Ralph W.

Tyler said:
“Learning takes place through the active behavior of the student:
it is what he does that he learns, not what the teacher does.”

ECDIS Display: Source Danelec Marine

“While many aspects of ECDIS provide benefits in time savings and

accuracy, the potential benefits are highly dependent on proper use. If
watch officers are unfamiliar with the systems in use, or are confused
by the information presented, ECDIS can become more of a liability
than a benefit. The change in mind-set needed to shift from paper to
electronic charts intensifies the risks caused by lack of adequate ECDIS
training”

Alan M. Weigel –Maritime Reporter

First Edition 2013

Second Edition 2015
Third Edition 2017
Revised March 2018

0
 Chapter 1
Standards and Regulations

Objectives:
At the end of the topics the students should have:

➢
Knowledge of the capability and limitations of ECDIS operations, and all indicated sub-
topics
➢
Proficiency in operation, interpretation, and analysis of information obtained from ECDIS,
and all indicated sub-topics
➢
Management of operational procedures, system files and data, and all indicated sub-topics

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Ever since man first went to sea there has been a requirement for some form of
recognition of the seagoing environment to assist in the safe passage to the required
destination. Knowledge of the coastline, safe channels for navigation which avoid wrecks,
sandbanks etc., and tidal information all play their part in assisting the navigator. Paper
charts giving information about particular areas have been around for centuries and
hydrographers from various countries have explored the world’s oceans to produce up-
to-date charts which are an invaluable aid to the seafarer whether they are aboard
commercial vessels plying their trade around the world or leisure craft sailing for pleasure
and recreation.

The desire of the navigator has always been to answer a fundamental question: “Where,
exactly, is my ship?” To answer that question, the navigator was forced to continually take
fixes on celestial bodies, on fixed objects ashore, or using radio signals, and plot the resulting
lines of position as a fix on a paper chart. Only then could he begin to assess the safety of
the ship and its progress toward its destination. He spent far more time taking fixes, working
out solutions, and plotting the results than on making assessments, and the fix only told him
where the ship was at the time that fix was taken, not where the vessel was some time later
when the assessment was made. He was always “behind the vessel.” On the high seas this
is of little import. Near shore, it becomes vitally important.

Electronic charts automate the process of integrating real-time positions with the chart display
and allow the navigator to continuously assess the position and safety of the vessel. Further,
the GPS/DGPS fixes are far more accurate and taken far more often than any navigator ever
could. A good piloting team is expected to take and plot a fix every three minutes. An
electronic chart system can do it once per second to a standard of accuracy at least an order
of magnitude better. Electronic charts also allow the integration of other operational data,
such as ship’s course and speed, depth soundings, and radar data into the display. Further,
they allow automation of alarm systems to alert the navigator to potentially dangerous
situations well in advance of a disaster.

1
Finally, the navigator has a complete picture of the instantaneous situation of the vessel
and all charted dangers in the area. With a radar overlay, the tactical situation with
respect to other vessels is clear as well. This chapter will discuss the various types of
electronic charts, the requirements for using them, their characteristics, capabilities and
limitations.

At the present time most hydrographic offices still operate with the paper chart as the
basis of their operations. However, over the past few years electronics has moved into
the sphere of charting and now digital chart data is becoming more popular and is likely
to be the mainstay product of the hydrographic offices in the years to come. With this
new technology the seafarer is provided with a means of viewing a chart using a monitor
that can display, in color, all the information present on a paper chart. The chart
information is contained on a memory device such as a CD-ROM and can be stored on
a computer hard disk. Suitable navigational software can enable the chart data to be
viewed for the purpose of ‘safe and efficient navigation’. The electronic chart is one where
chart data is provided as a digital charting system and it is capable of displaying both
geographical data and text to assist the navigator. An electronic chart may fall into one
of two categories.

Official, which describes those electronic charts which are issued by, or on the authority
of, a national hydrographic office. The hydrographic offices are government agencies
and are legally liable for the quality of their products regardless of whether those
products are paper or digital. Such charts are updated at regular intervals in order to
conform to the SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) requirement that charts should be
‘adequate and up-to-date for the intended voyage’.

Non-official, which describes those electronic charts which are issued by

commercial organizations which may use data owned by a hydrographic authority
but are not endorsed by that authority. An electronic chart may be constructed using
either of two types of data, raster or vector.

1.1 ECDIS PERFORMANCE STANDARDS, CAPABILITIES AND REGULATIONS

1.1.1 ECDIS Performance Standards

RESOLUTION A.817(19) adopted on 23 November 1995, PERFORMANCE

STANDARDS FOR ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION
SYSTEMS (ECDIS)
RESOLUTION MSC.86(70) adopted on 8 December 1998, Adoption of New and
Amended Performance Standards for Navigational Equipment, Annex 4
Amendments to the recommendation on Performance Standards for Electronic
Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDISs), amended Resolution A.817(19).

The MSC, during its 70th session from 7-11 December, 1998, adopted performance
standards for Raster Chart Display Systems, through amendments to the
performance standards for electronic chart display and information systems (ECDIS), to
allow the systems to be used with raster charts where vector electronic chart systems
are not available.

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IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), at its 73rd session from 27 November to 6
December 2000 adopted a revised Chapter V (Safety of Navigation) of SOLAS which
entered into force last 1 July 2002, as follows:

1. SOLAS Chapter VRegulation 2 - Definitions

Nautical chart or nautical publications is a special-purpose map or book, or a specially
compiled database from which such a map or book is derived, that is issued officially
by or on the authority of a Government, authorized Hydrographic Office or other
relevant government institution and is designed to meet the requirements of marine
navigation.
SOLAS Regulation V/19 Carriage Requirements requires ships engaged on
international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic Chart Display and Information
System (ECDIS).

RESOLUTION MSC.232(82), adopted on 5 December 2006, ADOPTION OF THE

REVISED PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY
AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS (ECDIS), improved the previously adopted, by
resolution A.817(19).

RESOLUTION MSC.282(86), adopted on 5 June 2009, Adoption of amendments

to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended,
accepting ECDIS as meeting the chart carriage requirements, and the IMO’s
Maritime Safety Committee approved new regulations for the mandatory carriage
requirements of ECDIS on ships.

STCW 95 Table A-II/1 - Navigation at the Operational Level - An officer who is in

charge of a navigational watch on board a ship of 500 GRT or more should attain
the minimum standard of competence specified in Table A-II/1 of STCW Code. The
competence includes “Plan and conduct a passage and determine position” of the
vessel, in which he should have thorough knowledge of and ability to use
navigational charts and publications, NTM, radio navigational warnings and ships’
routeing information.

2. Revised Carriage Requirements

2.1 Regulation 19 – Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational systems and

equipment.

3 In paragraph 2.1, the existing subparagraph .4 is replaced by the following:

“.4 nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship’s route for
the intended voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage. An
electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) is also accepted as
meeting the chart carriage requirements of this subparagraph. Ships to which
paragraph 2.10 applies shall comply with the carriage requirements for ECDIS
detailed therein;” Amendments to Chapter V of SOLAS, 1974, as amended, arising
from Annex 1 of Resolution MSC.282(86), adopted on 5 June 2009 and resulted in
revisions to Regulation 19.2, are as follows:

3
 5 After the existing paragraph 2.9, the new paragraphs 2.10 and 2.11 are added
as follows:

“2.10 Ships engaged on international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic

Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) as follows:
.1 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1
July 2012;
.2 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July
2012;
.3 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards
constructed on or after 1 July 2013;
.4 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less
than 10,000 gross tonnage constructed on or after 1 July 2014;
.5 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July
2012, not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July 2014;
.6 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012,
not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July 2015;
.7 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards
constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July
2016;
.8 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less
than 50,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first
survey* on or after 1 July 2017; and
.9 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less
than 20,000 gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first
survey* on or after 1 July 2018.
2.11 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of
paragraph 2.10 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two
years after the implementation date specified in subparagraphs 2.10.5 to 2.10.9 of
paragraph 2.10.”
*Refer to the unified interpretation of the term "first survey" as stated in SOLAS
regulations.(MSC.1/Circ.1290).

2 General Principles of ECDIS usage as Primary Means of Navigation

An ECDIS, to comply with the SOLAS carriage requirement, Ch V Regulation 19.2.1.4,

is
acceptable only if:
- the equipment is type approved, as stated in paragraph 5.3.2;
- it is using official Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC) or, with certain conditions
being satisfied as in paragraph 5.5, is using official Raster Navigational Charts
(RNC);
- the navigating officers are qualified and competent in its use;
- the carriage and use of the equipment as primary means of navigation is
correctly annotated in the Record of Equipment;

4
 - the ship’s safety management system (SMS) includes relevant requirements and
procedures associated with the carriage and operational use of the ECDIS; and
- it is capable of displaying the current version of the International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO) Presentation Library for ECDIS, as stated in section 7.1.

3 Record of Equipment

4.1 For a UK registered vessel using ECDIS as PMN, whether as mandatory or voluntary
carriage, the “Record of Equipment” (RoE) attached to the relevant safety certificate under
SOLAS (e.g. Passenger Ship Safety Certificate - Form P; Cargo Ship Safety Equipment
Certificate - Form E; Cargo Ship Safety Certificate - Form C) needs to indicate this provision.
In addition, the RoE must also clearly state the back-up arrangement in place. For existing
vessels which are adopting the ECDIS as PMN in place of paper charts, the current RoE may
need to be suitably amended to reflect the above changes.

4 Adequate Back-up

5.1 MCA considers that the following will meet the adequate back-up requirements for
ECDIS:
i) an independent, fully compliant second ECDIS unit, connected to ship’s
main and emergency power supplies; or
ii) an appropriate folio of paper nautical charts (APC) (as stated in SOLAS
Ch V, Reg. 19.2.1.5 footnote).

5.2 It is important that adequate independent back-up arrangements are provided to

ensure safe navigation in case of ECDIS failure. Such arrangements include facilities
enabling a safe take-over of the ECDIS functions in order to ensure that an ECDIS failure
does not result in a hazardous situation. The ship’s safety management system (SMS)
must recognize and suitably account for this.
5.3 The back-up ECDIS must, therefore, be loaded with relevant official charts and the
voyage plan before commencement of the voyage. Similarly, if APC is being used as the
back-up, it must be readily available and the voyage plan must be indicated on the charts.
The back-up arrangement must be ready for immediate use, particularly when in confined
waters.

6. Compliant ECDIS
6.1 Each ECDIS, main unit and back-up if applicable, must be type approved to Marine
Equipment Directive (MED) Wheelmark standards which cover requirements of
applicable IMO performance standards, as explained below. MSN 1734 and 1735 (as
amended) provide details of the type approval requirements and notified bodies.
6.2 The performance standards for ECDIS have been revised and updated since their
inception in November 1995. As a result, depending on the date of installation, ECDIS
units are required to comply with one of the two IMO performance standards:
i) ECDIS equipment installed on or after 1st January 2009 must comply with
the current revised performance standards for ECDIS (IMO Resolution
MSC.232(82));

5
 ii) ECDIS equipment installed on or after 1st January 1996 but before 1st January
2009 may comply with the older performance standards (IMO Resolution A.817(19),
as amended by IMO Resolution MSC.86(70)). However, such equipment may not be
able to display all the contents of an ENC in accordance with the current IHO
Presentation Library, as explained in paragraph 7.
6.3 ECDIS equipment installed before 1st January 1996 may not comply with any of the
above IMO performance standards and, therefore, may not be considered an IMO-
compliant ECDIS.
6.4 The ship’s navigating officers must have completed suitable programs of ECDIS
generic and ship-specific equipment familiarization training before being allowed to keep
navigation watch on these vessels. The Master of the vessel should be able to produce
suitable evidence to prove this. MIN 442 (Training for ECDIS as Primary Means of
Navigation) provides details of these training requirements. The MIN also stipulates UK
flagged ships’ Minimum Safe Manning Document requirements related to the ECDIS
competence of the navigating officers.

7. ECDIS – Modes of Operation

7.1 Although the primary mode of operation of ECDIS requires the use of official
Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC), under certain circumstances where ENCs are not
available the ECDIS International Maritime Organization (IMO) performance standards
allow the use of official Raster Navigational Charts (RNC). ECDIS may be capable of
operating with both ENCs and RNCs. However, when used in the Raster Chart Display
System (RCDS) mode, the performance standards stipulate that the system has to be
used “in conjunction with an appropriate folio of up-to-date paper charts” (APC).
7.2 The appropriate folio of paper charts (APC) should contain full coverage of charts of
a “general” scale of the planned route or full coverage at “overview” scale where “general”
scale coverage does not exist. Full coverage at “coastal” scale should also be carried for
sections of the planned route that include waters that are intricate or congested or where
navigation is constrained (e.g. areas containing Traffic Separation Schemes). Larger
scale charts should be carried where these are deemed by the Master of the vessel to
be necessary to ensure safe navigation. The definition of APC is provided in detail within
Appendix 7 of Resolution MSC 232(82), the Revised Performance Standards for ECDIS.
7.3 In addition to the carriage of paper charts as stated above, MCA requires a suitable
risk-assessment to be carried out prior to using ECDIS in RCDS mode. MGN 285
(Electronic Charts – The Use of Risk Assessment Methodology When Operating ECDIS
in the Raster Chart Display System (RCDS) Mode) provides more guidance on this.

8. ECDIS – Apparent Anomalies

8.1 In 2010 it was discovered that some models of some ECDIS equipment might not,
under certain circumstances, display all navigationally significant features or activate
appropriate alarms. That led to an investigation of some other models of ECDIS
equipment which showed similar but not identical anomalies.
8.2 The issue of ECDIS anomalies was progressively raised internationally for remedial
action to these potential navigational problems and, in July 2012, IMO issued

6
its most recent safety of navigation circular, SN.1/Circ. 312 – “Operating Anomalies
Identified within ECDIS”. This provides guidance and work-around to address the
following:
– the potential for some ECDIS to exhibit display and alarm-behavior anomalies;
– the characteristics of these anomalies;
– the list of the currently identified anomalies and related advice;
– the existence and use of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Data
Presentation and Performance Check (DPPC) dataset and to ensure that all
installed ECDIS and training equipment is checked; and
– application of guidance in MSC.1/Circ.1391 dated 7 December 2010, in particular
to encourage vessels using ECDIS to report anomalies with sufficient detail on
the equipment and ENCs to allow analysis.

8.3 Mariners using ECDIS are reminded not to rely solely on automated voyage planning
and monitoring checks and alarms. Some ECDIS appear only to undertake route check
functions on larger scale ENCs and therefore alarms might not activate. This may not be
clearly indicated on the ECDIS display. Mariners should always undertake careful visual
inspection of the entire planned route using the ‘Other / All’ display mode to confirm that
it, and any deviations from it, is clear of dangers. The single most effective tool that can
be used by the ship operating company to establish that their ECDIS are operating
correctly is the application of the IHO DPPC as mentioned above, and see especially
Annex 2. While this MIN cancels the earlier MIN 426 which detailed the IHO guidelines,
it is important that ships and operating companies continue to report test results to the
IHO and to the MCA.

9. Maintenance of ECDIS Software

9.1 The IHO ECDIS Standard S-52, Specifications for Chart Content and Display Aspects
of ECDIS and its Annex A, the IHO Presentation Library (PL) for ECDIS comprise a set
of specifications, plus a symbol library, color tables, look-up tables and symbolization
rules, which link every object class and attribute of the ECDIS internal data base (SENC)
to the appropriate presentation of the ECDIS display. The PL provides details and
procedures for implementing the display specifications contained in S-52 by decoding
and symbolizing the elements of the SENC.

