Introduction to statistics

What is Statistics?
Statistics: refers to a set of mathematical procedures, which have
to be conducted on data that has been gathered when one wants
to make sense out of certain phenomena.

Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing, presenting, and

interpreting data, as well as of making decisions based on such
analyses.

2/23
 What is Statistics?

For example: to establish the effect of coffee on the mood of

students, data is gathered. The data as such does not own
logically, explanatory properties. This data has to be reworked
with statistical procedures in order to make meaning.

3/23
 What is Statistics?

Statistics serve 3 general purposes:

1. To organize and summarize collected data (bringing order out

of chaos)

2. To help the researcher answer the question(s) that initiated

the research by seeing which of the conclusions are justified

3. Allowing the global research community to “speak the same

language” – in terms of statistics.

4/23
 Populations and samples

Population: all the individuals that the researcher wants to study

in a particular study.

The effect of divorce on preteen children (preteen children are the

population)

Amount of time spent in bathroom by males and females (males

and females = population)

5/23
 Populations and samples

• Populations can be very large (all females on the planet), or

small (second year students, Unam, 2021) – the researcher
needs to define the population.

• The population can consist of non-humans: rats, parts produced

in a factory, chocolate.

• By times, a population is too large and the researcher has to

limit the population (sample).

6/23
 Populations and samples
Sample: set of individuals selected from a population, which
should represent the population in the research study.

• Samples can vary in size (depending on the definition of the

sample by the researcher).

• After examining the sample, the researcher generalizes the

findings back to the entire population.

• Researchers thus use sample statistics to draw conclusions

about population parameters.

7/23
 Populations and samples
• Problem: a sample provides limited information about a
population.

• Samples are regarded as representative of populations – but

the sample cannot give a perfectly accurate picture of the
whole population (because population is too complex).

• Always expect a certain % of discrepancy between the sample

statistic and the population parameter = sampling error.

Sampling error: discrepancy or amount of error between a sample

statistic and population parameter.

8/23
 Variables and data
Variable: characteristic or condition that changes or has different
values for different individuals (height, weight, gender).

• Researchers are interested in, whether, the variable changes

under a certain condition (does weight change if we often eat
chocolate?).

• Variables thus need to be measured when undergoing different

conditions/ or for different individuals.

9/23
 Variables and data
• The measurement of the specific variable of each individual in
the sample, is called a datum, score or raw score.

• All the scores together are called the data set or the data.

Data: measurements or observations

Data set: collection of measurements and/or observations

Datum: single measurement and/or observation (also called a

score or raw score).

10/23
Types of data

11/23
 Parameters and statistics
Parameter: a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a
population. Drived from measurements of individuals who are
part of the population.

Statistic: a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a

sample. Derived from measurements of individuals who are part
of the sample.

12/23
 Parameters and statistics
• Thus, when describing your data, it is important to distinguish
whether the data is originating from a sample or a population.

• A research process usually begins with a question about a

research parameter, while the actual data comes from a
sample.

13/23
 Parameters and statistics
• A parameter is any summary number, like an average or
percentage, that describes the entire population.

• The population mean μ (the greek letter "mu") and the

population proportion p are two different population
parameters. For example:

• We might be interested in learning about μ, the average weight

of all middle-aged African female.

• The population consists of all middle-aged African females, and

the parameter is µ.

14/23
Descriptive and inferential statistical methods
• Different statistical procedures exist for
organizing and interpreting raw data.

• These procedures can be divided into two

categories:
1. Descriptive statistics

2. Inferential statistics

15/23
Descriptive and inferential statistical methods
Descriptive statistics: procedures that summarize, organize and
simplify raw scores (data) in a form that is more manageable. Often
tables or graphs are used.

Inferential statistics: techniques that allow us to study samples and

then make generalizations about the populations from which they
were selected.

16/23
 Statistics in the context of research
The following is an overview of a general research situation and
demonstrates the roles that descriptive and inferential statistics
play.

The purpose of the research study is to evaluate the difference

between two methods for teaching reading to first-grade children.
Two samples were selected from the population of first-graders.

17/23
 Statistics in the context of research
Children in sample A are exposed to teaching method A. The
children in sample B are exposed to teaching method B.

After 6 months, all the participants in the study are given a

standardized reading test. The researcher then has two sets of data:
the scores for sample A and the scores for sample B.

Statistics are applied.

18/23
Step 1
Experiment – compare two teaching methods
with two samples of first-graders.

Population
of first-
graders

Sample B
Sample A
taught
taught by
with
method A
method B
Data – test scores for the students in each
sample (standardized reading test)

Sample A test results Sample B test results

73 75 72 79 76 77 75 77 68 70 73 71 67 72 70 71
72 75 76 78 80 74 76 78 75 68 70 71 72 74 69 72
73 77 74 81 77 77 76 73 70 70 69
Step 2
Descriptive statistics – to organize and simplify

Descriptive statistics: Sample A

66-70 71-75 76-80 81-85

0 9 12 1

Average score Sample A = 76

Descriptive statistics: Sample B

66-70 71-75 76-80 81-85

10 10 1 0

Average score Sample B = 71

Step 3
Inferential statistics: Interpret results.

The sample data show a 5-point difference

between the two teaching methods. However,
there are two ways to interpret the results:
1. There actually is no difference between the
two teaching methods and the sample
difference is due to chance (sampling error).
2. There is a difference between the two
methods and the sample data accurately
reflect this difference.

The goal of inferential statistics is to help

researchers decide between the two
interpretations.
 Statistical notation
• Scores for a particular variable are indicated by an X.

• Getting 35% for a test, which is part of the measurement of an

observation, will be indicated as: X = 35.

• A set of scores can be included in a column, with the heading of

the column being X.

25/23
 Heading

35
Raw score
38

26

29
• Y can be used for a second category of raw
scores – say for example when you contrast
two groups of scores.

X Y
• N = a number of scores in a population.
• n = a number of scores in a sample.
• Often, in statistics, the sum of a set of scores
is required. The sum is indicated by the Greek
letter sigma (Ʃ).
• ƩX means the summation of all the raw scores
of variable X.
• Example: a few scores were obtained in a
quick test: 10, 6, 7, 4 then ƩX = 27 and N = 4.
• The Ʃ sign is always followed by a symbol or
mathematical expression, which indicate what
needs to be calculated.
• ƩX = 3 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 = 16
• Ʃ(X-1) = 2 + 0 + 1 + 3 + 5 = 11
• Ʃ(X-1)² = 4 + 0 + 1 + 9 + 25 = 39

• It is important that calculations are done in

the correct sequence.
• Calculation in parentheses (...), squaring,
multiplying or dividing from left to right,
summation, addition or subtraction.
• ƩX-1 = 3 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 6 = 16 – 1 = 15.
• Calculate each value for the following scores:

6, 2, 4, 2

a) ƩX
b) ƩX²
c) (ƩX)²
d) Ʃ(X-2)
e) Ʃ(X-2)²
• Identify the first step in each of the following
calculations:

a. ƩX²
b. (ƩX)²
c. Ʃ(X-2)²
• Use summation notation to express each of
the following:

a. Add 4 points to each score and then add the

resulting values.
b. Add the scores and then square the total.
c. Square each score, then add the squared
values.
Practice Question

A set of scores consists of the following values:

7,3,9,4,5

For these scores compute the following:

a) ƩX
b) ƩX²
c) (ƩX)²
d) Ʃ(X-2)
e) Ʃ(X-2)²
f) ƩX + 5