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The New Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible.

p. em.
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I. Bible- Dictionaries. L Abingdon Press.
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 505 King, Kingship
~aOlAEuc.u)occurs primarily in the OT in texts under- KING, KINGSHIP 11?/J, melekh, i1:;n'9 melukhah;
God's unequailed power. ~aOlAEuS' basileus, ~aOlAEia basileiaJ. It is difficult
The motif is found in psalms in the Psalter, psalms to reconstruct the beliefs and institutions surround-
the Psalter (Exod 15; 1 Chr 16), and in poetic ing the king and kingship in ancient Israel. Many of
of Isaiah and Jeremiah, reflecting these psalmic the sources about kingship are biased or incomplete,
.ileon], Several psalms imply that they were used in written long after the kings they purport to describe.
ward-used rituals celebrating God as king. Psalm 24 with the Even defining "kingship," and when kingship began
2; Dan 2:37), command, "Lift up your heads, 0 gates! and in Israel, has become more complicated as various
God (2 Macc I lifted up, 0 ancient doors! that the King of glory may social-scientific models have been applied to biblical
19:16). The in" (Ps 24:7, 9), has sometimes been associated texts. It is also unclear from what perspective kingship
h the earlier " Withthe procession of the ark into the Temple although should be considered, since different groups viewed
cultic background is unclear (see also Ps 68:24, kingship quite differently. Finally, it is unknown to,
"my God, my King, into the sanctuary"). Psalm 84 what extent we should view kingship in Israel as a
a pilgrimage song (see vv. 5·7) celebrating the joy single institution, given that it lasted several centuries
traveling to Mount Zion, the dwelling of "my God and flourished in both the Northern and Southern
my King" (Ps 84:3). The identification of God as Kingdoms.
'my King" is found in psalms of lament and petition This article will focus on the word melekh, the
seeking God's deliverance from some catastrophe (Pss word typically translated as "king." Hebrew, like other
44:4; 74:12; see also Ps 10:16). ancient languages, does not use different terms to dis-
A number of psalms connect the origin of God's tinguish an imperial king from a ruler of a petty city-
king with creation. God is victorious over state. By looking at texts that describe the melekh, we
thewaters of chaos and "sits enthroned over the flood" will sidestep the issue of when melekh meant "king"
(Ps 29:10). God rules "the raging of the sea," and in our sense, and when Israel became a kingdom.
'when its waves rise," God stills them (Ps 89:9). At Israelite kingship should be understood in relation
the blast of God's nostrils "the waters piled up, the to ANE kingship, and this is where the article begins.
floods stood up in a heap; the deeps congealed in This is followed by two reconstructions of Israelite
the heart of the sea" (Exod 15:8). As creator God kingship, the first based on contemporaneous extra-
the monsters of the deep, destroyed "the biblical evidence, the other on the Bible. The biblical
beads of the dragons in the waters," and "the heads of material is complex, and is open to many interpre·
(Ps 74:13-14). God "crushed Rahab like a tations and forms of organization; this material is
carcass" (Ps 89: I 0). This creative power makes Yah- arranged to be as comprehensive as possible.