9.2 An ECDIS that is not updated to the latest version of IHO standards may not meet the
chart carriage requirement as set out in SOLAS Regulation V/19.2.1.4. IMO has issued
suitable guidelines in a Safety of Navigation circular, SN.1/Circ.266/Rev.1 on the need to
maintain ECDIS software. ECDIS installed prior to January 2009, may not be able to display
all the features of the current IHO Presentation Library (S-52 Appendix 2,

9.3 The manufacturers of ECDIS equipment have agreed to publish information on the
latest versions of the software used to operate their equipment, in order to help clarify
certain anomalies that had been identified with some older systems.

The information will be posted on the website of the International Hydrographic

Organization (IHO), and will include links to enable ships to download the latest versions
of the operating software, if necessary.

7
1.2 ECDIS approved back-up arrangements

1.2.1 SOLAS Regulation V/19 Carriage and back-up requirements

Primary Backup

The specifications for ECDIS consist of a set of interrelated standards from three
organizations, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International
Hydrographic Organization (IHO), and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC). The IMO published a resolution in November 1995 to establish performance
standards for the general functionality of ECDIS, and to define the conditions for its
replacement of paper charts. It consisted of a 15-section annex and 5 original
appendices.

Appendix 6 was adopted in 1996 to define the backup requirements for ECDIS. Appendix
7 was adopted in 1998 to define the operation of ECDIS in a raster chart mode. Previous
standards related only to vector data. The IMO performance standards refer to IHO
Special Publication S-52 for specification of technical details pertaining to the ECDIS
display. Produced in 1997, the 3rd edition of S-52 includes appendices specifying the
issue, updating, display, color, and symbology of official electronic navigational charts
(ENC), as well as a revised glossary of ECDIS-related terms. The IMO performance
standards also refer to IEC international Standard 61174 for the requirements of type
approval of an ECDIS. Published in 1998, the IEC standard defines the testing methods
and required results for an ECDIS to be certified as compliant with IMO standards.
Accordingly, the first ECDIS was given type approval by Germany’s classification society
(BSH) in 1999. Since then, several other makes of ECDIS have gained type approval by
various classification societies.

The IMO performance standards specify the following general requirements: Display of
government-authorized vector chart data including an updating capability; enable route
planning, route monitoring, manual positioning, and continuous plotting of the ship’s
position; have a presentation as reliable and available as an official paper chart; provide
appropriate alarms or indications regarding displayed information or malfunctions; and
permit a mode of operation with raster charts similar to the above standards.

The performance standards also specify additional functions, summarized as follows:

• Display of system information in three selectable levels of detail
• Means to ensure correct loading of ENC data and updates
• Apply updates automatically to system display
• Protect chart data from any alteration
• Permit display of update content
• Store updates separately and keeps records of application in system

8
• Indicate when user zooms too far in or out on a chart (over- or under-scale) or when a
larger scale chart is available in memory
• Permit the overlay of radar image and ARPA information onto the display
• Require north-up orientation and true motion mode, but permit other combinations
• Use IHO-specified resolution, colors and symbols
• Use IEC-specified navigational elements and parameters (range & bearing marker,
position fix, own ship’s track and vector, waypoint, tidal information, etc.)
• Use specified size of symbols, letters and figures at scale specified in chart data
• Permit display of ship as symbol or in true scale
• Display route planning and other tasks
• Display route monitoring
• Permit display to be clearly viewed by more than one user in day or night conditions
• Permit route planning in straight and curved segments and adjustment of waypoints
• Display a route plan in addition to the route selected for monitoring
• Permit track limit selection and display an indication if track limit crosses a safety
contour
or a selected prohibited area
• Permit display of an area away from ship while continuing to monitor selected route
• Give an alarm at a selectable time prior to ship crossing a selected safety contour
or prohibited area
• Plot ship’s position using a continuous positioning system with accuracy consistent
with the requirements of safe navigation
• Identify selectable discrepancy between primary and secondary positioning system
• Provide an alarm when positioning system input is lost
• Provide an alarm when positioning system and chart are based on different
geodetic datums
• Store and provide for replay the elements necessary to reconstruct navigation and
verify chart data in use during previous 12 hours
• Record the track for entire voyage with at least four hour time marks
• Permit accurate drawing of ranges and bearings not limited by display resolution
• Require system connection to continuous position fixing, heading and speed information
• Neither degrades nor be degraded by connection to other sensors
• Conduct on-board tests of major functions with alarm or indication of malfunction
• Permit normal functions on emergency power circuit
• Permit power interruptions of up to 45 seconds without system failure or need to reboot
• Enable takeover by backup unit to continue navigation if master unit fails,

Before an IMO-compliant ECDIS can replace paper charts on vessels governed by

SOLAS regulations, the route of the intended voyage must be covered completely by
ENC data, that ENC data must include the latest updates, the ECDIS installation must
be IMO-compliant including the master-slave network with full sensor feed to both units,
and the national authority of the transited waters must allow for paperless navigation
through published regulations. The latter may also include requirements for certified
training in the operational use of ECDIS.

Without the geographical coverage of ENC data, the expensive dual-network installation
required by ECDIS will not eliminate the requirement to carry a corrected portfolio of paper
charts. These partial installations range from approved ECDIS software in a single PC, to
ECDIS with its IEC-approved hardware. In these instances, plotting on paper charts
continues to be the primary means of navigation. As more ENC data and updates

9
become available, and as governments regulate paperless transits, vessel operators are
upgrading their installations to meet full IMO compliance and to make ECDIS the primary
means of navigation.

1.3 GUIDELINES FOR VOYAGE PLANNING - IMO RESOLUTION A.893(21)

adopted on 25 November 1999

DRAFT GUIDELINES FOR VOYAGE PLANNING

1 Objectives

1.1 The development of a plan for voyage or passage, as well as the close and
continuous monitoring of the vessel's progress and position during the execution of such
a plan, are of essential importance for safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation and protection of the marine environment.

1.2 The need for voyage and passage planning applies to all vessels. There are several
factors that may impede the safe navigation of all vessels and additional factors that may
impede the navigation of large vessels or vessels carrying hazardous cargoes. These
factors will need to be taken into account in the preparation of the plan and in the
subsequent monitoring of the execution of the plan.

1.3 Voyage and passage planning includes appraisal, i.e. gathering all information
relevant to the contemplated voyage or passage; detailed planning of the whole voyage
or passage from berth to berth, including those areas necessitating the presence of a
pilot; execution of the plan; and the monitoring of the progress of the vessel in the
implementation of the plan. These components of voyage/passage planning are
analyzed below.

1 Appraisal

2.1 All information relevant to the contemplated voyage or passage should be

considered.
The following items should be taken into account in voyage and passage planning:

.1 the condition and state of the vessel, its stability, and its equipment; any operational
limitations; its permissible draught at sea in fairways and in ports; its maneuvering data,
including any restrictions;
.2 any special characteristics of the cargo (especially if hazardous), and its distribution,
stowage and securing on board the vessel;
.3 the provision of a competent and well-rested crew to undertake the voyage or passage;
.4 requirements for up-to-date certificates and documents concerning the vessel, its
equipment, crew, passengers or cargo;
.5 appropriate scale, accurate and up-to-date charts to be used for the intended voyage
or passage, as well as any relevant permanent or temporary notices to mariners and
existing radio navigational warnings;
.6 accurate and up-to-date sailing directions, lists of lights and lists of radio aids to
navigation; and
.7 any relevant up-to-date additional information, including:

10
 .1 mariners' routeing guide and passage planning charts, published
by competent authorities;
.2 current and tidal atlases and tide tables;
.3 climatological, hydrographical, and oceanographic data as well as other
appropriate meteorological information;
.4 availability of services for weather routeing (such as that contained in Volume
D of the World Meteorological Organization's Publication No. 9);
.5 existing ships' routeing and reporting systems, vessel traffic services, and
marine environmental protection measures;
.6 volume of traffic likely to be encountered throughout the voyage or passage;
.7 if a pilot is to be used, information relating to pilotage and embarkation and
disembarkation including the exchange of information between master and pilot;
.8 available port information, including information pertaining to the availability of
shore-based emergency response arrangements and equipment; and
.9 any additional items pertinent to the type of the vessel or its cargo, the particular
areas the vessel will traverse, and the type of voyage or passage to be undertaken.

2.2 On the basis of the above information, an overall appraisal of the intended voyage or
passage should be made. This appraisal should provide a clear indication of all areas of
danger; those areas where it will be possible to navigate safely, including any existing
routeing or reporting systems and vessel traffic services; and any areas where marine
environmental protection considerations apply.

2 Planning
3.1 On the basis of the fullest possible appraisal, a detailed voyage or passage plan
should be prepared which should cover the entire voyage or passage from berth to berth,
including those areas where the services of a pilot will be used.
3.2 The detailed voyage or passage plan should include the following factors:

.1 the plotting of the intended route or track of the voyage or passage on appropriate
scale charts: the true direction of the planned route or track should be indicated, as well
as all areas of danger, existing ships' routeing and reporting systems, vessel traffic
services, and any areas where marine environmental protection considerations apply;

.2 the main elements to ensure safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation,
and protection of the marine environment during the intended voyage or passage; such
elements should include, but not be limited to:

.1 safe speed, having regard to the proximity of navigational hazards along the
intended route or track, the maneuvering characteristics of the vessel and its
draught in relation to the available water depth;
.2 necessary speed alterations en route, e.g., where there may be limitations
because of night passage, tidal restrictions, or allowance for the increase of
draught due to squat and heel effect when turning;
.3 minimum clearance required under the keel in critical areas with restricted water
depth;
.4 positions where a change in machinery status is required;
.5 course alteration points, taking into account the vessel's turning circle at the
planned speed and any expected effect of tidal streams and currents;

11
 .6 the method and frequency of position fixing, including primary and secondary
options, and the indication of areas where accuracy of position fixing is critical and
where maximum reliability must be obtained;
.7 use of ships' routeing and reporting systems and vessel traffic services;
.8 considerations relating to the protection of the marine environment; and
.9 contingency plans for alternative action to place the vessel in deep water or
proceed to a port of refuge or safe anchorage in the event of any emergency
necessitating abandonment of the plan, taking into account existing shore-based
emergency response arrangements and equipment and the nature of the cargo
and of the emergency itself.

3.3 The details of the voyage or passage plan should be clearly marked and recorded,
as appropriate, on charts and in a voyage plan notebook or computer disk.

3.4 Each voyage or passage plan as well as the details of the plan, should be approved
by the ships' master prior to the commencement of the voyage or passage.

3 Execution

4.1 Having finalized the voyage or passage plan, as soon as time of departure and
estimated time of arrival can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the voyage or
passage should be executed in accordance with the plan or any changes made thereto.

4.2 Factors which should be taken into account when executing the plan, or deciding on
any departure therefrom include:
.1 the reliability and condition of the vessel's navigational equipment;
.2 estimated times of arrival at critical points for tide heights and flow;
.3 meteorological conditions, (particularly in areas known to be affected by
frequent periods of low visibility) as well as weather routeing information;
.4 daytime versus night-time passing of danger points, and any effect this may
have on position fixing accuracy; and
.5 traffic conditions, especially at navigational focal points.

4.3 It is important for the master to consider whether any particular circumstance, such
as the forecast of restricted visibility in an area where position fixing by visual means at
a critical point is an essential feature of the voyage or passage plan, introduces an
unacceptable hazard to the safe conduct of the passage; and thus whether that section
of the passage should be attempted under the conditions prevailing or likely to prevail.
The master should also consider at which specific points of the voyage or passage there
may be a need to utilize additional deck or engine room personnel.

4 Monitoring

5.1 The plan should be available at all times on the bridge to allow officers of the
navigational watch immediate access and reference to the details of the plan.

5.2 The progress of the vessel in accordance with the voyage and passage plan should
be closely and continuously monitored. Any changes made to the plan should be made
consistent with these Guidelines and clearly marked and recorded.

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 Chapter 2
Elements of Electronic Chart and Display System

Objective: At the end of the topic students should have demonstrated knowledge
and understanding of the elements of ECDIS.

2.0 Purpose of ECDIS

One of the primary function of ECDIS is to contribute to safe navigation and prevention
of grounding. ECDIS has some functions which indicate not only chart's information but
also other information and has functions that give to ship's navigator an alarm when a
ship is approaching or entering into potentially dangerous areas. With the advancement
of electronic technology many navigational aid systems have been computerized, and
hybrid and automated ships have been realized in advanced countries on shipping in the
world. It is also anticipated to go forward the enlargement of size, increase of speed and
also reduction of labor for ships more hereafter, and it becomes important to secure the
safety of navigation of ships.

As for the nautical charts, which are indispensable for the operation of ships, it becomes
necessary for an electronic chart system. This kind of electronic chart display system
contributes to the safety and convenience of navigation so much.

The purpose of ECDIS is to integrate discrete components into a single navigational

display and control system. The ECDIS transition therefore involves a complex
integration process that brings together radar, AIS, wind sensors, displays,
gyrocompasses, and more, and when it is taken as part of an overall integration of the
entire bridge that consolidation must also account for NMEA, industrial serial interfaces,
ethernet, and communications.

ECDIS provides continuous position and navigational safety information. The system
generates audible and/or visual alarms when the vessel is in proximity to navigational
hazards.
ECDIS should reduce the navigational workload compared to using the paper chart. It
should enable the mariner to execute in a convenient and timely manner all route
planning, route monitoring and positioning currently performed on paper charts. It should
be capable of continuously plotting the ship's position.
ECDIS should have at least the same reliability and availability of presentation as the
paper chart published by government authorized hydrographic offices and should provide
appropriate alarms or indications with respect to the information displayed or malfunction
of the equipment

2.0.1 Display Information

How ECDIS operates depends on what type of chart data is used. ENC’s (electronic
navigational charts) and RNC’s (raster nautical charts) are approved for use in ECDIS.

13
By definition both ENC’s and RNC’s are issued under the authority of national
hydrographic offices (HO’s). ECDIS functions as a true ECDIS when used with corrected
ENC data, but ECDIS operates in the less functional raster chart display system (RCDS)
mode when using corrected RNC data. When ECDIS is used with non-official vector chart
data (corrected or not), it operates in the ECS mode.

The symbols for ECDIS are based on the familiar paper chart symbols, with some
optional extras such as simplified buoy symbols that show up better at night. Since the
ECDIS can be customized to each ship's requirements, new symbols were added such
as a highlighted, mariner selectable, safety contour and a prominent isolated danger
symbol.

2.0.2 Presentation of ECDIS

The IHO ECDIS Standard S-52, Specifications for Chart Content and Display Aspects of
ECDIS and its Annex A, the IHO Presentation Library (PL) for ECDIS comprise a set of
specifications, plus a symbol library, colour tables, look-up tables and symbolization
rules, which link every object class and attribute of the ECDIS internal data base (SENC)
to the appropriate presentation of the ECDIS display.

The PL provides details and procedures for implementing the display specifications
contained in S-52 by decoding and symbolizing the elements of the SENC.

It contains:
1. The ECDIS symbol library
2. The ECDIS colour table for day, dusk, and night viewing
3. Look-up tables, with symbology instructions linking SENC objects to the
appropriate colour and symbol and giving their IMO category, draw priority, priority
over radar, and suggested viewing group
4. Conditional symbology procedures
- cases where symbolizing depends on circumstances, such as mariner’s
choice of safety contour
- cases where symbolizing is too complex to be defined in a direct look-up
table,
5. Description of the symbology instructions,
6. mariner’s navigational objects, specified in the same format as chart objects for
convenience in processing in ECDIS
7. Supplementary features such as the ECDIS chart 1, colour differentiation test
diagrams, colour calibration software

The Presentation Model for ECDIS refers to the official IHO Transfer Standard for Digital
Hydrographic Data (S-57). The IHO Transfer Standard state in Part 2, section 3,
describes the concept of presentation of S-57 chart data representing the real world.

Within the ECDIS, the ENC database stores the chart information in the form of
geographic objects represented by point, line and area shapes, carrying individual
attributes, which make any of these objects unique.

