a horizontal plan with
the crankshaft axis. The latter one, the second, is the
residual surface and corresponds to the final fracture,
because the remaining section over the limit of
material strength for that load, and therefore it is a
ductile fracture. The first one shows a typical fatigue
fracture characterized by a circular/semi-elliptical
crack front profile starting from a point where the
crack was nucleated, perpendicular to the crankshaft
Figure 7 – General view of crankshaft with the axis and another showing some deviation from the
fatigue fracture section at junction of nº4crankpin perpendicular plane.
and forward web
Observing this zone with more amplification, as
Figure 7 shows a failed marine web shown in Figure 9, it is clearly seen that crack
crankshaft. The catastrophic failure happened after initiation occurred through the growth of three
more than 32,000 operating hours (1.15x10^9 cycles) parallel cracks that linked together at a certain depth.
on the crank web nº4, at the middle of the crankshaft. It is also observed lines known as beach marks which
The bearing shells were found in good conditions correspond to the engine stopping or changes of
after damage and only the crankpin bearing caps loading in service. These lines are helpful to calculate
were changed nine months before, according to the the number of cycles among different stops or
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maintenance plan. The alignment of bedplate was changes of load which allows reconstruct the history
checked and the measured values were under of the crack propagation. A crack with a
standard recommended by the engine builders. configuration perpendicular to the shaft axis is
generally associated to rotating bending. Here it
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Measurements of crank web deflections were

available 1,147 hours before and no anomaly was seems to be clear that the fatigue surface is due to a
found. In a first approach, the fatigue fracture seems high bending moment on the crank web. However in
to be as a consequence of high bending moments on this case the fatigue surface there is some inclination
the crank web nº4. which results of a combination of rotating bending
with steady torsion, typical situation of the power
shafts [4]. Observing the crack path since the crack
Figure 8 – Failure surface initiation zone until final fracture, it is possible to see
the beach marks with a semi-elliptical front profile
with some distortion which is typical of the fatigue
by bending combined with steady torsion. These
beach marks are centered in a focus which is
generally associated to the crack initiation

Figure 9– Crack initiation zone

Figure 8.a - Parallel to the axis (final fracture)

According to the Figure 8, it is possible to

observe the region where the crack was initiated,
starting from the elliptical lines (but distorted because
the effect of steady torsion) and then to find the
origin or the focus. Observing the fatigue crack
surface, the fatigue crack initiation was by rotating

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Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

5. Failure characterization the origin. The reason is because, in the beginning,

the crack initiation starts from three short parallel
cracks nucleated by rotating bending, that were
5.1 Hardness test linked, after some millimeters of depth, by the effect
of torsion. After this joining, the crack propagation
goes on with a typical helical surface due to the effect
of torsion [4]. The propagation observed from a
perpendicular direction to the crankshaft axis shows a
crack path in zigzag, typical from the crack growth
under bending combined with steady torsion [4,5],
and see Figures 8 and 9. The crack length on the
surface grows faster for one side than the other side
which is understood because the direction of applied
torque [5] and this is clearly seen with a more
distance among the elliptical fatigue lines during the
propagation. Close to the final fracture, the distortion
Figure 10 – Micrographs of the material or warping of fatigue crack surface is more
significant than that observed in the beginning of
propagation because the effect of torsion is
predominant regarding to the bending. After an
accurate observation of the fatigue surface and
material close to the crack initiation, after
micrographs and material examinations carried out at
the laboratory, if there is no evidence of a latent
defect, it is necessary to find the causative factors in
other sources namely the operations conditions of the
last months.
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The crack arrest lines on the pictures of the
fatigue surface, known as the beach marks, identified
with the last voyages of the ship, provides a clear
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Figure 11 – The Vickers hardening in the first information about the number of cycles to failure
millimeters from surface between the crack initiation and the catastrophic
failure.
The material closed the crack initiation was
analyzed at the laboratory and shown a bainitic On board there is on board book a record of the each
structure, Figure 10 and the hardness Vickers was voyage (all events and time in hours from starting
about 285, Figure 11, which is according to the until stopping the main engine). The history of
standard values for this type of steel and delivered by fatigue crack growth is written on the fatigue failure
the manufactory and confirmed by the class surface through the so called beach marks or arrest
certificate. lines. It is not possible to know how many fatigue
cycles were done during the crack nucleation process
and in the first millimeters after nucleation as well,
5.2 Micro-Fractography but statistically a value of 80 to 90% of total life is
spent in the crack nucleation process.
Looking at the initiation site with good
lighting and magnification, revels no inclusions,
precracks, or other abnormal stress raisers. One
5.3 Fatigue crack growth analysis and
should conclude as a first impression that the damage prediction of fatigue life
was caused by a latent defect of the material.
However, the experience has shown that a crankshaft The stress calculation and the number of
after an operation time of more than 32,000 hours at cycles to failure were obtained using the fracture
600 rpm, more than 1,15x10^9 cycles such a flaw can mechanics approaches and compared with the cycles
by no means have the causative factor of the damage, obtained from the record on board. The Stress
and therefore a crankshaft has long proved its Intensity Factors used for the equation of Paris law
endurance strength. were obtained from another previous work [4, 5]. The
calculations were carried out into two stages: first,
The fatigue surface after the region where the remote stress level was calculated taking into
the crack (or cracks) began presents not a flat surface account the length of crack growth between beach
but an oblique surface is within 2 to 3 mm depth from marks and the records on board. Second, the number