weh incomparable among the gods (Exod 15: 11; I Chr
intius Pilate asks 16:25;Pss 89:6; 95:3; 96:5; 97:9). Since these psalms A. Kingship in the Ancient Near East
.1att 27: II; Mark havelinks with similar mythic traditions in other ANE 1. Non-biblical sources on Israelite kingship
e Synoptics, Jesus creation stories associated with the enthronement of a 2. Biblical perspectives on kingship
.e his accusers do godas king, it has been hypothesized that these psalms 3. Foreign kings
kind of 1\..lUl<U\Jll1· were also used in a similar annual cultic enthronement B. Becoming King
In Israel. This connection is endorsed by those who 1. Dynasties
translate the recurring phrase, 'elohim/yhwh malakh 2. Coronation
(1?9 i11i1'/lJ'i1'~), "Yahweh/God has become 3. The royal family and the bureaucracy
king" (see especially Pss 47; 93; 95-99), reflecting the C. Royal Trappings
annual celebration of the renewal of divine kingship. D.Royal Qualities
Others, however, who render the phrase, "Yahweh/ 1. Divinity
Godis king," downplay a yearly cultic regeneration of 2. Immortality
God'sroyal power over creation. 3. Wisdom
Narratives about the emergence of Saul as the first 4. Wealth
in Israel contain the theme that Israel's request 5. Physical perfection
have a king like the other nations (1 Sam 12: 12) is E. Royal Responsibilities
rejection of God as king (1 Sam 10: 19). An earthly 1. Commander-in-chief
will lead to oppression (1 Sam 8:10-22; compare 2. Judicial responsibilities
9:7·15). F. The Cuit
the NT the identification of God as king is rela- G. State Building Projects
rare (I Tim 1:17; 6:15; Heb 1:8; Rev 15:3). See H. Misgivings about Kingship
OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN; MES· l. The End and the Idealization of Kingship
JEWISH. J. Second Temple Period Kingship
EDGAR W. CONRAD Bibliography
King, Kingship 506
A. Kingship in the Ancient Near East The inscriptions of Sennacherib of Assyria depict These seals, ;
Kingship was the main pattern of political organiza- the Iudean king Hezekiah as the head of a coalition existence of a
tion in the ANE. It was understood to be part of the kings, powerful enough to have deposed and impris· number of tit!
basic fabric of the socio-politlcal order, and the king oned a Philistine king, though not sufficiently strong "servant of th:
was recognized as a shepherd appointed by the god(s) to withstand Sennacherib, who in 70 I BCE no,.,",'on "scribe," "offk
to help society function in a harmonious fashion. the Iudean countryside, though he did not conquer word mlk n:
The ubiquity of kingship among Israel's neighbors is Jerusalem. As a result of Hezekiah's defeat, he was of known Israt
reflected in Deut 17:14, where the people are depicted assessed an astronomical tribute of 30 taients of gold, king preceded
as saying, "I will set a king over me, like all the nations 800 of silver, and many luxury items such as ivory, as The uneart
that are around me" (compare 1 Sam 8:5, 20). The well as weapons. Thus, twenty years after the defeat of helpful in reo
Sumerian King List viewed kingship as "lowered from northern Israel, Judah too was ruled by a king who was
heaven," and the Egyptians believed that the roots of very rich and powerful.
kingship were primeval. This non-biblical evidence suggests that both north
Although kingship was not understood in exactly ern Israel and Judah were ruled by kings who at least an. earlier gem
the same way throughout the ANE, there are several at some points controlled strong armies and extensive is now consid:
fundamental features of ANE kingship. I) The king was resources. These kings were at times confident enough a religious pur
closely associated with the divine (see EMPEROR WOR· to fight in alliances against the powerful Assyrians (and Absent the
SHIP). In some civilizations he was considered divine, later the Babylonians), but with poor results-they
either in life or after death, while in others he was ultimately became vassals. The Mesha and Tell Dan
appointed by the gods, was part of the divinely ordered inscriptions also suggest that the Northern Kingdom at
world, and was, in some cases, the adopted son of the points had expansionist tendencies, as it tried to enjoy
gods. 2) Kings had special insight into justice, and thus the rich resources to its north and east (see MOABITE in paying tribu
had the responsibility to promulgate and enforce law, to STONE). to Significant
establish justice, and to care for the disadvantaged. 3) There are no royal Israelite inscriptions. The Siloam the .king had
Kings had special roles in the cult. Many kings boast of inscription, commemorating where two groups of tun. information, d,
rebuilding temples, and Babylonian kings, for example, nelers met, does not mention a king; in contrast the circumscribed.
were primary actors in the new year or Akitu festival. Bible records this as a royal building project (see 2 Kg>
4) The king led the army in battle. The depiction of 20:20; 2 Chr 32:4·5, 30; Isa 22: II), and such projects 2. Biblical
the king as a great warrior is especially obvious in Neo- elsewhere in the ANE were often commemorated with Certain bib!