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The presentation of the current position, range/bearing functions and route planning
capabilities are other examples of the minimum ECDIS requirements laid down in the
IMO Performance Standards for ECDIS. The style of presentation is mandatory.

2.1 Value to Navigation

ECDIS provides unique tools for management of charts and nautical publications in digital
format. This includes ordering updates as well as the preparation of reports. Within a few
seconds they can be sent ashore or be included as an integrated part of the voyage plan by
showing the current status of the vessels charts and nautical publications.

ECDIS is a Tool for automatic Route and Voyage planning from Port A to B via C can be
integrated as a part of your ECDIS. Optimizing the schedule taking into consideration the
latest weather forecast (weather routing) and using integrated environmental databases
for Tides and Currents will allow the vessel to proceed along the route at the safest
economical speed and arrive at its final destination on time.

ECDIS uniquely combines information from different sources in one display. Optimized
chart presentation gives a perfect background for display of vital information. This could
be weather information, online targets, No Go areas, for example Piracy or MARPOL
areas, and additional navigation data.

All this can be made visible just by a single key operation. With predefined layouts
enabling easy shifting between presentations and online updating of the data, there is no
better tool than ECDIS for efficient presentation of information of interest – decision
making cannot be easier and safer.

ECDIS also provides redundancy and improves efficiency by avoiding duplication of

work, such as route entry in several systems. Integration of ECDIS with the vessel’s
communication system enables online communication from Ship to Shore for the
exchange of data and reports.

With proper set up and use, streamlined procedures (ISM) on the vessel and in the shipping
company as well as a trained and motivated crew, ECDIS is an investment with huge
potential for cost savings. At the same time, efficiency and safety are increased. Savings can
be immediately visible, with its biggest potential in the areas of charts and nautical
publications, fuel consumption and time spent on planning and preparation of reports. Det
NorskeVeritas (DNV) Report ‘Effect on ENC Coverage on ECDIS Risk Reduction’ from 2007
already evaluated that ECDIS is a cost effective risk control option for large passenger ships
and all other vessel types involved in international trade, with a significant potential to save
lives by reductions the frequency of collision and grounding.

The on-paper safety advantages of ECDIS are clear. The system provides an integrated
package for planning, plotting and monitoring routes using ENCs (which, unlike paper
charts, can be regularly updated in real-time), and pools navigational information in one
place, including radar image overlay, AIS and Navigational Telex. Proponents of the
technology note that this convenient concentration of information allows operators more
time to get their visual bearings, and provides more accurate data on the location of
threats in dangerous conditions and circumstances.

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ECDIS’ capability to integrate a wide variety of graphic and textual information is the
reason for it to be the central navigational instrument on the bridge.” But it imposes some
Safety Risk, Limitations, Over-confidence, deficiencies and risks. Its critics point out that
it is a complex tool which, used in ignorance, can actually increase risks. This criticism is
partly due to the proliferation of different chart formats and the fact that each ECDIS type
interacts with the charts in a subtly different way. “When properly understood, its use
increases the safety of navigation.”

“For the optimum situational awareness, navigators must recognize the level of display
for objects presented when using ECDIS.” The appearance and content of data displayed
is generated in line with IHO Presentation Library (S-52) specifications.

2.1.1 Chart Presentation

An ECDIS is a system that displays hydrographic information, which may be combined,

with information provided by electronic position-fixing systems, GPS, radar etc. to assist
in the safe navigation of the vessel.

Colours and Symbols

The colours and symbols used in an ECDIS display must conform to the specifications
contained in the IHO Special Publication 52 (S-52). This includes the specified size and
appearance of symbols, figures, and letters. A particularly useful features is the Mariner’s
ability to select different colour display schemes for daylight, night time, or twilight
conditions.

Difference between data and information

The term information pertains to the knowledge or description of something. Once
interpreted and understood, information can be used to make decisions. Hydrographic
books and nautical charts are traditional examples of printed media that are used to
transfer information. When the information is packaged for transfer, the information
becomes data. Obviously, there can be many types of data, depending on medium and
on transfer technology (e.g. analog or digital).

Accuracy
Flexibility in display scale requires some indication of distance to objects seen on the
display. Electronic chart accuracy is, for most part, dependent on the accuracy of the
features being displayed and manipulated. While some ECDIS and ECS have the
capability to use large-scale data produced from recent hydrographic survey operations.
A potential source of error is related to the system configuration, rather than the accuracy
of electronic chart data being used. All ECDIS’s and most ECS’s enable the user to input
the vessel’s dimensions and GPS antenna location. On large vessels, the relative
position of the GPS antenna aboard the ship can be a source of error when viewing the
“own-ship” icon next to a pier or wharf.

In many water areas DGPS provides horizontal accuracy of +/- 10 meters (95%).
However, with selective availability off, even the most basic GPS receiver in a non-
differential mode may be capable of providing better than 10 meter horizontal accuracy.
In actual operation, accuracies of 3-5 meters are being achieved.

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Resolution and Completeness
Resolution - capability of depicting detail, represented by the smallest distance apart at
which two objects can be seen to be separate. It depends on pixel size, i.e. screen
dimension divided by number of pixels.

The main advantage of ECDIS is that own ship’s actual position is automatically
displayed in real time on the chart. Thus the officer of the watch can easily check whether
the symbol for the actual position of the ship follows the pre-planned track.

Route Monitoring Mode

Monitoring is ensuring that the ship is following the pre-determined passage plan and is
a primary function of the officer of the watch. For this, he may be alone, assisted by other
ship’s personnel; or acting as back-up and information source to another officer having
the conn.

Route monitoring is permanent mode running concurrently with other operations modes,
it produces most important information for navigator while sailing.

Route Monitoring Functions

• Check navigational safety along the route in real time
• Continuous display of heading, speed, depth and position
• Select ETA and monitor the speed required
• Autopilot and track pilot control
• Easy chart access and handling: it installs charts along a selected route and
instantly switches between different chart databases.

Route monitoring enables take-over of the route monitoring function originally performed
by the primary system, including plotting own ship’s position and displaying the planned
route.

Display mode and generation of neighboring area

It should always be possible to display the SENC in a “North-up” orientation. Other
orientation are permitted. ECDIS should provide for true-motion mode. Other modes
area permitted. When true-motion mode is in use, reset and generation of the
neighboring area should take place automatically at a distance from the border of the
display determined by the mariner. It should be possible manually to change the
chart area and the position of own ship relative to the edge of the display.

2.2 Correct and incorrect use

Improper management of the system may result in the anti-grounding alarms and other
indications failing to activate as required for the safe conduct of the navigation.
Navigators must exercise extreme caution when using the scale or zoom facility of the
electronic charts. It is possible to zoom-in to a scale larger than that used in the
compilation of the data which could create a false impression about the reliability of the
charted information

“Appropriate safety settings are of paramount importance for ECDIS display.” Failings in
appropriate settings have recently resulted a few grounding incidents. The values for the

17
safety depth and safety contour must be understood and entered to achieve a sensible
and considered meaning.

The navigators must remember that the display of underwater obstructions or isolated
danger symbols can change according to the settings of this safety contour which also
marks the division between “safe” and “unsafe” water. The shallow contour could be
utilized to indicate the gradient of the seabed (adjacent to a channel) and the deep
contour to indicate the depth of water in which own ship may experience squat and
interaction.

Proficiency in the use of ECDIS includes assessing the integrity of the system and all
data at all times. However, such use should be integrated into standing a normal watch
including a competent visual lookout, and the continued maintenance of good situational
awareness.

One method of accomplishing this it to go to the ECDIS with a single purpose or query
within a strict and brief time limit, rather than to browse or surf menus and information
panels. Keeping to a 7-second glance as a scanning technique helps produce an
integrative role for ECDIS. Another method is to overcome the problem of partial use –
the less thoroughly the ECDIS is used and applied, the less willing the users become to
apply ECDIS to navigation, resulting less familiarity and less trust.

ECDIS must be connected to a position-fixing system, gyro compass and speed/distance

measuring device. Additional electronic systems (sensors) should not interfere with
ECDIS performance or functionality Establish clearly defined procedures in the event
sensory inputs to ECDIS fail. Know what additional electronic system are integrated with
your ECDIS.

Importance of Using ECDIS includes the following:

Improved navigational awareness with the integration of chart, positioning
and
navigational information
Real-time accurate ship position
Automatic monitoring of vessel voyage route
Reduction of human error & elimination of time needed to manually
update charts
Alarm points can be set
No need to store numerous paper charts

Improper management of the system may result in the anti-grounding alarms and other
indications failing to activate as required for safe conduct of the navigation. The
appearance and content of the chart data displayed on ECDIS may change significantly
from different settings as the display is generated as per the specifications characterized
by the IHO (International Hydrographic Office) Presentation Library (S-52). Some of the
examples are:

The Safety Contour, Safety Depth, Shallow Contour, Deep Contour set by the user.

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 • The SENC (System ENC: a database, in the manufacturers internal ECDIS
format) information for display by the user. I.e. Base, Standard, All and Custom
display.
• The cells used on the ECDIS to display and the features of those cells e.g.
Scamin (Scale Minimum) , Date Start and End attributes;
• The difference in interpretation and implementation of the IHO Presentation
Library (S52) by various manufacturers;
• ECDIS may be unable to correctly display the latest approved chart symbols, if
the software is not upgrade to the latest.

Unlike to paper charts where source data diagrams are mostly provided, ENCs
(Electronic Navigation Charts) do not provide this information.” Instead they provide the
navigator with a facility to examine reliability and quality of source data by means of
CATZOCs (Category of Zone of Confidence). This gives an estimate of the reliability of
data related to five quality categories for assessed data (CATZOC A1, A2, B, C and D)
and a sixth category for data which has not yet been assessed. It is also recommended
to consider these CATZOC features while determining a ship’s safety settings.

Incorrect Use of ECDIS may be caused by:

• Not being aware of back-up procedure when operating in areas where ENC
coverage is unavailable.
• Improper voyage planning, not using or incorrectly setting safety depth, safety
contour or watch vector alarms or wrong inputs of vessels’ data, such as draught
• Using inappropriate scale or display mode
• Not using the automatic route check facility
• Not carrying out visual checks or lookout
• Using ECDIS as an anti-collision tool; it is not meant for this purpose
• Not ensuring that ENCs are up-to- date, due to navigators not being clear on the
automatic and/or manual updating procedures
• Improper use of radar and/or AIS overlay
• Inability to plot visual and/or radar fixes, (LOPs)
• Improper use of source data check on ENCs (CATZOC)
• Not being aware of contingency procedures for hardware and/or software failures

“An ECDIS anomaly is an unexpected or unintended behavior of an ECDIS which may

affect the use of the equipment or navigational decisions by the user.”

In accordance with IMO MSC.1/Circ.1391, navigators must use the quickest means of
communication available to send the required information to the Maritime & Coastguard
Agency or similar organizations overseas so that an appropriate action can be taken to
rectify the anomalies.

Some examples of the ECDIS anomalies are:

• A failure to display a navigational feature correctly;
• A failure to activate alarm correctly;
• A failure to manage a number of alarms correctly.

“When monitoring a route, the prudent navigator must always maintain a check on the
integrity of the displayed position of own ship.”

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When the source of the displayed position is the own ships GNSS, there is always a
possibility that the position displayed may not coincide with the ships actual position in
relation to the chart or the charted hazards. A check may be made quite simply by utilizing
one or any of the following:

• manual position fixing (visual/Radar);

• look out of the window;
• comparison of ARPA overlay of a fixed mark with the charted position;
• comparison of a radar overlay with conspicuous land or fixed targets;
• observation of a parallel index on the radar display to monitor comparison with
planned track;
• monitoring the depth shown by echo sounder where appropriate;
• checking the track history;

2.2.1 Potential risk

A potential risk of improper functioning of the system and data accuracy is inherent in the
system. ECDIS is only a tool that supports the mariner in performing the navigational
tasks. The displayed hydrographic data are not reliable than the survey data on which
they are based.

The displayed sensor data are not more reliable than the respective sensor systems they
originate from. Errors & inaccuracies in one subsystem may influence the performance
of other subsystem and potentially render the ECDIS useless.

2.2.2 Potential risk of human error

There is a need to keep a proper look-out and to perform periodical checking, especially
of the ship’s position, be ECDIS-independent methods.

With or without the use of ECDIS, all navigational activities have to comply with the basic
principles and operational guidance for officers in charge of a navigational watch.

2.2.3 Risk assessment method for ECDIS

The application of Risk Assessment has been used for a number of years to assist in
safety procedures in various aspects of the running of a vessel. Despite the well-known
benefits of electronic charts over paper charts, the maritime community has been rather
slow to adopt ECDIS.

The navigator should be able to assess the integrity of the ECDIS system and all data at
all times. He should also use other available aids to navigation and determine which ones
are appropriate. He should also use other available aids to navigation and determine
which ones are appropriate.

2.3 Work station start, stop and layout

2.3.1 ECDIS System Control

ECDIS is a computer, it is important that the system is operated in the manner that it was
designed. The majority of ECDIS operate on a windows-based operating system. Most
ECDIS consoles automatically load the ECDIS software when first turning on the

20
equipment. Double click the ECDIS software icon, just as you would on a normal
computer. As a navigational aid for 24 hour use, the software and hardware is designed
to be left on.

When the system needs to be turned-off, avoid simply switching it off at the main console.
The system has to be power down first going to the “shut down” option within the software
menu. If the ECDIS software shutdown routine is not being followed as stated in the
manual, data could be lost and the system may not restart properly.

There are two common methods of controlling ECDIS:

Mouse/tracker ball actions
Keyboard/function key actions

Every ECDIS has a tracker ball and a keyboard of sorts (some may vary depending on
models). This variation in controls can make switching between ships/manufacturers
particularly confusing. Each ECDIS keyboard and its associated actions will be slightly
different. To speed up the operation of ECDIS, it is recommended to make up an overlay
for the keyboard with the actions of the function keys and/or place a chit next to the
system with the most useful shortcuts as memory aid.

2.3.2 ECDIS’s and ECS’s + components

An electronic chart display system is a general term for all electronic equipment that is
capable of displaying a vessel’s position on a chart image on a screen.

There are two classes of electronic chart display systems.

1) The first is an ECDIS (Eletronic Chart Display and Information System),
which can meet IMO/SOLAS chart carriage requirements.
2) The second is an ECS (Electronic Chart System), which can be used to assist
navigation, but does not meet IMO/SOLAS chart carriage requirements.
The terms ECS and ECDIS encompasses many possible combinations of equipment and
software designed for a variety of navigational purposes. In general, the following
components comprise an ECS or ECDIS.

• Computer processor, software, and network: These subsystems control the processing
of information from the vessel’s navigation sensors and the flow of information between
various system components. Electronic positioning information from GPS or eLoran,
contact information from radar, and digital compass data, for example, can be integrated
with the electronic chart data.

• Chart database: At the heart of any ECS lies a database of digital charts, which may be
in either raster or vector format. It is this dataset, or a portion of it, that produces the chart
seen on the display screen.

• System display: This unit displays the electronic chart and indicates the vessel’s position
on it, and provides other information such as heading, speed, distance to the next
waypoint or destination, soundings, etc. There are two modes of display, relative and
true. In the relative mode the ship remains fixed in the center of the screen and the chart
moves past it. This requires a lot of computer power, as all the screen data must be
updated and re-drawn at each fix. In true mode, the chart remains fixed and the ship

21
moves across it. The display may also be north-up or course-up, according to the
availability of data from a heading sensor such as a digital compass.

• User interface: This is the user’s link to the system. It allows the navigator to change
system parameters, enter data, control the display, and operate the various functions of
the system. Radar may be integrated with the ECDIS or ECS for navigation or collision
avoidance, but is not required by SOLAS regulations.

