Organization of the human body > Control Center- (*brain) establishes the set

point around w/c the variable is maintained.

Human anatomy and physiology – study of the > Effector-(*heart) change the value of the
structure and function of the human body. variable
*stimulus- changed variable. Initiates a
Anatomy- the scientific discipline that investigates homeostatic mechanism
the structure of the human body.
Feedback Mechanism
Physiology – The scientific discipline that 1. Negative Feed – works to restore
investigates the process of functions of living homeostasis by correcting a deficit within
things. the system.
2. Positive Feedback- Deviation from a
6 Structural levels normal value occurs, the response of the
system is to make the deviation even greater.
1. Chemical level – atoms combine to form
molecules *Visceral Membrane – inside
2. Cell level – Molecule form organelles *Parietal Membrane- outside
3. Tissue level – similar and surrounding
material make up tissues TERMINOLOGY OF THE BODY PLAN
4. Organ level –diff tissue combine to form
organs *anatomical Position
5. Organ system level –Organs make up an *Supine – face upward
organ system *Prone – face downward
6. Organism – organs sytem make up an
organism Directional Terms
 Inferior – Below
Characteristics of Life  Superior- Above
1. Organization – Specific interrelationships  Anterior – Toward front of body
among the parts of an organism and how  (ventral) – Toward the belly
those parts interact to perform specific  Posterior- Toward back of body
functions.  (Dorsal) – Toward tthe back
2. Metabolism- To use energy to perform vital  Proximal – Closer to point of attachement
functions  Distal – Farther from point of attachement
3. Responsiveness- To sense changes in the  Lateral – Away from midline of body
environment and make adjustment that help  Medial- Toward o within the middle of body
maintain life.  Superficial – Toward or on the surface
4. Growth- Increase in size of all part of the  Deep – away from the surface
organism.
5. Development- The changes an oranism Body Parts and Regions
undergoes through time. Fertilization to
death. Head , neck, trunk, upper limbs and lower limbs
6. Reproduction – Formation of new cells or a. 4 regions – Right upper quadrant, left upper
new organism. quadrant, Right lower quadrant, left lower
Homeostasis – Maintenance of a relatively stable quadrant
condition within the internal environment. b. 9 regions – Right Hypochondriac region,
*Nervous system and *endocrine system Epigastric region. Left hypochondriac region,
Left lumbar region, Umbilical region, Left
Components of Homeostasis lumbar region, Right iliac region, Hypogastric
> Receptor- Monitors the value of a variable region, Left iliac region.

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PLANES Endocrine- metablosim,growth,reproduction
 Sagittal Plane – l
 Transverse - --- Cardiovascular- transport nutrients, wastes,gases
 Frontal – and hormones. Immnune response and regulate
body temp.

Body Cavities Urinary-remove waste from blood and regulate

1. Thoracic Cavity – ribs and diaphragm blood pH, ion balance and water balance.
2. Abdominal Cavity- Diaphragm and
Reproductive (female)- site of fertilization, fetal
abdomine
development, produce milk, hormones that
3. Pelvic Cavity- Pelvic bones
influence sexual function and behavior.
Serous Membranes
Reproductive (male) – Produces and transfer
1. Trunk Cavities – lines the walls of the sperm cells to female reproductive and produce
cavity hormones that influence sexual function and
2. Serous membranes – secrete fluid that fills behavior.
the space between the parietal and viceral
membranes. Protect organs from friction
3. Pericardial cavity – surrounds (heart),
Pleural cavities surrounds (lungs) & INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Peritoneal Cavity surrounds (abdominal and - Consist of hair, glands and nails
pelvic).
4. Mesenteries – hold abdominal organs in Functions:
place , provide passageway for blood vessels
and nerve to organs.  Protection - from microorganism and uv
5. Retroperitoneal Organs – behind the light
parietal peritoneum. *kidney, adrenal  Sensation- sensory receptors
glands, pancreas, intestines, urinary bladder.  Vitamin D production –regulator of
homeostasis
ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE BODY  Temperative regulation – blood flow &
activity of sweat glands
Integumentary – protection, regulate temp, prevent  Excretion – via sweat pores
water loss
Subcutaneous Tissue (Hypodermis)
Skeletal- protection & support, allows body
movements,store minerals and fat. - contains about half of body’s stored fat

Muscular-Provides body movements, posture and - padding and insulation and responsible for
body heats. different appearances

Lymphatic- removes foreign substances from LAYERS OF THE SKIN

blood, combats disease, maintain tissue fluid bal,
absorb fats. 1. Epidermis- Most superficial layer of skin.
- Stratified squamous epithelium
Respiratory – blood pH, exchange O2, CO2 - Keratinazation
* Stratum basale – Deepest stratum
Digestive- digestion, absorb nutrient, eliminate *Stratum Corneum – most superficial stratum
waste of epidermis. Surrounded by lipids which
Nervous – detect sensation, control movement, prevent fluid loss. *callus
physiological processes & intellectual functions.