Assyrian inscriptions, which include such royal epithets inscriptions praising the king. for understandi
as "the potent warrior, who tramples his enemies, who Close to 2,000 clay storage jars from the late 8th 17:14·20; "the
crushes all the adversaries." These attributes are con- cent. BCE stamped lmlk n?rJ ') around a two-winged 8:11:17; the p
nected: the association with the divine gives the king or four-winged scarab beetle have been found (see in 2 Sam 7:5·1
certain powers in the judicial and military realms, and LMLK SEALS). It is uncertain if Imlk there means "to
certain responsibilities to the gods in the cultic realm. the king" or "of/belonging to the king." Some jars
have the names of the cities Hebron, Socoh, Ziph, and
I. Non-biblical sources on Israelite kingship (unidentified) Mmsht, but the role of these cities is
It is possible to reconstruct some information about uncertain. Suggestions for the use of these jars ranges
Israelite kingship from ANE texts, as well as from from tax collections to jars for royal wine, though a are unsure wh
a variety of non· biblical Israelite sources, including consensus is developing that they were used by King are many texts
inscriptions, seals, and bullae. Hezekiah's men to store rations before the Assyrian nected, so it is
Several Mesopotamian texts describe Israel being invasion of 70 I. They thus reflect a well-organized theological idea
defeated and paying tribute to Assyria or Babylonia. In the royal bureaucracy. to use a broad
earliest of these, Shalmaneser III of AssyIia lists Ahab, with One of the 8th cent. BCE SAMARIA OSTRACA deal· cal depictions I
a large number of chariots and foot soldiers, as part of a ing with an (olive) oil delivery begins lmlk, ISRAEL, HISTC
coalition headed by Damascus and defeated in 853 BCE. that the northern king had some role in the ~;".~;h.·,.;oo
Later inscriptions mention Jehu paying tribute of silver, ownership, or guaranteeing of oil. The general function
gold, and other luxury items. The 9th cent. BCE Tell Dan of these very brief ostraca is debated, but they surely
inscription refers to the defeat of the king of Israel, and most reflect a well-developed royal bureaucracy. The ARAD
likely a Iudean king as well, by the king of Aram-Damascus OSTRACA mention a royal decree and royal
after a northern king had taken some Aramean territory indicating the existence of a bureaucracy
(see INSCRIPTION, TELL DAN). The Moabite inscription ately preceding the destruction of the Temple.
mentions "Omri king of Israel" and his son in reference to inscription mentions the burial of a royal steward.
the Moabite recapture of Nebo and other Transjordanian the inscriptions offer few details concerning
cities. These sources suggest that by the 9th cent. BCE, the Hundreds of seals and bullae have been
Northern Kingdom was ruled by powerful, wealthy kings. excavated or sold; for reconstructing history, it is
Later Assyrian inscriptions confirm this picture. to consider only those that have a clear orovenance.
Gng, Kingship King,Kingship 507 King, Kingship
These seals, from a wide time period, confirm the accurately reflect the Assyrian rather than Iudean
existenceof a large royal bureaucracy through the large bureaucracy. In most cases, however, foreign kings
ised and impris- number of titles they use, such as "son of the king," are depicted in the same manner as Israelite kings,
tfficiently strong "servant of the king," "minister over the royal house," raising the possibility that biblical authors naturally
l BCE devastated "scribe," "officer," and "squire." Several seals have the assimilated most aspects of foreign kingship to Israelite
lid not conquer word mlk n?~) on them, and others have the names kingship.