2.3.3 Menu System

The actual ECDIS software and menu system also have specific appearances and
options. The three main aspects of how menu systems differ are:
Manufacturer’s software
ECDIS mode (navigation/planning etc.)
User preference/setup

There are options available through drop-down menus, either through icons that display at
the sides of the screen or by right clicking on the tracker ball to call up a menu.

2.3.4 Screen Display

There are usually three main chart screen namely: Normal, Full and Split.
Normal screen – most common due to route and sensor information
Full screen – useful for second ECDIS for greater look ahead or as an area
overview.
Split screen – useful for flexibility using singular ECDIS to organize chart views
to suit the task at hand.
The split screen charts may be able to be cascaded, tiles or individually sized.

2.3.5 Colour Palletes

The ambient lighting on the bridge varies between the extremes of bright sunlight, which
washes out information on the display, and night when the light emitted by the display
has to be low enough that it does not affect night vision.

Day Fig. 2.3.5 Pallete (source: ENC) Night

The color and symbol specifications of S-52, along with ECDIS ECDIS console screen
specifications, have been designed to meet these difficult requirements. Because the

22
ECDIS display uses emitted light, compared with reflected light for the paper chart, in
order not to impair night vision.

Three (as a minimum) predefined different color schemes are provided:

Day (white background)
Dusk (black background)
Night (black background)

2.3.6 Alarms
Alarms and indications, and warnings, shall comply with the requirements specified in the
individual standards for navigational systems and equipment’s (i.e. ECDIS, radar, AIS,
IBS, INS).

A simple operator action shall acknowledge the alarms, indications, and warnings, from
multiple navigational systems and equipment that share navigation-related information.
The presentation shall clearly indicate when there are unacknowledged alarms.
Alarms, indication, and warnings shall be displayed on a dedicated part of the display
and shall not obscure other essential information. Sensor alarms alert about presence of
incorrect data from external sensors, or about absence of this data.

2.3.7 Alarm Handling

Navigators should have the proper knowledge and ability, react properly to all kinds of
systems, such as navigational sensors, indicators, data and chart alarms and indicator
warnings including switching the sound and visual alarm signaling system should be
attained in case of:
- Absence of next chart in ECDIS database
- Crossing safety contour
- Exceeding cross-track limits
- Deviation from planned route

2.4 Vessel position

It is well known that GNSS position have no definite assurance that they are correct and
that they are susceptible to errors and malfunctions. ECDIS navigation is actually not so
different to paper. It is the skill of confirming the reliability of a digitally-generated real-
time EP (estimated position) and corresponding predicted future position. Instead of
relying on and and trusting your own workings in the development of a paper EP, one
must now check the automatically displayed EP to confirm the reliability. An ECDIS has
many built-in automatic safety features, while a paper chart does not, but the only real
difference in fixing terms between paper and ECDIS is that an ECDIS provides real-time
constant d-GPS fix plotting and vector development.

Navigators requiring using a chart for which no WGS84 shift information is available should
use GPS positions with extreme caution. They should first established the relationship
between the chart datum WGS84 by taking visual and/ or radar fixes of shore features. This
will provide a means of adjusting a GPS position to fit locally on the chart.

Datum transformation parameters, such as those built into a number of GPS receivers,
should be used with caution. These transformation parameters may be based on limited
or provisional data, or they may represent an average across a wide area.

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Errors in the range of hundreds of meters could occur when using the GPS in the
following areas:
- Areas which are at the extremity of datum coverage
- Areas where geometric control is weak
- Areas where survey data is too old

Navigators should take particular care when using the scale, or zoom, facility in the
electronic chart system. It is too easy to zoom-in and effectively select a larger scale than
the one used for the compilation of the data. This could create a false impression about
the reliability of the charted data. Regular checks should be made to ensure that the scale
selected on the electronic chart system is the same as that on the equivalent official paper
chart.

The high-tech appearance of an electronic raster chart interfaced with system such as
GPS can easily mislead the user into the belief that the charted data is more accurate
than is really the case. It will be many years before a significant number of raster chart
exists with accuracy similar to that provided by DGPS. Until then, navigators must take
particular cares to assess the accuracy of the data presented to them by their raster
charts.

It is also possible to enter a ‘manual position fix’, where the user can ‘drop’ the ship’s
position where they believe the ship to be. This can be particularly useful for sudden loss
of PPS or identifying a GPS error that needs addressing, where the user is confident that
they know where the ship should be and needs to place the ship on the chart and then
develop a fixing routine from that point on. Radar information overlay (RIO) is a significant
air in managing this situation.

User interface – this is the user’s link to the system. It allows the navigator to change
system parameters, enter data, control the display, and operate the various functions of
the system. Radar may be integrated with the ECDIS or ECS for navigation or collision
avoidance, but is not required by SOLAS regulations.

“Prudent mariner should not rely on a single positioning system. He should always verify
and compare from another sources or other means of determining position fixes”.

2.5 Position source

The ship's position should be derived from a continuous positioning system of an

accuracy consistent with the requirements of safe navigation. Whenever possible, a
second independent positioning source, preferably of a different type, should be
provided. In such cases ECDIS should be capable of identifying discrepancies between
the two sources.

In ECDIS, Primary position source is the first source for position displayed on ECDIS,
highly accurate and reliable, normally its differential GPS (d-GPS) receiver. If for any
reason this position source fails or becomes unreliable, ECDIS will change over to use
secondary position source. Secondary position source maybe another dGPS receiver
or any other electronic means of positioning system, i.e. eLoran, WAAS, EGNOS, etc.

24
Both position sources activated normally do not require setting for alarms in case signal
of either of them is lost, that will sound automatically. But for the primary and secondary
position divergence the setting is needed. If the limit of discrepancy between positions
from primary and secondary position sources is set, there will be still certain delay in
alarm output. But there is no requirement in IMO for divergence between primary and
secondary.

Enabling a clear comparison between two position sources is one of the most important
aspects of ECDIS. There are various ways in which to do this, with differing pros and
cons, ranging from visual fixing to radar overlay to e-Loran and secondary d-GPS
receivers. Real time position or past fixes or EP and past track with associated color
schemes are important to be able to clearly identify the different positional sources and
quickly compare them. ECDIS models which utilizes secondary track as an integrity
monitoring system that will show position generated from secondary sources as well as
primary position system, i.e. a direct comparison of d-GPS system.

There are three positioning modes for both, steer-by (Primary) and check (secondary)
vessel positioning:
1. PS 1 – Positioning system No. 1 and PS 2. In these modes the vessel positioning
can use the satellite and radionavigational system (dGPS, eLoran, etc).
2. ER (echo reference) – referencing the vessel position to the radar display of a
fixed target ER. This mode allows continuous vessel positioning both for Primary
and secondary vessel position (at the user’s option) by the bearing and range to
a fixed object acquired by the ARPA.
3. DR (Dead reckoning) – in this mode the vessel position is calculated from the
information obtained from gyro and log.

The ECDIS is an extremely efficient mean of navigation, which significantly reduce the
workload of the officers on watch, thus allowing them to devote more time to the
observation of the surroundings and to the navigation of the ship. It is a unique means of
navigation, particularly as far as the automatic activation of the alarm signal upon the
detection of dangerous objects marked on the chart is concerned.

Alongside any secondary positional source the following could be used in confirming the
GNSS or for relative navigation to manually develop and EP in cases of GNSS
failure/denial:
▪
RIO (radar information overlay)
▪
Visual bearing fix
▪
Radar range fix
▪
Visual and radar fix
▪
Running fix
▪
Depth contour fix

It should be contained within the ship’s SMS/Master’s Standing Orders how and when
the primary position source (PPS) is checked and what to do in case of GPS denial.

2.6 Basic Navigation

One of the core reasons was the decision support provided by using the ECDIS in all
phases of the voyage, from route planning to the end of the voyage. Particularly during

25
passage of shallow and congested waters, ECDIS significantly reduces the workload of
the navigator and enhances the situation awareness on the bridge.

The automatic functions are required for monitoring ship’s safety such as display of
position, heading/gyro course, speed, safety values and time. One of the most
outstanding advantages of ECDIS that own ship’s actual position is automatically
displayed in real time on the chart. Thus, the OOW can easily check whether the symbol
for the actual position of the ship follows the pre-planned track.

Navigation is comprised of a number of different processes. Some are done in a set

order, some randomly, some almost constantly, other only frequently. It is in choosing to
use these process that an individual navigator’s experience and judgement are most
crucial. Compounding this subject’s difficulty is the fact that there are no set rules
regarding the optimum employment of navigational systems and techniques. Optimum
use of navigational systems varies as a function of the type of vessel, the quality of the
navigational equipment on board, and the experience and skill of the navigator and all
the members of his team. For the watch officer, ensuring the ship’s safety always takes
priority over completing operational commitments and carrying out the ship’s routine.
Navigation is his primary responsibility. Any ambiguity about the position of the vessel
which constitute a danger must be resolved immediately. The best policy is to prevent
ambiguity by using all the tools available and continually checking different sources of
position information to see that they agree. This includes the routine use of several
different navigational techniques, both as operational checks and to maintain skills which
might be needed in an emergency. Any single navigational system constitute a single
point of failure, which must be backed up with another source to ensure the safety of the
vessel.

It is also navigator’s responsibility to ensure that he and all members of his team are
properly trained and ready in all respects for their duties, and that he is familiar with the
operation of all gear and systems for which he is responsible. He must also ensure that
all digital and/or hard copy charts and publications are updated with information from the
Notice to Mariners, and that all essential navigational gear is in operating condition.

Navigating a vessel is a dynamic process. Schedules, missions, and weather often

change. Planning a voyage is a process that begins well before the ship’s get underway.
Executing that plan does not end until the ship ties up at the pier at its final destination.
While it is possible to over plan a voyage, it is a more serious error to under plan it.
Carefully planning a route, preparing required charts and publications, and using various
methods to monitor the ship’s position as the trip proceeds are fundamental to safe
navigation and are the marks of a professional navigator.

During ocean passage, the ability to combine forecast on weather, sea and swell with the
planned route allows for onsite weather routing quickly and easily resulting in fuel savings.
The navigator should use for route planning the first the general charts, next the passage
charts, coast charts, approach charts, harbor charts and the plans in the end.

2.7 Heading & drift vectors

When a speed log and a compass are connected to the ECDIS/ECS system, it will display
incoming data on ship’s speed and heading. If you operate a GPS receiver (AIS

26
transponder, ARPA, DECCA or LORAN), then two vectors will be simultaneously
displayed on the chart. One of them is the true motion vector, calculated relative to a
seabed, the other one is the motion vector calculated according to the speed log and
compass data.
Radar/ARPA vectors – the mariner can set the vector length (usually from 1 to 24 mins.)
for the radar/ARPA targets and the own ship:
To display vectors with length corresponding to the set value, the minute
intervals marked with dashes,
To display vectors of a fixed length proportional to the speed.

2.7.1 Motion vectors

The mariners can turn on/off the display of vectors originating in the own ship symbol:
• The vector motion over the ground (COG);
• Motion vector according to the gyro and log readings (HDG)

The Vector types:

- Ship’s motion over ground
- Ship’s motion through water
- True / relative motion
- True / relative vectors

Vectors information:
Electronic chart area may display the following information:
• Ownship symbol – its primary position and secondary position (if any) with
motion vectors:
• Over the ground (with two arrows) – COG;
• Through the water (with single arrow) – HDG;
• Positions and motion vectors of targets acquired by ARPA;
• Positions and motion vectors of target acquired by AIS;
• Results of the trail maneuver;
• Current vectors

When a speed log and a compass are connected to the ECDIS/ECS system, it will display
incoming data on ship’s speed and heading. If you operate a GPS receiver (AIS
transponder, ARPA, DECCA or LORAN), then two vectors will be simultaneously
displayed on the chart. One of them is the true motion vector, calculated relative to a
seabed, the other one is the motion vector calculated according to the speed log and
compass data.

2.7.2 Type of vectors

Heading is defined as the direction you are currently navigating in. If there are no obstacles
between you and your destination, heading would always be equal to bearing.

Drift is the magnitude, or speed of the current (typically measured in

knots). It can also be the direction of your vessel’s movement.

Heading and Drift Vectors are basic navigational functions and settings pertaining to
own ship’s heading vector, course over ground vector, and guard ring.

27
Guard rings and Guard zones - important safety parameters are the radius of the area
of automatic acquisition or parameters that define the zone/zones of automatic
acquisition.

Display of drift angle reveals vessel momentum in a turn, drift angle in steady state
reveals sum of wind and current on vessel. Drift angle results from gyro data without any
provision for correction, gyro precession due to high-speed turns produces an unreliable
HDG (heading) display on ECDIS. The navigator can graphically monitor own ship’s
approach to isolated dangers by means of a guard ring.

Fig. 2.7 Guard Vector and Guard Fig. 2.7B Drift calculation
Ring Display (courtesy: Transas) (courtesy: Transas)

Course Over Ground (COG) & Speed Over Ground (SOG) may be obtain from position
system or from ARPA reference, Heading (HDG) (Gyrocompass) is true or undefined
(manual entry or in DR), LOG may be bottom, water, ARPA, or position system
referenced. The graphical difference between the COG/SOG and the HDG/LOG vectors
is the drift angle or the horizontal angle between the axis of a ship and the tangent to its
path, also known as drift correction angle.

Fig. 2.7C – (Own ship) Vector over the ground (COG) (courtesy: Navi Sailor)

Fig. 2.7D – (Own ship) Vector through the water (HDG) (courtesy: Navi Sailor)

2.8 Understanding chart data

Before understanding what an electronic chart is and what it does, one must learn a
number of terms and definitions. We must first make a distinction between official and
unofficial charts. Official charts are those, and only those, produced by a government
hydrographic office (HO). Unofficial charts are produced by a variety of private companies
and may or may not meet the same standards used by HO’s for data accuracy, currency,
and completeness.

28
There are two types of electronic charts approved by the Hydrographic Office (HO).
Electronic navigational chart (ENC) – Government approved vector charts
Raster navigational chart (RNC – Government approved raster charts

An electronic chart system (ECS) is a commercial electronic chart system not designed
to satisfy the regulatory requirements of the IMO Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)
convention. ECS is an aid to navigation and when used on SOLAS regulated vessels are
to be used in conjunctions with corrected paper charts.

Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) is an electronic chart

system which satisfies the IMO SOLAS convention carriage requirements for corrected
paper charts when used with an ENC or its functional equivalent (e.g. NIMA Digital
Nautical Chart.)

An electronic chart (EC) is any digitized chart intended for display on a computerized
navigation system.

An electronic chart data base (ECDB) is a master database of chart information held
in digital form by a National Hydrographic Authority.

An electronic navigational chart (ENC) is an electronic chart issued by a national

hydrographic authority designed to satisfy the regulatory requirements for chart carriage.
ENC is a subset of the ECDB, held on a vessel. It contains useful information for
navigation such as coastlines, lighthouses, beacons, etc.

The electronic navigation chart database (ENCDB) is the hydrographic database from
which the ENC is produced.

The system electronic navigation chart (SENC) is the database created by an ECDIS
from the ENC data.

A raster navigation chart (RNC) is a raster-formatted chart produced by a national

hydrographic office.

A raster chart display system (RCDS) is a system which displays official raster-
formatted charts on an ECDIS system. Raster charts cannot take the place of paper
charts because they lack key features required by the IMO, so that when an ECDIS uses
raster charts it operates in the ECS mode.

Overscale and underscale refer to the display of electronic chart data at too large and
too small a scale, respectively. In the case of overscale, the display is “zoomed in” too
close, beyond the standard of accuracy to which the data was digitized. Underscale
indicates that larger scale data is available for the area in question. ECDIS provides a
warning in either case.