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 2. Dermis – composed of dense collagenous BURNS
connective tissue containing fibroblast, 1st Degree - Damage only the epidermis
adipocytes, & microphages. 2nd Degree – Damage the epidermis and dermis
3rd Degree – full thickness burns
*Collagen and elastic fibers – responsible for
structural strength of the dermis. SKIN CANCER
Basal cell carnicoma – Readily treatable
*cleavage lines or tension lines – most
Squamous cell carnicoma - Can metastasize
resistent to stretch along these lines.
Malignant Melanoma – Often Fatal
*Dermal Papillae – upper part of dermis
*palm, soles and digits of fingers
AGING EFFECT ON THE
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
*Melanin – Responsible for skin,eyes and hair
> Blood flow is reduced , skin thinner and no
color.
elasticity
*Albinism – Deficiency or absence of melanin.
>Sweat and Sebaceous gland are less active,
decrease in melanocytes.
ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES

Hair NERVOUS SYSTEM

>Hair Follicles – Where the hair arises from
>Hair Shaft – Protrudes above the surface of the
skin FUNCTIONS:
>Hair Bulb – Where hair is produced 1. Sensory input – Monitor external and internal
>Cortex – hard covering of hair factors
>Medulla – soft center of hair 2. Integrating – processing sensory input and
>Cuticle – covers the cortex that holds the hair in initiating responses
the follicle 3. Homeostasis – maintains homeostatsis
*Arrector Pili - goose bumps 4. Mental activity – include consciousness,
memory and thinking
GLANDS 5. Information -
*Sebaceous Glands - Simple , branched
- Produces sebum
*Sweat Glands - DIVISIONS:
Appocrine Eccrine
>Opens thru hair folicles >Opens thru sweat pores >Central Nervous System - Consist of the Brain
>Genetalia & armpits >palms & soles and the Spinal Cord
>changes upon exposure >Mainly water and salt
> Peripheral Nervous System - consists of nerves
to bacteria
and ganglia.

 Sensory Division – Afferent (Toward )

Nails - dead stratum corneum contain hard keratin division. From sensory receptors to CNS.
 Motor Division – Efferent (Away)
>Nail Body – visible nail
Division. From CNS to effector organs.
>Nail Root – nail coverd by skin
>Cuticl –(ephonychium)stratum corneum extend
to nail CELLS OF NS
>Nail Matrix – extends distantly to nail root
>Nail Bed – Where the nail is attached. Neurons – Recieve Stimuli, Conduct action
>Lanula –seen through the nail body *whitish – potentials and transmit signals.
cresent shaped area
3 Parts of Neuron:
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  Cell body: Source of information for gene > White Matter – Form nevre track in CNS &
expression. PNS
 Dendrites: Short, highly branching > Gray Matter – Forms the cortex and nuclei in
cytoplasmic extension. Recieve or transmit the brain
info from or toward the neuron cell body.
 Axon: long cell process extending from Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
neuron cell body.
Resting Membrane Potential – uneven charge
Type of Neurons: distribution. The cell is polarized.
Multipolar - Many dendrites, 1 axon Leak channels are always open. Gated
- Most motor and CNS neurons channels are closed until opened by specific
signals.
Bipolar - 1 Dendrite, 1 Axon
- found in special organs, eyes & nose 1. Resting Membrane Potential – some Na+
Psuedo-unipolar - 1 axon, no dendrites 2. Depolarization – Na+ channels open
- Most sensory Neurons 3. Repolarization – K+ channels open

The Synapse – Point of Contact between 2 neurons.

Neuroglia (or glial cells) – nonneuronal cells of Reflex - Functional unit of the nervous system.
CNS and PNS. Has an ability to divide. More A Complex Reflex Arc consist of a sensory
numerous.
receptor, a sensory neuron, interneuron, motor
5 Types: neuron and effector organ. Simplest reflex arc do
not involve interneurons.
 Astrocytes – Highly branched
- help neural tissue repair SPINAL CORD

 Ependymal Cells –Epithelial-Like Foramen magnum  2nd Lumbar vertebra 

- circulate cerebrospinal fluid Cauda Equina
 Microglia – Small, Mobile Cells
- Protect CNS from infection Knee jerk – Quadriceps femoris muscle is stretched.
 Oligodendrocytes – surround several axon Spinal Nervers
- enclose unmyelinated axons in CNS
 Schwann Cells - Single cells surrounding axons * Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral - they are
- enclose unmyelinated axons in PNS grouped into Plexus

Myelin Sheaths BRAIN

 Unmyelinated Axons – Rest in indentions of Brainstem – Consist of several Nuclei

oligodendrocytes in CNS, schwann cell in PNS. Medulla Oblangata - control activities such as
heart rate,breathing,swallowing and balance.
 Myelinated Axons – Have sheaths myelin
Pons – contain relay nuclei betweem
sheaths wrapped around.
cerebellum and cerebrum.
*Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath
Midbrain – Hearing and Visual
Organization of Nervous Tissue reflexes.