defeat, he was ofknown Israelite kings, but no seal has the name of a
, talents of gold, kingpreceded by the word mlk. B. Becoming King
such as ivory, as The unearthing of Israelite royal buildings should be 1. Dynasties
ter the defeat of helpful in reconstructing Israelite kingship. However, One of the king's sons, usually the oldest, reigned
a king who was no certain royal building has been discovered, and after his father. The idea that primogeniture was not
the dates and functions of likely royal structures are automatic is clear from 1 Kgs 1:20, where Bathsheba
debated. It is instructive that a building identified by says to David: "the eyes of a11Israel are on you to
19Swho at least an earlier generation as Solomon'S stables in Megiddo te11them who sha11sit on the throne of my lord the
s and extensive is now considered post-Solomonic, and may have had king after him." In certain cases, the "people of the
mfident enough a religious purpose. land," perhaps a term for a group of the landed gentry,
1 Assyrians (and Absent the Bible, we would know that a monarchy decided who would reign (see 2 Kgs 11:14). Some-
Ir results-they existedin both Israel and Judah, and would have some times a foreign power removed a king and appointed
1 and Tell Dan ofthe names of the kings. We would have some sense his successor, but in such cases in Judah the successor
ern Kingdom at of a highly developed royal bureaucracy. We would was part of the royal Davidic family (e.g., 2 Kgs 24:15-
it tried to enjoy know that the king had a significant role in war, and 17). In rare cases, there was a co-regency, where the
(see MOABITE in paying tribute as a vassal, and therefore had access successor began to reign before his father died (e.g.,
to significant resources. We would understand that 2 Kgs 15:5).
the king had some role related to agriculture. This But how did new dynasties get started? Judges
) groups of tun- information, due to the nature of these texts, is quite 8:22-23, concerning Gideon, imagines that the popu-
in contrast the circumscribed. lace could initiate kingship. The Bible more typically
oject (see 2 Kgs speaks of prophetic legitimation. Fo11owingYahweh's
Id such projects 2. Biblical perspectives on kingship orders, according to 1 Sam 9-10, Samuel chooses and
iemorated with Certain biblical texts are typically treated as central later anoints Saul as first king; he does the same later
forunderstanding kingship: the laws of the king in Deut for David (1 Sam 16:1-13). In the north, the dynasty
17:14·20; "the ways of the king" described in 1 Sam of Jeroboam is initiated by the prophet Ahijah (1 Kgs
i a two-winged 8:11-17; the promise of an eternal dynasty to DAV1D 11:29-39), and Jehu is anointed by a disciple of Elisha
en found (see in 2 Sam 7:5-17; and the royal psalms. Although these (2 Kgs9:1-13). In other cases in the Northern Kingdom,
rere means "to are much discussed, they should not be given undue the Bible does not offer sufficient details to understand
19." Some jars weight, since there are many other texts that describe the dynamic behind one king succeeding over com-
xoh, Ziph, and and proscribe royal practices. Also, scholars often petitors (1 Kgs 16:8-22). As a theological document,
these citles is discuss kingship in tandem with the Zion tradition . written from a Iudean perspective, Kings depicts a
lese jars ranges that links the choosing of Jerusalem and David. We stable legitimate Davidic monarchy, in contrast to many
vine, though a are unsure when this tradition developed, and there illegitimate northern dynasties with fractious relations.
~ used by King are many texts that depict these two events as uncon- The one exception to the principle of male Davidic
e the Assyrian .nected, so it is wise as we11not to overemphasize this succession in Judea was the reign of Athaliah in
well-organized theologicalidea. The fo11owingreconstruction attempts 2 Kgs 11, who ascended the throne after her son died,
to use a broad range of texts to understand the bibli- and she killed the remaining royal heirs. This chapter
)STRACA deal- cal depictions of, and attitudes toward, kingship (see depicts her as illegitimate, and emphasizes that the
nlk, suggesting ISRAEL,HISTORYOF). monarch must be male. (The negative manner in which
he distribution, Iezebel, wife of Ahab of the north is depicted, is simi-
eneral function 3. Foreign kings larly ideological.)