Raster chart data is a digitized “picture” of a chart comprised of millions of “picture elements”
or “pixels.” All data is in one layer and one format. The video display simply reproduces the
picture from its digitized data file. With raster data, it is difficult to change individual elements
of the chart since they are not separated in the data file. Raster data

29
files tend to be large, since a data point with associated color and intensity values must
be entered for every pixel on the chart.

Vector chart data is data that is organized into many separate files or layers. It contains
graphics files and programs to produce certain symbols, points, lines, and areas with
associated colors, text, and other chart elements. The programmer can change individual
elements in the file and link elements to additional data. Vector files of a given area are
a fraction the size of raster files, and at the same time much more versatile. The navigator
can selectively display vector data, adjusting the display according to his needs. Vector
data supports the computation of precise distances between features and can provide
warnings when hazardous situations arise.

“Chart-Radar” is a radar-based system meeting the IMO Performance Standards of IMO

Resolution A.477 (XII), as amended by MSC.64(67). In cases where ECDIS only is used,
the ship must carry “Official Electronic Navigational Charts (ENC’s)” on board. Official
ENC’s are produced by the National Hydrographic Offices in each country.

In areas where ENC’s are not available, ECDIS may operate in the Raster Chart Display
System (RCDS) mode. In the RCDS mode Raster Navigational Charts (RNC’s) can be used
to meet SOLAS carriage requirements, only if allowed and approved by the flag state. Due
to the limitations of RNC’s as compared to ENC’s, IMO Performance Standards require that
“an appropriate portfolio of up-to-date paper charts” be carried when operating ECDIS in the
RCDS mode of operation. In areas where ENC’s or RNC’s are not available, ships must carry
all paper charts necessary for the intended voyage.

2.8.1 Display Characteristics

While manufacturers of electronic chart systems have designed their own proprietary
colors and symbols, the IMO Performance Standard requires that all IMO approved
ECDIS follow the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO S-52) Color & Symbol
Specifications. These specifications are embodied in the ECDIS Presentation Library.
Their development was a joint effort between Canada and Germany during the 1990s. In
order for ECDIS to enhance the safety of navigation, every detail of the display should
be clearly visible, unambiguous in its meaning, and uncluttered by superfluous
information. The unofficial ECS’s continue to be free to develop independent of IHO
control. In general they seek to emulate the look of the traditional paper chart.

To reduce clutter, the IMO Standard lays down a permanent display base of essentials
such as depths, aids to navigation, shoreline, etc., making the remaining information
selectable. The navigator may then select only what is essential for the navigational task
at hand. A black-background display for night use provides good color contrast without
compromising the mariner's night vision. Similarly, a “bright sun” color table is designed
to output maximum luminance in order to be daylight visible, and the colors for details
such as buoys are made as contrasting as possible.

The symbols for ECDIS are based on the familiar paper chart symbols, with some
optional extras such as simplified buoy symbols that show up better at night. Since the
ECDIS can be customized to each ship's requirements, new symbols were added such
as a highlighted, mariner selectable, safety contour and a prominent isolated danger
symbol.

30
The Presentation Library is a set of colors and symbols together with rules relating them to
the digital data of the ENC, and procedures for handling special cases, such as priorities for
the display of overlapping objects. Every feature in the ENC is first passed through the look-
up table of the Presentation Library that either assigns a symbol or line style immediately, or,
for complex cases, passes the object to a symbology procedure. Such procedures are used
for objects like lights, which have so many variations that a look-up table for their
symbolization would be too long. The Presentation Library includes a Chart 1, illustrating the
symbology. Given the IHO S-57 data standards and S-52 display specifications, a waterway
should look the same no matter which hydrographic office produced the ENC, and no matter
which manufacturer built the ECDIS.

The overwhelming advantage of the vector-based ECDIS display is its ability to remove
cluttering information not needed at a given time. By comparison, the paper chart and its
raster equivalent is an unchangeable diagram. A second advantage is the ability to orient the
display course-up when this is convenient, while the text remains screen-up. Taking
advantage of affordable yet high-powered computers, some ECDIS’s now permit a split
screen display, where mode of motion, orientation and scale are individually selectable on
each panel. This permits, for example, a north-up small-scale overview in true motion
alongside a course-up large-scale view in relative motion. Yet another display advantage
occurs with zooming, in that symbols and text describing areas center themselves
automatically in whatever part of the area appears on the screen. None of these functions
are possible with raster charts. The display operates by a set of rules, and data is arranged
hierarchically, For example, where lines overlap, the less important line is not drawn. A more
complex rule always places text at the same position relative to the object it applies to, no
matter what else may be there. Since a long name or light description will often over-write
another object, the only solution is to zoom in until the objects separate from each other.
Note that because text causes so much clutter, and is seldom vital for safe navigation, it is
written automatically when the object it refers to is on the display, but is an option under the
“all other information” display level.

Flexibility in display scale requires some indication of distance to objects seen on the
display. Some manufacturers use the rather restrictive but familiar radar range rings to
provide this, while another uses a line symbol keyed to data’s original scale. The ECDIS
design also includes a one-mile scale bar at the side of the display, and an optionally
displayed course and speed made good vector for own ship. There may be a heading
line leading from the vessel’s position indicating her future track for one minute, three
minutes, or some other selectable time. To provide the option of creating manual chart
corrections, ECDIS includes a means of drawing lines, adding text and inserting stored
objects on the display. These may be saved as user files, called up from a subdirectory,
and edited on the display. Once loaded into the SENC, the objects may be selected or
de-selected just as with other objects of the SENC. Display options for ECDIS include
transfer of ARPA acquired targets and radar image overlay.

IMO standards for ECDIS require that the operator be able to deselect the radar picture from
the chart with a single operator action for fast “uncluttering” of the chart presentation.

2.8.2 Units, Data Layers and Calculations

ECDIS uses the following units of measure:
• Position: Latitude and longitude will be shown in degrees, minutes, and decimal
minutes, normally based on WGS-84 datum.

31
 • Depth: Depths will be indicated in meters and decimeters.
• Height: Meters
• Distance: Nautical miles and tenths, or meters
• Speed: Knots and tenths

ECDIS requires data layers to establish a priority of data displayed. The minimum number
of information categories required and their relative priority from highest to lowest are
listed below:
• ECDIS warnings and messages
• Hydrographic office data
• Notice to Mariners information
• Hydrographic office cautions
• Hydrographic office color-fill area data
• Hydrographic office on demand data
• Radar information
• User’s data
• Manufacturer’s data
• User’s color-fill area data
• Manufacturer’s color-fill area data

As a minimum, an ECDIS system must be able to perform the following calculations

and conversions:

• Geographical coordinates to display coordinates, and display coordinates to

geographical coordinates.
• Transformation from local datum to WGS-84.
• True distance and azimuth between two geographical positions.
• Geographic position from a known position given distance and azimuth.
• Projection calculations such as great circle and rhumb line courses and distances.

2.8.3 Data Formats - Official Vector Data

How ECDIS operates depends on what type of chart data is used. ENC’s (electronic
navigational charts) and RNC’s (raster nautical charts) are approved for use in ECDIS.
By definition both ENC’s and RNC’s are issued under the authority of national
hydrographic offices (HO’s). ECDIS functions as a true ECDIS when used with corrected
ENC data, but ECDIS operates in the less functional raster chart display system (RCDS)
mode when using corrected RNC data. When ECDIS is used with non-official vector chart
data (corrected or not), it operates in the ECS mode. In vector charts, hydrographic data
is comprised of a series of files in which different layers of information are stored or
displayed. This form of “intelligent” spatial data is obtained by digitizing information from
existing paper charts or by storing a list of instructions that define various position-
referenced features or objects (e.g., buoys, lighthouses, etc.). In displaying vector chart
data on ECDIS, the user has considerable flexibility and discretion regarding the amount
of information that is displayed.

Apart from the electronic navigational chart (ENC), which is compiled using raw data, vector
data may also be produced by scanning a paper chart. However, the raster image is then
vectorized by digitally encoding individual charted objects and their attributes (structured
encoding) and storing such data, together with the object’s geographical location, in a
database. The ENC is the designated chart for the ECDIS system and is

32
discussed in the next section. Chart features may be grouped together and stored in
thematic layers that individually categorize each group. For example, the coastline could
form one layer while depth contours are found on another layer etc. The system operator
can thus optimize the display to show only that data of interest and avoid the display
becoming cluttered with unwanted data. The vector chart is intelligent in that it can
provide information that allows a warning of impending dangers to be generated. The
process of producing vector charts is time consuming and expensive while verification of
chart data is more complicated than its raster counterpart.

The advantages of vector charts can be summarized as follows.

Chart information is in layers which allow selective display of data.
The display may be customized to suit the user.
Chart data is seamless.
It is possible to zoom-in without distorting the displayed data.
Charted objects may be interrogated to give information to the user.
Indications and alarms can be given when a hazardous situation, such as crossing
a safety contour, occurs.
Objects may be shown using different symbols to those used on paper or raster
charts.
Chart data may be shared with other equipment such as radar and ARPA.
Unless data content is the same, less memory is required to store data compared
to a raster chart.

Disadvantages of the vector chart can be summarized as follows.

They are technically far more complex than raster
charts. They are more costly and take longer to produce.
Worldwide coverage is unlikely to be achieved for many years, if ever.
It is more difficult to ensure the quality and integrity of the displayed vector data.
Training in the use of vector charts is likely to be more time consuming and costly
compared to that needed for raster charts.

The vehicle for the delivery of electronic chart data is the Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) which is a navigation hardware/software information system
using official vector charts. Such a system must conform to the internationally agreed
standard adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) as satisfying a
vessel’s chart-carrying requirements under SOLAS. The ECDIS hardware could be
simply a computer with graphics capability or a graphics workstation provided as part of
an integrated bridge system. The system has inputs from other sources, namely position
sensors such as GPS or loran, course indication from the gyrocompass, speed from the
ship’s log etc.

An ENC is vector data conforming to the IHO S-57 ENC product specification as
established during the 14th International hydrographic Conference in 1992 an
international standard for exchange of maritime digital electronic chart information, the
S-57 standard consist of:
a. A data model
b. List of objects
c. Description of attributes
d. Description of the data exchange format (DX90)

33
An ENC contains all the chart information necessary for safe navigation and may contain
supplementary information in addition to that contained in the paper chart. In general, an
S-57 ENC is a structurally layered data set designed for a range of hydrographic
applications. As defined in IHO S-57 Edition 3, the data is comprised of a series of points,
lines, areas, features, and objects. The minimum size of a data set is a cell, which is a
spherical rectangle (i.e., bordered by meridians and latitudes). Adjacent cells do not
overlap. The scale of the data contained in the cell is dependent upon the navigational
purpose (e.g., general, coastal, approach, harbor).

Under S-57, cells have a standard format but do not have a standard coverage size.
Instead, cells are limited to 5mb of data. S-57 cells are normally copy protected and
therefore require a permit before use is allowed. These permits are delivered as either a
file containing the chart permits or as a code. In both cases the first step is to install the
chart permit into the ECDIS. Some hydrographic offices deliver S-57 cells without copy
protection and therefore permits are not required.

Any regional agency responsible for collecting and distributing S-57 data, such as
PRIMAR for Northern Europe, will also maintain data consistency. National hydrographic
offices are responsible for producing S-57 data for their own country area. Throughout
the world HO’s have been slow to produce sufficient quantities of ENC data. This is due
to the fact that the standards evolved over several years, and that vector data is much
harder to collect than raster data.

In 1996 the IHO S-57 data standard and IHO S-52 specifications for chart content and
display were “frozen.” It took three versions of S-57 before the issue was finally settled
as to what actually comprises an ENC (i.e., ENC Product Specification) and what is
required for updating (ENC Updating Profile). The ENC Test Dataset that the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) requires for use in conjunction with IEC
Publication 61174 (IEC 1997) was finalized by IHO in 1998. It was not possible to conduct
ECDIS type-approval procedures without a complete and validated IHO ENC Test
Dataset.

Major areas of ENC coverage now include most of Canadian and Japanese waters, the
Baltic and North Sea, and important waterways such as the Straits of Malacca, Singapore
Strait, and the Straits of Magellan (Chile).

At the same time, many countries including the United States, are stepping up their
production of ENC’s where issues of port security require the collection of baseline data
of submerged hazards. In mid-2003 the U.S., NOAA completed its portfolio of large-scale
charts of 42 ports in ENC format, with smaller scale chart completed in 2005. As the chart
cells are completed, the data is being made available on the World Wide Web at no cost.
Beginning in 2003, NOAA will post critical notice to mariner corrections without
restrictions in monthly increments.

At that point the status of NOAA’s available ENC data will be changed from provisional
to official. ENC data is currently available from the HO’s of most Northern European
countries, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Canada, Chile, and the United States,
although the coverage and updating process is incomplete. Most ENC is available only
through purchase, permits or licensing.

34
 Fig. 2 ECDIS S-57 and S-52 (source ENS)

2.8.4 Vector Data Formats Other than IHO S-57

The largest of the non-S-57 format databases is the Digital Nautical Chart (DNC). The
National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) produce the content and format for the
DNC according to a military specification. This allows compatibility among all U.S.
Defense Department assets. The DNC is a vector-based digital product that portrays
significant maritime features in a format suitable for computerized marine navigation. The
DNC is a general purpose global database designed to support marine navigation and
Geographic Information System (GIS) applications. DNC data is only available to the U.S.
military and selected allies. It is designed to conform to the IMO Performance Standard
and IHO specifications for ECDIS.

Several commercial manufacturers have developed vector databases beyond those that
have been issued by official hydrographic offices. These companies are typically
manufacturers of ECDIS or ECS equipment or have direct relationships with companies
that do, and typically have developed data in proprietary format in order to provide options
to raster charts in the absence of ENC data. HO-issued paper charts provide the source
data for these formats, although in some cases non-official paper charts are used. In
some cases, ECS manufacturers provide a regular updating and maintenance service
for their vector data, resulting in added confidence and satisfaction among users. The
manufacturer’s source of the updates is through HO’s. Hence, these two particular non-
official formats allows for a very high degree of confidence and satisfaction among
mariners using this data. ECS systems sometimes apply rules of presentation similar to
officially specified rules. Thus information is displayed or removed automatically
according to scale level to manage clutter. The same indications pertinent to overscaling
ENC apply to private vector data. Since the chart data is not ENC, the systems must
display that nonofficial status when used in an ECDIS.

2.8.5 Raster Data

Raster navigational chart (RNC) data is stored as picture elements (pixels). Each pixel is a
minute component of the chart image with a defined color and brightness level. Raster-
scanned images are derived by scanning paper charts to produce a digital photograph of

35
the chart. Raster data are far easier to produce than vector data, but raster charts
present many limitations to the user.

The official raster chart formats are:

ARCS (British Admiralty)
Seafarer (Australia)
BSB (U.S., NOAA/Maptech)

Raster data is produced by scanning a paper chart. This process produces an image that
is an exact replica of the paper chart and which comprises a number of lines that are
composed of a large number of colored dots, or pixels. This technique does not recognize
individual objects, such as a sounding, which limits its ability to conform to certain
international guidelines. However, the use of what is termed a vector overlay, which can
display specified user data such as waypoints and system data such as radar overlays
etc., can overcome this deficiency.

The advantages of raster charts can be summarized as follows.

User familiarity since they use the same symbols and colours as paper charts.
They are exact copies of the paper charts with the same reliability and integrity.
The user cannot inadvertently omit any navigational information from the
display. Cost of production is less than their vector counterpart.
Wide availability of official raster charts. ARCS charts, for example, have near
worldwide coverage.
By using vector overlays together with appropriate software, raster charts can be
used for all standard navigational tasks normally undertaken using paper charts.
They can also emulate some of the functions of an electronic display and
information system (ECDIS).

Disadvantages of raster charts can be summarized as follows.