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 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

of cycles obtained from the final fracture until a 5.4 Failure analysis discussion
certain crack depth considered as the start of crack
growth after crack initiation was calculated. The fatigue fracture appears in two distinct
surfaces: a smooth almost to perpendicular to the
The number of cycles to failure of this crankshaft and a second one in a horizontal plane
crankshaft was achieved by recording of the main with the crankshaft, with transition zones between
engine operation on board, taking into account the two surfaces, according to Figure 8. This confirms a
beach marks left on the fatigue crack surface. typical fracture by fatigue, characterized by
Through the beach marks (stopping or starting of the propagation with a crack front profile approximately
machine) left on the fatigue crack surface, observed elliptical from the crack initiation point until the fast
on Figure 12 it is possible obtain a correlation final fracture. The beach marks show several stops of
between a certain crack length and the time spent the main engine which permits to obtain the history
during the corresponding voyage of the ship. Using of the fatigue crack growth Process associated to the
the crack growth equation which gives the number of vessel voyages. A fracture surface configuration
cycles by integrating the Paris Law for a considered perpendicular to the crankpin axis is generally
crack length, it is possible to estimate the applied associated to the loading bending in shafts. However
remote stress (∆σ) for R=-1 (reversed bending). a helical surface observed in this fracture clear shows
a mixed-mode fatigue, i.e., a combination of rotating
bending with steady torsion, and found in the
literature [4, 5]. Consulting the main engine book on
board, it is possible identify the beach mark zones of
the fatigue fracture with the last voyages of the vessel
(visited ports), starting from the fast fracture
(catastrophic failure) towards the crack initiation
point. The total estimated hours found were about
2400, computed from the catastrophic failure until
the crack region of the nucleation. It is not possible to
know the number of cycles of the nucleation process,
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but the experience has shown that is about 80-90 %

of the total life time (≈16000 hours). It seems evident
that the catastrophic failure has resulted of a fast
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fatigue crack growth rate. The local microstructure

and the microscope observation close to the crack
Figure 12 – Crack initiation site and beach marks initiation zone didn’t reveal any defect of the
of crack growth material. The experience has also shown that a
crankshaft, after more than 30000 operating hours, an
The Paris-Erdogan law states that: inclusion/flaw or a latent defect in the material,
cannot be the root cause of damage.
da/dN = C (∆K) ^m
On top of a list of possible causes the
damaged vibration damper can probably be as a main
Where C = 2x10^-12 and m = 3
cause of the failure. The vibration damper presented a
significant number of springs broken or damaged and
∆K= Y ·∆σ · √πa many pockets for the spring packs showed unusual
high wear rates. A vibration damper in such
Where Y = (b/a, b/r, φ) ≈ 0.5 conditions will have a reduced performance which
will lead to a higher torsional stresses in the
by integrating this equation between an initial and crankshaft. However as can be seen by the crack
final crack depth, for example af=55 mm, ai=32 mm, initiation the nucleation is by rotating bending and
that can be related to the onboard records, a stress with more than one crack developing on the same
level of ∆σ ≈30 MPa can be estimated. CCEPTED local which usually occurs on stress concentration
MANUSCRIPTIt is now possible to estimate the life zones or higher stress levels. Operational
spent to grow the crack between an initial small crack irregularities which may include firing pressure
and final fracture, by integrating the same equation deviations and engine overload can also origin
with the applied stress of ∆σ ≈30 MPa, between overstress on the main journals.
af=55 mm, ai=2.5 mm, therefore 2400 hours were
estimated which corresponds to approximately to a
time less than the time spent since the scheduled
change in the journal bearings.