JUt they surely The word me1ekh is used of foreign rulers of all The story of Athaliah emphasizes the power and
ICy.The ARAD types,and many such rulers are mentioned in the Bible. importance of the queen mother, the mother of the
royal servants, Someof these are local rulers, not kings in our sense; ruling king, at least in Judah. The king rises before the
cracy irnmedi- thismay support the idea that the early Israelite "kings" queen mother (1 Kgs2: 19) and her name is often men-
.mple. Another werepetty rulers or chieftains as welL tioned in the Iudean succession formulae. Some have
steward. Thus, In some cases foreign kings are depicted differently suggested that she had important cultic roles (see esyp---
ing kingship. than Israelite kings. Thus some details concerning 1 Kgs 15:13). She seems to have been more significant
e been either the Egyptian king in the Joseph story reflect Egyptian than the queen, though the proximity of the queen t
story, it is best practices,and the Assyrian officials mentioned in 2 Kgs the royal court certainly gave her some power, as illu -
11' provenance. 18:17, "the Tartan, the Rab-saris, and the Rabshakeh," trated especially in the stories concerning JezebeL
King, Kingship 508 King, Kingship
2. Coronation charge of the forced labor." Such basic issues as the tax mightily upon
The coronation of the new king was a significant structure and land ownership, which were likely regu- the spirit of th,
ritual-it represented stability of the polity. It is unclear lated by many functionaries, cannot be reconstructed these attribute
to what extent this ritual changed over time, and dif- for any period. Yahweh is typi
fered between Judah and the north. Anointing with perfect form or
oil seems to have been at its core (see ANOINT), and C. Royal Trappings
the king could thus be called mashiakh (11'tP9)' "the The crown and throne were the two most important 2.Immorta
anointed one," or "Yahweh's/his anointed one." This objects associated with kingship. The crown was the Immortality
term, which is recognizable in the English messiah, main royal symbol, so a fallen or removed crown may ties divine bein
is never used of future ideal kings. Crowning the king represent lost kingship (e.g., Lam 5:16; Ier 13:18), yet oft the human
is only attested once in the ritual descriptions (2 Kgs we have no idea what it looked like. Hebrew has no it to him-len
11:12). See MESSIAH, JEWISH. special word for THRONE-the same word (kisse' expressed in a
Coronation was typically a public event. It could ~o.::;J)is used for throne, chair, and stool. The expres- promise that tl
include a declaration of "X has become king" (e.g., sion "to sit on the throne" is equivalent to reigning in Ps 72:17, "}
2 Kgs 9:13) or "long live King X" (e.g., 1 Kgs 1:39). (1 Kgs 1:20,27). Only Solomon's throne is described in continue as Ion:
Various texts describe it as a noisy celebration, some- detail (1 Kgs 10:18-20112 Chr 9: 17-19).
times as a result of blowing a "trumpet" (better trans- Ancient Near Eastern texts and reliefs suggest 3. Wisdom
lated "a ram's horn" [e.g., 2 Kgs 9:13]). Many of these that the king had special clothing, though this is not Royal wisdoi
rituals are also reflected in psalms that celebrate God's described in the Bible. Second Samuel 1: 10 mentions (1 Kgs 3,10), b
kingship. Some scholars believe that the king agreed a royal armband, a SCEPTER is referred to in several in Prov 8:15: "I
to follow a royal compact as part of the coronation, texts, and is even used metonymically to refer to king- decree what is jl
though there is little evidence for this. There is con- ship (e.g., Gen 49: 10), and two texts mention a special of Solomon, is t
siderable debate about using psalms to reconstruct this pillar (2 Kgs 11:14; 23:3). thus may share j
ritual; it is thus uncertain, for example, if Ps 2:7, "I This paucity of evidence is quite disappointing.
will tell of the decree of the LORD:He said to me, 'You Although it is clear that a variety of clothing, jewelry, 4. Wealth
are my son; today I have begotten you,'" was recited and furniture was unique to the king, we cannot deter- In 1 Kgs 3:1
during the coronation. In addition to Ps 2, Pss 21, 72, mine what these items looked like, how they might not having askec
and 110 have plausibly been connected to the corona- have changed over time, or how they might have dif- an . expected ro)
tion ritual. - fered between the north and the south (see CROWN; kings had contn
DIADEM, DIADEMS; ROD)_ treasuries (e.g., .