The user cannot customize the display.
When using vector overlays the display may appear cluttered.
They cannot be interrogated without an additional database with a common
reference system.
They cannot, directly, provide indications or alarms to indicate a warning to the
user.
Unless data content is the same, more memory is required to store data
compared to a vector chart.

Extreme caution is necessary if the datum shift cannot be determined exactly. Raster
nautical charts require significantly larger amounts of memory than vector charts.
Whereas a world portfolio of more than 7500 vector charts may occupy about 500mb, a
typical coastal region in raster format may consist of just 40 charts and occupy more than
1000mb of memory. For practical purposes, most of a portfolio of raster charts should be
left on the CD and not loaded into the ECDIS hard drive unless one is route planning or
actually sailing in a given region. Of course, updates can only be performed on charts
that are loaded onto the hard drive. Certain non-official raster charts are produced that
cover European and some South American waters. These are scanned from local paper
charts. Additionally, some ECDIS and ECS manufacturers also produce raster charts in
proprietary formats.

36
In 1998 the IMO’s Maritime Safety Committee (MSC 70) adopted the Raster Chart
Display System (RCDS) as Appendix 7 to the IMO Performance Standards. The IMO/IHO
Harmonization Group on ECDIS (HGE) considered this issue for over three years. Where
IHO S-57 Ed. 3 ENC data coverage is not available, raster data provided by official HO’s
can be used as an interim solution. But this RCDS mode does not have the full
functionality of an otherwise IMO-compliant ECDIS using ENC data. Therefore, RCDS
does not meet SOLAS requirements for carriage of paper charts, meaning that when
ECDIS equipment is operated in the RCDS mode, it must be used together with an
appropriate portfolio of corrected paper charts.

The use of ECDIS in RCDS mode can only be considered as long as there is a backup
folio of appropriate up-to-date paper charts.

2.8.6 Unapproved Electronic Chart Data

A number of commercial companies offer unapproved vector data for electronic chart
systems. The data first appeared due to the long wait for approved ECDIS data. The
standard of this unapproved data is very variable. The companies rarely use original
hydrographic data, but usually digitize existing paper charts. They also do not provide a
continuous system of chart corrections. Nevertheless there is nothing to stop them being
used on small vessels not required to carry any charts or as an ‘aid’ on larger vessels
that still have the paper system as the official navigation system. Electronic charts of this
type can sometimes be associated with specialized tasks such as fishing or other
underwater activities.

2.8.7 Navigational functions of the electronic charts

The general functions of navigation are:

Route planning,
Route monitoring, and
Route documentation

Similar to paper charts, this includes the ability:

To determine the optimal route, taking into consideration the navigational and
economical point of view,
To ensure that the route can be safely sailed, e.g. by identifying navigational aids,
marking position lines, fixing the ship’s position, corrections of course and speed.

Generally, the functions of electronic charts relate to:

Basic setting (e.g. display category, highlight danger),
Navigational elements (e.g. own ship, variable range marker, lines of position),
Specific functions for route planning (e.g. creation of legs, route check),
Specific functions for route monitoring (e.g. past track, look-ahead).

In addition to insuring the correct presentation of the correct colours, shapes and
symbols for the data, the display software looks after the correct presentation of the:
Selected chart orientation (e.g. N-UP, C-up, H-up)
Scale indication
Cartographic projection (e.g. Mercator)

37
 Own-ship position
Range and bearing
Symbols for radar/ARPA targets
Over-laying a radar image

2.9 Chart Quality and Accuracy

Any chart is only as good as the original survey data allows and the accuracy with which that
data is recorded on the chart by the cartographer. A navigational chart is referenced to two
data: horizontal, for latitude and longitude; and vertical, for depth and height.

Since the beginning of mapmaking, local maps were based on the earth’s shape in that
area and, since the earth is not a perfect sphere, the shape does vary from location to
location. Figure 2.9A shows a representation of a vertical slice through the earth. The
diagram shows an uneven surface to the earth, a dotted line representing a geoid and a
solid line representing an ellipsoid. The geoid represents a surface with equal gravity
values and where the direction of gravity is always perpendicular to the ground surface.
For mapping purposes it is necessary to use a geodetic datum which is a specifically
orientated reference ellipsoid. The surface of a geoid is irregular while that of an ellipsoid
is regular.

Many different ellipsoids have been used to represent the best fit to the geoid in a
particular area. The use of an ellipsoid for positional calculations must first be referenced
to the geoid and that relationship defines what is known as a datum. The accuracy of a
particular datum may be fine for the local area for which it was intended but the accuracy
may suffer as the deviation from that area increases. There are scores of different data
such as Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936 (OSGB36), the European Datum 1950
(ED50), the Australian Geodetic System 1984, North American Datum 1983 (NAD83),
etc. Charts drawn for a particular area therefore may contain datum information that is
localized.

The use of satellite systems has involved the use of a global datum and GPS uses the
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) (Fig.2.9D) which uses a model of the complete
earth. The ellipsoid for this system is centered on the Earth’s center of mass and, over
the earth as a whole, is a better fit to the geoid than other ellipsoids, although the local
datum may give a better fit within their own small area.

Ideally all charts should be referenced to WGS-84 but this is not expected to occur for
many years to come. Reasons for the delay include:
the time necessary to replace current charts with new versions using WGS-84
lack of data necessary to calculate datum shifts and, in some cases, the datum
used for the chart is either unknown or poorly defined.

As far as the UKHO is concerned, about 20% of its charts are referenced to the WGS-84
datum, a further 40% use datum when the shift is known, while some 40% use unknown
datum. When the shift to WGS-84 is known the UKHO charts have a ‘Satellite Derived
Positions’ note that provides shift values in minutes of latitude and longitude which allows
GPS-determined positions, referenced to WGS-84, to be correctly adjusted before they are
plotted on the chart. Currently about 40% of the UKHO charts contain shift values.

38
 Figure 2.9A. View of the earth’s surface showing the geoid and ellipsoid. (courtesy of ENS-Warsash)

Electronic chart systems using raster chart displays can use the datum shift values indicated
in the ‘Satellite Derived Positions’ note on the chart to convert the WGS-84 co-ordinates to
the local datum. The shift values are mean values for the area covered by the chart but the
shift variation across the chart is within manual plotting tolerance at the scale of the chart and
can be ignored. However, the quoted shift values on an adjacent chart could well be different.
For electronic chart systems using vector charts it is a requirement that the charts are
referenced directly to WGS-84. Since so few official paper charts are referenced directly to
WGS-84 it follows that vector chart producers must use a mathematical model to shift the
data on certain charts to WGS-84. Users of the system should always check to see whether
the official paper chart is referenced directly to WGS-
84. If the official chart has a ‘Satellite Derived Positions’ note giving datum shift values
then it could safely be assumed that errors introduced by the conversion to WGS-84 will
be small at the scale of the official chart. If WGS-84 shift values do not appear on the
paper chart it would suggest that the existing data is insufficient to establish accurate
datum shifts and GPS-derived positions cannot be used with confidence. With ECDIS
and the use of ENCs, all references are to WGS-84 so there should be no problem with
datum shifts. However, as discussed earlier, there could be a problem of geodetic datum
shifts using paper charts, RNCs and privately produced vector charts if positional
information is received based on one datum and such data is plotted on a chart which is
based on another datum.

Consider another example of datum differences in the English Channel. The Admiralty
charts covering the English coastline are in OSGB36 whereas the Admiralty charts
covering the French coastline are in ED50. The OSGB36 datum is used for charts
covering the coastline of England, Wales and Scotland while the ED50 was developed
for military mapping in Central Europe. UKHO charts covering both sides of the channel
tend to be in OSGB36. Thus if an operator working in the channel plotted a position on
an OSGB36 chart and then moved to a European 1950 chart without allowing for a datum
shift, there will be a positional error as indicated in Figure 2.9B.

In some regions of the world the difference between WGS-84 and the local datum can
be quite large and this is illustrated in Figure 2.9C. The solution to the problem is

39
obviously to obtain positional information in WGS-84 and to apply the published shift
every time a change of paper chart is made. It must be remembered that GPS accuracy
has tolerance values and any inaccuracy derived from GPS may be exacerbated by
plotting charts of different datum.

Most GPSs have built-in datum transformations so that the system can output positions
in a local datum but this has certain disadvantages.
Because there are no standards applicable to the transformation formulae, two
different GPSs may use different formulae and give different results. The solutions
produced are averaged over a wide area and any transformation error may range
from, say 25 m to much more at the fringes of the area covered by the datum.

Figure 2.9B. An example of datum shift in the English Channel.

(source: ENS-PC Maritime) Figure 2.9C An example of datum shift in the
Pacific

It is difficult to ensure the GPS is switched to the correct datum every time a
chart is changed.
GPS positions may be fed simultaneously to other equipment, such as ARPA,
autopilot etc., which expect to receive data in WGS-84 co-ordinates.
Some GPSs apply the data transformation to all waypoint positions held in
memory when a datum other than WGS-84 is selected for the display of positions.

Fig 2.9D. World geodetic datums. (Reproduced courtesy of PC Maritime.)

40
It may be better to maintain the output of GPS in WGS-84. As stated earlier, for the UKHO
paper charts, a shift from WGS-84 to the local datum is printed on the chart. Any figure
printed on the chart indicates that the original survey has been referenced to WGS-84
and the published shifts can be used with confidence. If the chart contains no shift data
then no referencing to WGS-84 has been made and any plotted positions made must be
treated with caution because of possible shift errors.

An advantage of modern charts and the use of software is that the management of datum
shifts can be automated. A system such as ARCS has the shift data included and thus
an RCDS can keep track of the data of positions of all types, including vessel position
and track, waypoints and any other overlaid points on the chart, and adjust them all to
the local geodetic datum as required.

2.9.1 Guidance on the accuracy of ENCs

The IMO Performance Standards for ECDIS require that the latest edition of information
originated by a government authorized hydrographic office must be used which must
conform to the standards laid down by the IHO. Furthermore, only officially approved
vector charts should be used with ECDIS if it is to comply with the performance standards.
Navigators should interrogate the quality of the vector charts that complies with IHO
standards and therefore enables the user to assess the quality of the hydrographic data
used to compile it. Navigators must exercise extreme caution when using the scale or
zoom facility of the electronic charts. It is possible to zoom-in to a scale larger than that
used in the compilation of the data which could create a false impression about the
reliability of the charted information. Consequently, it could give a false impression of
safe water around the vessel where some hazards to navigation may not be shown due
to the limitations imposed by original chart scale. It could also give the impression that
the position of charted features is known to a greater degree of accuracy than is in fact
the case.

In the event that the chart is not displayed at the compilation scale (In ECDIS the Scale
at which the Chart data was compiled) and is therefore not compatible with the selected
usage (e.g. coastal or approach), then an over-scale or under-scale warning is displayed.
The hi-tech appearance of an electronic vector chart interfaced with systems such as
GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) could mislead the user to believe that the
charted data is more accurate than it really is.

Another important feature that could lead to human/operator error where the users need
to be very careful is known as Scamin (Scale Minimum). Scamin is an optional attribute
by the chart producer (defined by IHO S57) that can be used to label ENC chart features
to be suppressed above a certain display scale. The main function of Scamin is to de-
clutter the chart display, enabling the user to focus on the most useful navigational
information for the display scale in use.

Scamin may affect the display as it removes certain information from the display if best
scale chart is not being used i.e. safety critical information may be removed from the
display. When in use, this feature should provide “Scamin filter‟ warning to the users.
Navigators should always check the passage plans at “compilation scale‟ before use and
during route monitoring. Zoom in/out function should only be used for short periods of
time.

41
When monitoring a route, the prudent navigator must always maintain a check on the integrity
of the displayed position of own ship. When the source of the displayed position is the own
ships GNSS, there is always a possibility that the position displayed may not coincide with
the ship’s actual position in relation to the chart or the charted hazards.

A check may be made quite simply by utilizing one or any of the following:
manual position fixing (visual/Radar);
look out of the window;
comparison of ARPA overlay of a fixed mark with the charted position;
comparison of a radar overlay with conspicuous land or fixed targets;
observation of a parallel index on the radar display to monitor comparison
with planned track;
monitoring the depth shown by echo sounder where appropriate;
checking the track history;

2.9.2 Electronic chart types

There are many different types of electronic charts available that use different formats,
different levels of content and attribution, and may, or may not, be official charts. As
described above, all presently available electronic charts are either vector or raster. For
the former, the chart may be based on the IHO S-57 format or some other format. Only
if the level of content and attribution of the chart conforms to the IHO ENC product
specification and is produced by, or on the authority of, a government authorized
hydrographic office, can the chart be considered an ENC as defined by the IMO ECDIS
performance standards.

Official vector charts issued by the relevant hydrographic offices should conform to the
ENC product specification based on the IHO S-57 format. Privately produced vector
charts (non-official) may, or may not, conform to the ENC product specification. However,
the use of unofficial ENCs will render an ECDIS non-compliant. Finally, it is possible to
obtain charts that do not use the IHO S-57 format and do not conform to the ENC product
specification.

2.9.3 Official Raster Chart Formats

There are several official raster chart formats namely:
• BSB raster charts, which contain all the data found in NOAA paper charts, with
updates published weekly. These updates are available via the Internet and are in-sync
with the US Coast Guard (USCG), NIMA and Canadian notices. NOAA has 1000 official
charts and all have been available in raster form since 1995. These raster charts are
produced jointly by NOAA and Maptech Inc. under a co-operative research and
development agreement. The growth of computer-based navigation systems, together
with GPS and other positioning systems has meant an increase in the sale of raster charts
and today approximately twice as many raster charts are sold compared to paper charts.
The raster charts are available in CD-ROM form with each CD-ROM containing about 55
charts together with other relevant navigational facilities.

2.9.4 Official raster chart

UKHO (United Kingdom Hydrographic Office) ARCS and Australian Hydrographic
Office (AHO) Seafarer both produced in the UKHO’s proprietary hydrographic chart
raster format (HCRF). ARCS is updated weekly using a CD-ROM with the same

42
 information as the weekly Notice to Mariners used to correct paper charts. Seafarer
is updated monthly on a similar basis. ARCS have near worldwide coverage with 2700
charts available on CD-ROM.

Figure 5. Regional coverage of ARCS CD-ROMs. (source ENS Tetley & Calcutt) from HMSO and the United
Kingdom Hydrographic Office.)

RC1. North Sea and English Channel to Gibraltar RC6. Singapore to Japan
RC2. British Isle (west coast) and Iceland RC7. Australia, Borneo and Philippines
RC3. Northern waters and Baltic Sea RC8. Pacific Ocean
RC4. Mediterranean and Black Sea RC9. North America (east coast) and
Caribbean
RC5. Indian Ocean (northern part) and Red Sea RC10. South Atlantic and Indian Ocean
(southern part)
RC11. Ocean Charts (1:3,500,000 and smaller)

2.9.5 Electronic navigational charts (ENC)

These are the designated charts for the ECDIS system and they possess a single
universal data format. Such charts use vector data based on the IHO Special Publication
S-57, edition 3, IHO Transfer Standard for Digital Hydrographic Data. Some of the major
points which identify the unique property of these charts are as follows.
They are issued by or on the authority of a government-authorized hydrographic
office.
Items on the chart must be attribute-coded and must be able to be interrogated to
provide information.
The data is delivered in cells to provide seamless data for the task in hand. The
cell structure changes according to the data set used.
All chart data is referenced to a global geodetic datum, WGS-84, which is the
datum used by GPS.