Cerebellum - Attached to the brainstem.

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Diencephalon spiderlike, cobwebs Pia matter – very tightly
>Thalamus – main sensory relay center bound to the surface of brain and spinal cord.
>Epithalamus – the pineal gland may
pay a role in sexual maturation Ventricles – fluid cavities in the CNS
>Hypothalamus – Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) - bathes the brain and
maintaining homeostasis. spinal cord, provides cushion around the CNS.
Cerebrum - consist of Frontal, parital, occipital, – produced by choroids and plexuses made by
temporal lobes. ependymal cells.

SENSORY FUNCTIONS *Hydrocephalus – to much accumulation of CSF.

Ascending tracts – from periphery to brain AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

MOTOR FUNCTIONS - Has sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

- Include Voluntary & Involuntary movements Sympathethic Division – “fight or flight”

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex > Preganglionic – Lie in the thoracic and upper
lumbar region of spinal cord.
Upper motor neuron located in the primary motor
cortex. Premotor & prefrontal areas regulate >Postganglionic – in the sympathethic chain ganglia
movements. or in collateral ganglia.

Basal nuclei – help, plan, organize & coordinate Parasympathetic Division

movements and posture. > Preganglionic – associated with some cranial
Cerebellum – balance, muscle tone, muscle and sacral nerves. >Postganglionic – Located
coordination. in terminal ganglia, near or target organs.

OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS AUTONOMIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS

EFFECTS OF ANS ON VARIOUS TISSUE
>Communication between right and left TARGET SYMPATHETIC EFFECT PARASYMPATHETIC EFFECT
hemispheres Heart Increase rate decrease rate
>Speech Blood Vessel contricts and dilates none

>Brain waves and Consciousness Lungs dilate bronchioles constrict bronchioles

>Memory Eyes dilate pupils constrict pupil, contracts muscle lens

>Limbic System Intestine And

CRANIAL
decrease motility, contracts
increase  motility, relaxes spintchers
Stomach Walls NERVES spintchers
MENINGES,VENTRICLES, Liver
I – Olfactory S
breaks glycogen, produce glucose
Smell
synnthesizes glycogen
II – Optics S Vision
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID Adipose Tissue breaks down fat none
M: 4 OF 6 EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLE
*III – Oculamotorsecrete epinephrine,
M,P
Meninges – surround and protect the brain Adrenal Gland P: Constricts pupilsnone
,thicken lens
norepinephrine
and spinal cord. *IV – Trochlear M One extrinsic eye muscle
Sweat Glands secrete sweat none
V – Trigeminal S,M S: face and teeth M: muscle of chewing
Salivary
*VIGland
– Abducens secrete thick M saliva secrete thick saliva
3 connective tissue membranes: One extrinsic eye muscle
relaxes muscles, constrict
S: Taste M: Facial expressions P: pincters
Salivary
Dura matter- adheres tightly in dural VII
Urinary – Facial
Bladder S,M,P
spincters
contracts muscles, relaxes
and tear glands
bones. Arachnoid matter – very thin, VIII -
Pancreas
Decrease secretion of digestive Increase secretion of digestive enzymes
S Hearing and balance
Vastibolochlear enzymes and insulin and insulin
IX – S: Taste and touch back of tongue
S,M,P
Glossopharyngeal M: Pharyngeal muscles P: Salivary Glands
S: Pharynx, Larynx, Viscera M: Palate,
5|©YOGA X – Vagus S,M,P
Pharynx, Larynx P: Thorax and abdomen
XI – Accessory M Neck and back muscle
XII – Hypoglossal M Tongue muscle
- all secrete acetylcholine 2. Neural Stimuli– Cause hormome secretion in direct
response to action potentials in neurons, occurs during stress
-Most sympathetic postganglionic region secrete or exercise.
Norepinephrine. 3. Hormonal Stimulation– Hormones fron anterior pituitary
that stimulate tropic hormones.
Functions of neurotransmitters:
Inhibition of Hormone:
1. Sympathethic division – Prepare a person by 1. Humoral Stimulation- inhibit secretion of hormones
increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, 2. Neural Stimuli- prevent hormone secretion
release glucose energy. 3. Inhibiting hormone prevent hormone release
2. Parasympathetic division – involuntary
acitivity at rest *digestion,defacation,urination Regulation of Hormone Level
1. Negative feedback- prevents hormone secretion once a set

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM of point is achieved.