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Vol. 2 Issue 6, June - 2013

6. Conclusions [6] Shiratori M, Miyoshi T, Sakay Y, Zhang GR.

Factors Analysis and application of influence
The catastrophic fracture of this marine crankshaft coefficients for round bar with a semi-elliptical
was by fatigue, a combination of rotating bending surface crack. Murakami Y editor. Handbook of
with steady torsion. It was possible to identify the Stress Intensity Factors, II; Pergamon Press, Oxford,
crack initiation due to the elliptical arrest lines, which 1987:659-65.
happened in the zone between the crankpin and main
journal. The hardness obtained for this material close [7] Raju IS. Newman JC. Stress intensity factors for
to the zone of crack initiation is adequate for this type circumferential surface cracks in pipes and rods
of steel. It was not found any material defect or under tension and bending loads. In: Fracture
inclusion and the manufacturing and material of Mechanics, ASTM STP 905, 1986; 17:789-805.
crankshaft was supervised and certificated by a
Register of Shipping Society and the resonant [8] Carpinteri A. Elliptical-arc surface cracks in
frequencies found were not significant. The number round bars. Fat FractEngng Mater Struct 1992;
of cycles to failure obtained by the record on board 15:1141.
and the calculated by the linear fracture mechanics
approaches showed that the propagation was fast [9] Carpinteri A. Shape change of surface cracks in
which mean that the level of bending stress was round bars under cyclic axial loading. IntJnlof
relatively high. After the crack initiation by rotating Fatigue 1993; 15:21.
bending the effect of the steady torsion became itself
significant. Having to account for the arrest lines and
[10] Yang and Kuang Fatigue crack growth for a
the last identified voyages of the ship, indicates that
surface crack in a round bar under multiaxial loading
the crack growth was relatively fast when compared
condition. Fatigue Fract. Enggng Material Structure
with the total number of hours of the main engine and
28, 963-970, 2005
crankshaft, which confirms that the
catastrophicfailure was not due to a progressive wear
of the crankshaft. The origin of the fatigue fracture it [11] L. Reis, B. Li and M. de Freitas, “Analytical and
Experimental Studies on Fatigue Crack Path under
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is not still determined. The research and the
monitoring of the new crankshaft are going on Complex Multiaxial Loading”, Fatigue and Fracture
because eventually it may happen again. Engineering Materials and Structures, 29, pp. 281-
289 (2006).
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7. References [12] S. Archer, “Some factors influencing the life of

marine crankshaft”, INE – Transitions, April 1964,
[1] WohlerExperiments on the strength of metals. vol. 76, 4.
Engineering 1867, vol. 2, pp.160.
[13] Haruyoshi Kubo and Hiroyuki Mori.Technical
[2] Gough HJ. Some experiments on the resistance of developments and recent trends in crankshaft
metals to fatigue under combined stress. Aeronautical materials, Kobelco Technology Review nº 26, pp. 37-
Research Council Reports and Memoranda. London: 42, Dec. 2005.
His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1951.

[3] Freitas MM and François D. “Analysis of Fatigue

Crack Growth in Rotary Bend Specimens and
Railway Axles”, Fatigue and Fracture of
Engineering Materials and Structures, 18, 2, pp. 171-
178 (1995).

[4] Fonte M A and Freitas MM. “Semi-elliptical

Fatigue Crack Growth under Rotating or

Reversed Bending Combined with Steady Torsion”,

Fatigue and Fracture of Engineering Materials and
Structures, 20, 6, pp. 895-906 (1997)

[5] Fonte M A and Freitas MM. “Stress Intensity

Factors for Semi-elliptical Cracks in Round Bars
under Bending and Torsion”, International Journal of
Fatigue, 21, pp. 457- 463 (1999).

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