43
The data is fully scalable and it only needs a view area to be defined for an appropriate
level of data to be automatically presented to the operator. If it is required to add/delete
data then information can be grouped into layers and turned on/off as required. Zooming
can allow the chart image to be enlarged to provide greater ease of use. Zooming with a
raster chart clearly shows when an image is presented at a scale greater than the
compilation scale since the text and navigational symbols would be larger than their
normal size rendering the chart unsafe for navigation. Over-scaling with an ENC has the
problem that the navigational symbols remain the same size regardless of the scale used
and this could cause a potential navigation hazard. The ECDIS is required to display an
over-scale warning automatically if it has used zooming to produce an image beyond the
compilation scale of the chart.

Individual contour lines can be defined as safety contours with anti-grounding warnings
given based on the ship’s closeness to them. Alarms will be generated automatically if
the ECDIS detects a conflict between the vessel’s predicted track and a hydrographic
feature within the ENC that represents a potential hazard to the vessel.

The ECDIS can offer different chart information by displaying all ENC content, a subset
of the ENC content (known as standard display) or a minimum permitted subset of ENC
content (known as display base). The first two categories permit information to be
added/deleted while the display base cannot have information deleted since it is
stipulated as the minimum required for safe navigation. A System Electronic Navigational
Chart (SENC) is that database obtained by the transformation of the ENC data, including
any updates and data added by the user, by the ECDIS prior to display. It is the SENC
that forms the basis for the display and the user decides what part of the SENC database
is required for the display. It is a requirement that the ENC database must remain
unaltered so that the SENC database could be reconstructed should it be debased in any
way during operations.

The availability of ENCs will depend on key factors that affect the NHOs producing them.
These factors include the following:
Production experience. The rate of production should increase as staff gain more
experience in the production of these charts.
Data quality. Software tools necessary to underpin the quality assurance of the
digital database have to be developed to ensure compliance with S57, edition 3
requirements. This will take time.
Uniformity of data. There is a need for all hydrographic offices to ensure their ENCs
are produced with consistency in the interpretation of the standard and to product
specification. The use of regional co-coordinating centers is of use in facilitating this.
Geographical cover. By concentrating on the geographical areas most used by
shipping companies it should be possible to deliver the required charts ahead of
others.

2.9.6 Digital Chart Accuracy

As is the case with any shipboard gear, the user must be aware of the capabilities and
limitations of digital charts. The mariner should understand that nautical chart data displayed
possess inherent accuracy limitations. Because digital charts are necessarily based primarily
on paper charts, many of these limitations have migrated from the paper chart into the
electronic chart. Electronic hart accuracy is, for the most part, dependent on the accuracy of
the features being displayed and manipulated. While some ECDIS

44
and ECS have the capability to use large-scale data produced from recent hydrographic
survey operations (e.g., dredged channel limits or pier/terminal facilities) most raster and
vector-based electronic chart data are derived from existing paper charts.

Twenty years ago, mariners were typically obtaining position fixes using radar ranges,
visual bearings or Loran. Generally, these positioning methods were an order of
magnitude less accurate than the horizontal accuracy of the survey information portrayed
on the chart. For example, a three-line fix that results in an equilateral triangle with sides
two millimeters in length at a chart scale of 1:20,000 represents a triangle with 40-meter
sides in real-world coordinates.

A potential source of error is related to the system configuration, rather than the accuracy
of electronic chart data being used. All ECDIS’s and most ECS’s enable the user to input
the vessel's dimensions and GPS antenna location. On larger vessels, the relative
position of the GPS antenna aboard the ship can be a source of error when viewing the
“own-ship” icon next to a pier or wharf.

In U.S. waters, the Coast Guard's DGPS provides a horizontal accuracy of +/-10 meters
(95 percent). However, with selective availability off, even the most basic GPS receiver
in a non-differential mode may be capable of providing better than 10 meter horizontal
accuracy. In actual operation, accuracies of 3-5 meters are being achieved. As a result,
some mariners have reported that when using an electronic chart while moored alongside
a pier, the vessel icon plots on top of the pier or out in the channel. Similarly, some
mariners transiting a range that marks the centerline of a channel report that the vessel
icon plots along the edge or even outside of the channel. Mariners now expect, just as
they did 20 years ago, that the horizontal accuracy of their charts will be as accurate as
the positioning system available to them.

Unfortunately, any electronic chart based on a paper chart, whether it is raster or vector, is
not able to meet this expectation. The overall horizontal accuracy of data portrayed on paper
charts is a combination of the accuracy of the underlying source data and the accuracy of
the chart compilation process. Most paper charts are generalized composite documents
compiled from survey data that have been collected by various sources over a long period of
time. A given chart might encompass one area that is based on a lead line and sextant
hydrographic survey conducted in 1890, while another area of the same chart might have
been surveyed in the year 2000 with a full-coverage shallow-water multibeam system. In the
U.S., agencies have typically used the most accurate hydrographic survey instrumentation
available at the time of the survey.

While survey positioning methods have changed over the years, standards have
generally been such that surveys were conducted with a positioning accuracy of better
than 0.75 millimeters at the scale of the chart. Therefore, on a 1:20,000-scale chart, the
survey data was required to be accurate to 15 meters. Features whose positions originate
in the local notice to mariners, reported by unknown source, are usually charted with
qualifying notations like position approximate (PA) or position doubtful (PD). The charted
positions of these features, if they do exist, may be in error by miles.

As of 2002, over 50 percent of the depth information found on U.S. charts is based on
hydrographic surveys conducted before 1940. Surveys conducted many years ago with
lead lines or single-beam echo sounders sampled only a tiny percentage of the ocean

45
bottom. Hydrographers were unable to collect data between the sounding lines.
Depending on the water depth, these lines may have been 50, 100, 200 or 400 meters.
As areas are re-surveyed and full-bottom coverage is obtained, uncharted features, some
dangerous to navigation, are discovered quite often.

These features were either:

1) not detected on prior surveys,
2) objects such as wrecks that have appeared on the ocean bottom since the prior
survey or
3) the result of natural changes that have occurred since the prior survey.

In a similar manner, the shoreline found on most U.S. charts is based on photogrammetric
or plane table surveys that are more than 20 years old. In major commercial harbors, the
waterfront is constantly changing. New piers, wharves, and docks are constructed and
old facilities are demolished. Some of these man-made changes are added to the chart
when the responsible authority provides as-built drawings. However, many changes are
not reported and therefore do not appear on the chart. Natural erosion along the
shoreline, shifting sand bars and spits, and geological subsidence and uplift also tend to
render the charted shoreline inaccurate over time.

Another component of horizontal chart accuracy involves the chart compilation process. For
example, in the U.S. before NOAA's suite of charts was scanned into raster format in 1994,
all chart compilation was performed manually. Projection lines were constructed and drawn
by hand and all plotting was done relative to these lines. Cartographers graphically reduced
large scale surveys or engineering drawings to chart scale. Very often these drawings were
referenced to state plane or other local coordinate systems. The data would then be
converted to the horizontal datum of the chart (e.g., the North American 1927 (NAD 27) or
the North American Datum 1983 (NAD 83). In the late 1980's and early 1990's, NOAA
converted all of its charts to NAD 83. In accomplishing this task, averaging techniques were
used and all of the projection lines were redrawn.

When NOAA scanned its charts and moved its cartographic production into a computer
environment, variations were noted between manually constructed projection lines and
those that were computer generated. All of the raster charts were adjusted or warped so
that the manual projection lines conformed to the computer-generated projection. In
doing so, all information displayed on the chart was moved or adjusted.

Similar processes take place during NIMA’s digital chart production, but involving more
complexity, since NIMA cartographers must work with a variety of different datums in use
throughout the world, and with hydrographic data from hundreds of official and unofficial
sources. While much of NIMA’s incoming data was collected to IHO standards during
hydrographic surveys, many sources are questionable at best, especially among the
older data.

Today, when survey crews and contractors obtain DGPS positions on prominent shoreline
features and compare those positions to the chart, biases may be found that are on the order
of two millimeters at the scale of the chart (e.g., 20 meters on 1:10,000-scale chart). High
accuracy aerial photography reveals similar discrepancies between the true shoreline and
the charted shoreline. It stands to reason that other important features such as dredged
channel limits and navigational aids also exhibit these types of biases.

46
Unfortunately, on any given chart, the magnitude and the direction of these discrepancies
will vary by unknown amounts in different areas of the chart. Therefore, no systematic
adjustment can easily be performed that will improve the inherent accuracy of the paper
or electronic chart. Some mariners have the misconception that because charts can be
viewed on a computer, the information has somehow become more accurate than it
appears on paper. Some mariners believe that vector data is more accurate than paper
or raster data. Clearly, if an electronic chart database is built by digitizing a paper chart,
it can be no more accurate than the paper chart.

The most accurate way to create an ENC is to re-compile the chart from all of the original
source material. Unfortunately, the process is far too labor intensive. In the U.S., NOAA
has used original source material where possible to compile navigation critical
information such as aids to navigation and channel limits. The remaining data are being
digitized from the largest scale paper charts. Once ENC’s are compiled, they may be
enhanced with higher-accuracy data over time. High-resolution shoreline data may be
incorporated into the ENC’s as new photogrammetric surveys are conducted. Likewise,
depths from new hydrographic surveys will gradually supersede depths that originated
from old surveys.

2.10 Chart Organization

ECDIS information may be divided into two main groups:

a. Chart related information
b. Navigation related information

ECDIS information may include:

- Geographical chart information (coastline, depth)
- Lights. Buoys, leading lines, traffic lanes, special areas etc.
- Hydrographic Office information (list of lights etc.)
- Local chart information, user notes, manufacturer’s information
- Chart work, planned route, bearing lines, range rings etc.
- Own ship position and velocity vector, ship’s head and rate of turn, past
track etc.
- Navigational warnings and alarms generated by ECDIS
- Fix accuracy, position check from secondary positioning system
- Ship handling options based on ships characteristics
- Alpha numeric navigation information (ships position, heading, course etc.)
- Information from radar and other sensors
- Remainders (cues, time to call VTS, pilot station etc.)

It should be the aim of the presentation design and presentation standards to provide as
much diversity and flexibility as possible as long as the system remains simple and
straightforward to use.
- Displaying/removing various types of chart and non-chart information
- Selecting standard chart display or detailed display, and simplified symbols
or full symbols
- Using cursor interrogation for further details
- Overlaying/removing radar video or radar target information
- Overlaying/removing various other sensor information
- Changing the scale or orientation of the display

47
 - Selecting true motion or relative motion
- Changing screen lay-out
- Giving navigation and chart warning
- Graphical presentation of computer evaluation of grounding danger
- Graphical presentation of collision danger

The Worldwide Electronic Navigational Chart Database (WEND) - WEND is based

on the cooperation of participating IHO member states following jointly agreed principles.
The system consist of integrated data bases, called regional ENC Coordinating Centers
(RENC).

Data distribution - The establishment of a RENC should be reached by co-operation of

hydrographic services with the region in question. National Hos providing source data
are responsible for advising the issuing HO of update information in a timely manner. The
issuing HO is responsible for providing timely updates to the ENC for the mariner.
Updating information to regional or greater area ENC datasets should be available
worldwide.

The world’s first RENC is located in Stavanger, Norway. The United Kingdom
Hydrographic Office (UKHO) and the Electronic Chart Center (ECC, Norwegian Mapping
Authority) collaborated and formed the Northern Europe RENC.

2.10.1 Chart Projections

Chart projections constitute the way of representing the Earth’s surface in a plane.
Distortions are impossible to avoid when representing a surface with double curvature in
a plane surface. Different methods for representing this are designed to keep certain
properties of the ellipsoidal surface undistorted. The different possibilities are:

Conform: - the charts are angular correct; i.e. any angle on the chart is exactly the same
on the Earth, e.g. Mercator or Transverse Mercator Projection.
Equivalent: - the areas on the chart are correct, i.e. the ratio between any area on the
chart and the corresponding area of the Earth is correct.

Charts used at sea for navigation are normally made in Mercator or Transverse Mercator
projection. On Mercator chart, a straight line between two points represents the course
between the points.

Chart projections are classified according to the type of projection surface used. The
three commonly use surfaces are:
- The plane
- The cone
- The cylinder

Geodesy is the science concerned with the exact positioning of points on the surface of
the Earth. It also involves the study of the exact size and shape of the Earth, the study of
variations of the Earth’s gravity and the application of these variations to exact
measurements on the Earth.

This figure represents a vertical slice through the Earth. It shows the uneven surface of the
Earth, but for survey purposes, they are reduce to the Geoid. The Geoid is a surface

48
along which gravity is always equal to which the direction of gravity is always
perpendicular. Since the Geoid refers to the actual size and shape of the Earth, the
uneven distribution of the Earth’s mass makes the Geoidal surface irregular.

Such an irregular surface has serious limitations as a mathematical Earth model

because:
- It has no complete mathematical expression
- Small variations in surface shape over time introduce small errors in
measurement.
- The irregularity of the surface would necessitate a prohibitive amount of
computations.

Rotating an ellipse about its minor axis forms an ellipsoid. Geodesists use the term
“flattening” to indicate how much an ellipsoid departs from a spherical shape. For the
Earth this “flattening” has a ratio of about 1/300. Since the surface of the geoid is irregular
and the surface of an ellipsoid is regular, many different ellipsoids have been develop to
provide a best fit to the geoid for different areas of the Earth’ surface.

The two earth’s different ellipsoids:

One fits well in Europe but not in Africa, and the other fits well in Africa but not in Europe.
Before a particular ellipsoid can be used for positional calculations, its relationship to the
geoid must be defined, and the definition, of such a relationship is known as the datum.

The ideal geodetic datum for a worldwide reference system is one that is truly geocentric (its
origin is at the Earth’s center of mass) and oriented through the two poles and the Greenwich
meridian. Derived from this are the following two groups of datum’s:
- Local datum’s that are based on convenience and best fit a certain area.
- Satellite datum’s that are used for global references

The first satellite datum established in 1972 was based on the Navy Navigation Satellite
System (NNSS). This system was also known under the name “Transit”. In 1989 the
NNSS satellite datum was replaced by the Global Positioning System (GPS) based World
Geodetic Survey 84(WGS 84) datum.

WGS84 is a global datum system based on many points fixed with great accuracy. The
result is an ellipsoid that is centered on the Earth’s center of mass and that fits the geoid
far more accurately than any other does. WGS84 is the reference datum for GPS, and
this relationship can be the source of significant error for navigators wishing to plot a GPS
fix on a chart that it is not referenced to WGS84.

Most maritime charts contain a Source Data Diagram or explanatory notes that provide
information on the origin, scale, date and limits of the hydrodynamic surveys used in
compiling the chart. These notes also include information about:
- The origin of the topographical data
- The projection used
- The Datum to which position on the chart are referred

Some charts will have a note: ‘Satellite derived positions’.

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 This normally means that if a GPS is used for positioning, positions obtained from the GPS
must be adjusted before they are used together with the map. The parameters used within
GPS receivers for the transformations from one datum to another are likely to be meaning
values for the whole area, and their application, particularly in the extremities of the area of
an inaccurately defined datum, could introduce errors of hundreds of meters.

In conventional navigation, i.e. plotting ships manually onto the chart it is better to keep
the GPS receiver referenced to WGS84 Datum and to apply the datum shift values shown
on the chart to the WGS84 position output from the receiver.
Seen from the navigator’s point of view all chart should have been reference to WGS84
however, this is not likely to happen for many years. There are several reasons for this:

- WGS84 is a relatively new datum

- Even with sufficient economic backing, it would take a considerable period of
time to replace existing charts with new edition using the new datum.
- Lack of control data in some parts of the world
- Various political reasons in several countries delay the process

The relative positions of features may be more reliable for navigation than the used of
unadjusted satellite-derived positions on a chart whose horizontal datum cannot be
defined.
Thus, for example an uncorrected GPS position, referred to WGS84 Datum, plotted on a
chart referenced to OSG36 Datum would have an error of 139 meters. Satellite navigation
has made the art of position fixing extremely easy for everybody. However, position fixing is
not the only parameter to take into consideration during a voyage, as long as safe and
efficient navigation of a ship remains the goal. It is still to believe that professional and
experienced navigators will still be needed on ships for many, many years to come.