2. Positive feedback- Self promoting system
Classes of Chemical Messenger whereby stimulation of hormone secretion increases over time.
Chemical Msgr. Description
secreted by cells, influence the activity from
Autocrine
which it was secreted
Classes of Receptors:
Paracrine Produced by wide variety of tissues and
secreted into extracellular fluid 1.Lipid-soluble hormones – bind nuclear receptors
Neurotransmitter Produced by neurons; secreted into synaptic located inside the nucleus of the target cell.
clef, influence post synaptic cells 2. Water-soluble hormones – bind to
secreted into the blood by specialized cells;
endocrine membrane-bound receptors, which are integral membrane
regulation of cell function
proteins.
FUNCTIONS of ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Action of Nuclear Receptors
1. Metabolism
>Nuclear Receptors have portions that allow them to bind to
2. Control Food intake and digestion
3. Tissue Development the DNA in the nucleus once the hormone is bound.
4. Ion regulation >cannot respond immediately it takes time to make DNA to
5. Bater balance mRNA and protein.
6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrient Membrane Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification
8. Control reproductive function >Activate a cascade of events once the hormone binds.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release >are associated G Proteins.
10. Immune system regulation

CHARACTERISTICS OF ENDO SYSTEM

- Include glands and specialized endocrine cells that secrete
hormones into blood stream.

HORMONE – Travels to a distant target tissue, binds to

specific receptors set of events.
Chemical nature of Hormones: 1.
Lipid –soluble – Include steroids, thyroid hormones and some
fatyy acid derivatives. 2. water-
soluble – Include proteins, peptides and amino acids.
Circulate freely in the blood.

CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

Stimulation of Hormone release: 1.

Humoral Stimulation– Sensitive to circulating blood level of
certain molecules. *glucose or calcium

6|©YOGA
 Endocrine Glands, Hormones, and Their Target Tissues
Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response
Pituitary gland Growth hormone Most Tissue Increase genne expression, release fatty acids from cells
Anterior
Thyroid-Stimulating
Adrenal Cortex Increase Thyroid Hormone secretion
  Hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic
Adrenal Gland Increase secretion of glucocorticoid hormone
  Hormone(ACTH
Melanocyte-Stimulating Increase melanin production in melanocytes to make skin
Melanocytes in Skin
  Hormone (MSH) darker
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) /
Ovary in Females, Testis in Promotes Ovulation and progesterone production ;
Interstial cell-stimulating
males testoterone synthesis and prod. Of sperm cells
  hormone (ICSH)
Follicles in ovary in females,
Follicle-Stimulating Promote follicle maturation and estrogen secretion;
Seminiferous tobules in
Hormone (FSH) promote sperm cell production
  males
Ovary and mammary gland in
Prolactin Stimulate milk production and prolongs progesterone
  females , and testis in males
Anti diuretic Hormone
Kidney conserves water; Constrict blood vessels
Posterior (ADH)

Oxytocin Uterus Increase uterine contractions

 

  Mammary Gland Increase milk letdown from mammary glands

 
Increase metabolic rates, normal process of maturation
Thyroid Hormones Most cells of the body
Thyroid Gland and growth
Decrease rate of bone breakdown; prevents large
Calcitonin Primarily Bone
  increase in blood Ca+
Parathyroid
Parathyroid Hormone Bone,Kidney Increase rate of bone breakdownby osteoclasts
Gland
Adrenal Epinephrine mostly, some Heart, Blood Vessels, Liver, Increase cardiac output; Increase blood flow to skeletal
Medulla norepinephrine Fat cells muscles and heart
Mineralocorticoids Kidneys; To lesser degree, Increase rate of sodium transport into body; increase rate
Adrenal Cotex (aldosterone) Intestine and sweat glands of K+ excretion

Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) Most Tissue Increase in fat and protein breakdown; increase
 

Adrenal Androgens Most Tissue Insignificant in males; Increase female sexual drive
 
Especially Liver, skeletal
Insulin Increase uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
Pancreas muscle, Adipose tissue
Increase breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose
Glucagon Primarily Liver
  into circulatory system
Reproductive
Aid sperm cell production, Maintenance of functional
Organs Testosterone Most Tissue
reproductive organs
Testes
aid uterine and mammary gland development and
Estrogen, Progesterone Most Tissue
Ovaries function
Uterus,ovaries, Prostaglandins Most Tissue Increase uterine contractions and ovulation
inflamed tissues

7|©YOGA
 Thymosin Thymosin Immune system development
Thymus

Melatonin Among others, Hypothalamus Secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, Thereby

Pineal gland inhibiting reproduction

8|©YOGA