Charting and mapping organizations as well as private companies were early users of
computer graphics to automate their chart and map production. The aim was to increase
production efficiency and to reduce costs. Until a few years ago, the final product however
was the same, printed paper charts.

Position related information about a landscape is referred to as geographical data. The

main element of geographical data is geometric data, i.e. description of position, size and
shape of the objects located in the landscape.(Lighthouses, houses, buoys, etc.)

Geometric data can be destroyed digitally in two different ways; as raster data or vector
data.

2.10.2 Operational Requirements for Electronic Chart and Display Information

System (ECDIS)

Navigating with ECDIS is fundamentally different from navigating with paper charts. The
paper below lists a range of bridge work-processes that are affected by changing to an
ECDIS system, and which may require that procedures are amended or developed. The
paper includes some points for analysis and consideration. It is not implied that all items
mentioned should result in corresponding written procedures, nor is it implied that the list
in any way is conclusive.

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2.10.3 Types of Electronic Chart Systems
There are several types of electronic chart systems available but only one performance
standard has been approved by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in November
1995. The IMO resolution A.817(19) states that the ECDIS should ‘assist the mariner in route
planning and route monitoring and, if required, display additional navigation-related
information’. The system approved is known as the Electronic Chart Display and Information
System (ECDIS) and applies to vessels governed by Regulation V, Chapter 20 of the 1974
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention, as amended. It complies with the carriage
requirement for charts with an ECDIS system using Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs).
ECDIS is a navigational information system comprising hardware, display software and
official vector charts and must conform to the ECDIS performance standards amongst other
aspects these performance standards govern chart data structure, minimum display
requirements and minimum equipment specifications. Chart data used in an ECDIS must
conform to the Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) S-57, edition 3.0 specification and the
performance standard for this was agreed by the International Hydrographic Organization
(IHO) in February 1996. Any ENC must be issued on the authority of a government-
authorized hydrographic office.

Back-up arrangements for ECDIS were agreed by the IMO in November 1996, becoming
Appendix 6 to the Performance Standards and allowing ECDIS to be legally equivalent
to the charts required under regulation V/20 of the 1974 SOLAS convention. It is an IMO
requirement that the National Hydrographic Offices (NHOs) of Member Governments
issue, or authorize the issue of, the ENCs, together with an updating service, and that
ECDIS manufacturers should produce their systems in accordance with the Performance
Standards. Other notable milestones leading to the ECDIS specification include the
following:
• IHO Special Publication S-52 which specifies chart content and display of ECDIS.
This includes appendices specifying the issue, updating and display of ENC,
colour and symbol specification. The IHO Special Publication S-52 was produced
in December 1996.
• IEC International Standard 61174. In this publication the International Electrotechnical
Commission describes methods of testing, and the required test results, for an ECDIS
to comply with IMO requirements. The standard was officially published in August
1998 and is to be used as the basic requirement for type approval and certification of
an ECDIS which complies with the IMO requirements.

Some ECDIS definitions are summarized below.

➢
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation
system which, with adequate back-up arrangements, can be accepted as
complying with the up-to-date chart required by regulation V/20 of the 1974
SOLAS Convention, by displaying selected information from a System Electronic
Navigational Chart (SENC) with positional information from navigational sensors
to assist the mariner in route planning, route monitoring and displaying additional
navigational-related information if required.
➢
Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) is the database, standardized as to content,
structure and format, issued for use with ECDIS on the authority of government-
authorized hydrographic offices.
➢
System Electronic Navigational Chart (SENC) is a database resulting from the
transformation of the ENC by ECDIS for appropriate use, updates to the ENC by
appropriate means, and other data added by the mariner.

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 ➢
Standard Display means the SENC information that should be shown when a chart
is first displayed on an ECDIS. The level of information provided for route planning
and route monitoring may be modified by the mariner.
➢
Display Base means the level of SENC information which cannot be removed from
the display, consisting of information which is required at all times in all
geographical areas and all circumstances.

The basic ECDIS requirements can be summarized as follows:

- ENC data. This is to be supplied by government-authorized hydrographic offices

and updated regularly in accordance with IHO standards.
- Colours/Symbols. These must conform to the specification outlined in IHO Special
Publication S-52. Symbol size and appearance are specified and the mariner
should be able to select colour schemes for displaying daylight, twilight and night-
time conditions.
- Own Ship’s Position. The ECDIS should show own ship’s position on the display.
Such a position is the result of positional input data received from suitable
sensors and should be continuously updated on the display.
- Change Scale. The use of zoom-in and zoom-out should allow information to be
displayed using different scales. ECDIS must display a warning if the information
shown is at a scale larger than that contained in the ENC or if own ship’s position
is produced by an ENC at a larger scale than that shown by the display.
- Display Mode. The mariner should be able to select a ‘north-up’ or ‘course-up’
mode. Also the display should be able to provide true motion, where own ship
symbol moves across the display, or relative motion where own ship remains
stationary and the chart moves relative to the ship.
- Safety Depth/Contour. The mariner can select safety depth, whereby all soundings
less than or equal to the safety depth are highlighted, or safety contour whereby
the contour is highlighted over other depth contours.
- Other Navigational Information. Radar or ARPA data may be added to the display.

The production of ENCs is proceeding but it is a lengthy and costly business and it is likely
that widespread coverage will not be available for some time and certain regions may never
be covered at all. Because of the delay likely in implementing ECDIS, hydrographic offices
around the world have proposed an alternative official chart solution that uses the raster chart
and is known as the Raster Chart Display System (RCDS).

2.10.4 Advantages of ECDIS

a) At any time it shows the ship position on the chart, in true motion with or without
radar overlay and ARPA integration, in one display
b) Only uses the chart information necessary for safe navigation
c) Updates the chart by satellite and thereby increase the speed of updating
d) Automatic chart updating
e) Simple voyage planning
f) Anti-grounding warning
g) Tide corrected depth contour
h) “Black box” possibility storing the ship navigation data for a certain period
i) Gives detailed information about lights, buoys, beacons etc., by pointing on the
chart symbol
j) Vary the chart scale according to navigation conditions

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k) Vary the chart colors depending on day or night navigation
l) Shows the ship true size in narrow and difficult areas and conditions

2.10.5 Some advantages of Vector charts

a) chart information is stored in layers
b) users may customize the chart displays to suit the particular needs of their vessel
c) the chart data is seam-less
d) it is possible to zoom-in without distorting the charted data
e) it is possible to select a safety depth and a safety contour
f) alarms or indications can be given when own ship is expected to cross safety
contour or to enter in specified area
g) it is possible to interrogate charted objects for further investigation
h) file sizes are up to ten times smaller than raster charts
i) can generally be displayed more quickly
j) a larger color pallete is available than raster charts
k) objects may be shown using different symbols to those used on paper or raster charts
l) charts may be rotated to any angle (course up referenced)
m) charts may be shared with other equipment such as radar and ARPA

2.10.6 Main disadvantages of vector charts

a) technically more complex than raster charts
b) takes longer and cost more to produce
c) significant world-wide coverage will not be provided by official vector charts for
many years
d) training in the use of vector charts is likely to be longer and more costly
e) significantly more difficult to ensure the quality and integrity of the displayed vector
data

2.10.7 Raster Chart Display System (RCDS)

This is a system capable of displaying official raster charts that meets the minimum
standards required by an appendix to the ECDIS Performance Standard. The raster
nautical chart (RNC) is a digital facsimile of the official paper chart and provides a
geographically precise, distortion-free image of the paper chart.

The IHO proposed a raster chart standard that ‘should form a part of the ECDIS performance
standards where it would logically fit’. This was approved by the IMO’s Maritime Safety
Committee in December 1998 as a new appendix to the existing ECDIS Performance
Standard, entitled ‘RCDS Mode of Operation’. It is now permissible for ECDIS to operate in
RCDS mode using official RNCs when ENCs are not available. The use of ECDIS in RCDS
mode can only be considered providing there is a back-up folio of appropriate up-to-date
paper charts as determined by national administrations.
Raster charts for these systems have been developed in recent years by major
hydrographic offices and include the British Admiralty Raster Chart Service (ARCS) and
the NOAA’s BSB raster chart. The United States started raster scanning in 1991 and
evaluated a prototype of the scheme in 1992. NOAA began converting its charts to raster
format in 1993 and completed the task in 1994. The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office
(UKHO) started the raster scanning of its Admiralty charts in 1994 and shipboard trials of
ARCS began in 1995; the service becoming commercial in 1996. Other nations have also
developed their own RCDS charts.

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Raster charts are offered as an interim measure while awaiting the arrival of the ENCs
and are designed to offer a performance specification that closely follows that of the
ENCs and includes important requirements such as:
• continuous chart plotting and chart updating
• at minimum, the same display quality as the hydrographic office paper chart
• extensive checking, alarms and indicators relating to the integrity and status of
the system
• route planning and voyage monitoring.

The IMO has drawn mariners’ attention to the fact that the RCDS mode of operation lacks
some of the functionality of ECDIS. Some of the limitations of RCDS mode compared to
ECDIS mode include the following.
• The raster navigational chart (RNC) data will not itself trigger automatic alarms
although some alarms can be generated by the RCDS from information inserted
by the user.
• Chart features cannot be altered or removed to suit operational requirements.
This could affect the superimposition of radar/ARPA.
• It may not be possible to interrogate RNC features to gain additional information
about charted objects.
• An RNC should be displayed at the scale of the paper chart and RCDS
capability could be degraded by excessive use of the zoom facility.
• In confined waters the accuracy of the chart data may be less than that of the
position fixing system in use. ECDIS provides an indication in the ENC that permits
determination of the quality of the data.

2.10.8 Main advantages of raster charts

a) they are direct and exact copies of existing paper charts
b) they used the same familiar colors and symbols
c) their contents are as comprehensive, accurate and reliable
d) it is not possible for the users to inadvertently omit significant navigational
information from the chart display
e) as the raster charts are produced from the components used in production of paper
charts, both version can be kept in step
f) simpler and easier to produce than official IHO compliant vector charts
g) it is much easier to ensure the quality and integrity of the displayed data
h) they cost less to produce
i) official produced raster charts are widely available
j) information from other nautical publication may be displayed in the same raster format
k) with the addition of vector overlays and suitable software, it is possible to use raster
charts for all the standard navigational tasks normally carried out with paper charts
and to emulate some of the functions of ECDIS

2.10.9 Main disadvantages of raster charts

a) the display cannot be customize
b) when raster charts are overlayed with other information, the display may appear
cluttered
c) raster charts cannot directly provide alarms or indications to show that own ship is
expected to cross a safety contour or enter a specified area

54
d) cannot be interrogated without some form of additional database with a common
reference system
e) cannot be sensibly rotated to head-up or other orientations
f) have larger memory requirements than vector charts

Comparisons between RNC and ENC.

RNC (RCDS or ECS) ENC (ECDIS)

Chart based system similar to paper No chart boundaries.
charts. Will trigger automatic alarms.
Will not trigger automatic alarms. Some
alarm can be generated from user-
inserted information.
Chart projection may differ between
RNCs.
Chart horizontal datum relates to the
datum of the position fixing system,
may appear as a shift in position.
Feature cannot be simplified or removed
to suit a particular navigational
circumstance. This affects the
superimposed of radar/ARPA picture.
Cannot select different scale charts.
May affect the readability of chart text
and symbols.
Not possible to gain additional
information.
Not possible to display a ship’s safety
contour or safety depth.
Different colors may be used to show
similar chart information.
Displayed at the scale of the paper
chart. Excessive zooming in or out can
seriously degrades RCDS capability.
In confined waters, the accuracy of
chart data may be less than that of the
position fixing system in use.

2.10.11 Dual fuel systems

Because of the adoption by the IMO of the amendments to the performance standards
for ECDIS to include the use of RCDS, an ECDIS is now able to operate in two modes:
• ECDIS mode when ENC data is used
• RCDS mode when ENC data is unavailable.

Thus the dual fuel system is one that is either an ECDIS or RCDS depending on the type
of chart data in use. At the present there are only few ENCs so the ability to use ECDIS
is restricted. RNCs are plentiful and can provide two vital functions:
• provide official electronic chart coverage for areas not covered by ENCs
• provide link coverage between the ENCs that are available.

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2.10.12 Electronic Chart Systems (ECS)
Where a system does not conform to either ECDIS or RCDS performance standards it is
classified as an ECS system. There are no official performance standards for this system.
The IMO had been considering the production of advisory guidelines but at the 1998
meeting of the IMO Navigation Safety Subcommittee it was decided that guidelines for
ECS were not necessary and the matter will not be pursued further. As a general rule, a
system is an ECS if:
• it uses data which is not issued under the authority of a government-authorized
hydrographic office
• vector chart data is not in S-57 format
• the system does not meet the standards of either ECDIS or RCDS performance
standards.

An ECS may not be used as a substitute for official paper charts, and ships fitted with an
ECS are legally required to carry suitable up-to-date official paper charts. Examples of
ECS include radar systems incorporating video maps, stand-alone video plotters and all
systems while using commercial raster charts and vector charts systems.

2.10.13 ECS Standards

Although the IMO has declined to issue guidelines on ECS, the Radio Technical
Commission for Maritime Services (RTCM) in the United States developed a voluntary,
industry-wide standard for ECS. Published in December 1994, the RTCM Standard called
for ECS to be capable of executing basic navigational functions, providing continuous
plots of own ship position, and providing appropriate indicators with respect to information
displayed. The RTCM ECS Standard allows the use of either raster or vector data, and
includes the requirement for simple and reliable updating of information, or an indication
that the electronic chart information has changed.

In November 2001, RTCM published Version 2.1 of the “RTCM Recommended

Standards for Electronic Chart Systems.” This updated version is intended to better
define requirements applicable to various classes of vessels operating in a variety of
areas. Three general classes of vessels are designated:
- Large commercial vessels (oceangoing ships)
- Small commercial vessels (tugs, research vessels. etc.)
- Smaller craft (yachts, fishing boats, etc.)

The intent is that users, manufacturers, and regulatory authorities will have a means of
differentiating between the needs of various vessels as relates to ECS. In concept, an
ECS meeting the minimum requirements of the RTCM standard should reduce the risk
of incidents and improve the efficiency of navigating for many types of vessels. However,
unlike IMO-compliant ECDIS, an ECS is not intended to comply with the up-to-date chart
requirements of SOLAS. As such, an ECS must be considered as a single aid to
navigation, and should always be used with a corrected chart from a government-
authorized hydrographic office.

Initially, IMO regulations require the use of vector data in an ECDIS; raster data does not
have the flexibility needed to do what the ECDIS must do. But it soon became clear that
the hydrographic offices of the world would not be able to produce vector data for any
significant part of the world for some years. Meanwhile, commercial interests were
rasterizing charts as fast as they could for the emerging electronic chart market, and

56
national hydrographic offices began rasterizing their own inventories to meet public
demand. The result was a rather complete set of raster data for the most heavily travelled
waters of the world, while production of man-power intensive vector data lagged far
behind. IMO regulations were then amended to allow ECDIS to function in an RCDS
mode using official raster data in conjunction with an appropriate portfolio of corrected
paper charts. Nations may issue regulations authorizing the use of RCDS and define
what constitutes an appropriate folio of paper charts for use in their waters.

In general, an ECS is not designed to read and display the S-57 format, and does not
meet the performance standards of either ECDIS or RCDS. But an ECDIS can operate
in ECS mode when using raster charts or when using non-S-57 vector charts. When a
type-approved ECDIS is installed without being networked to a backup ECDIS, or when
it is using non-official ENC data, or ENC data without updates, it can be said to be
operating in an ECS mode, and as such cannot be used as a substitute for official,
corrected paper charts.

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