3. The royal family and the bureaucracy both call the kin~
These two areas are related, since kings often D. Royal Qualities for many kings j
appointed family members to important positions, as 1. Divinity (e.g., 1 Kgs 16:2:
reflected in the title ben hammelekh ll?~iTP),"the The Israelite king was no mere mortal. He has
king's son." Obviously, the king's male children, as "splendor" (hodh 1ii1, hadhar 'liJ) or "honor" 5. Physical pl
potential heirs, were especially significant, as was the [kavodh 1;:J~), special qualities difficult to translate, In addition to
queen mother. The story concerning Amnon and Tamar which kings and Yahweh share. Many of the royal are depicted as e
(2 Sam 13) suggests that princesses also had an exalted qualities are related to divine ones. Only one text 9:2; 10:23; Davk
role, and they were taken care of by their full-brothers calls the king a God (Ps 45:6: "Your throne, 0 God, idea that the king
until they married. endures forever and ever"), but kings throughout the king's body has sy
The large number of texts that outline various offi- ANE were understood to have special roles vis-a-vis
cials do not allow us to reconstruct the royal bureau- deities. This quasi-divine nature of the (Davidic) king E. Royal Respons
cracy in detail. As a latecomer within the ANE to is also reflected in Lam 4:20, which calls the king "the Like their ANE
kingship, it is possible that Israel followed the practices breath of our life" (compare "the lamp of Israel" in responsibilities in
of surrounding nations or the Canaanites in establish- 2 Sam 21: 17). In Israel, these qualities placed kings cultrc, and state bt
ing their bureaucracy. We do not always understand somewhere in between commoners and Yahweh. The two are much moi
the function implied by the Hebrew titles, and we are royal house would emphasize these qualities in their balance is differen
unsure if various officials and roles recorded in the propaganda to legitimate the king and his power, while
Bible are accurate for the period they describe, or may those who tried to curb royal power downplayed these 1. Commande
represent later writers retrojecting backward their sys- qualities. Part of the kin
tem of officialdom. It is therefore not possible to outline Among the attributes shared by Yahweh and the in all realms inclu
the development of various offices. king are eternal life, wisdom, wealth, and strength. leading his people
The positions of the "king's servant" and "elder" These are bestowed by God, who can remove them as responsibility COull
were held by several people simultaneously. Some well, as narrated in reference to the transition between in the initial stages
specific major offices include: "in charge of the palace" Saul and David in 1 Sam 16: 13-14: "Then Samuel took king often particip
(better: royal house minister), "court scribe," "record- the horn of oil, and anointed him [David] in the pres- records recal
er" (better: herald), various types of advisors, and "in ence of his brothers; and the spirit of the LORDcarne Kgs 23:29).
 509 King, Kingship
mightilyupon David from that day forward .... Now Scholars once believed that kingship developed in
thespirit of the LORD departed from SauL... " Although Israel as a result of the military pressure of the Philis-
these attributes are shared by the king and Yahweh, tines and the need for a single leader to face them (see
Yahwehis typically depicted as having them in a more 1 Sam 8:20; 14:52); though most are now skeptical of
perfectform or in greater abundance. this as the single or primary reason for the rise of the
monarchy. Since the king led his people into battle,
2. Immortality wars could be depicted as between kings, as in 2 Kgs
~the two most important
Immortality is often seen as the element that typi- 16:5: "Then King Rezin of Aram and King Pekah son of
lip. The crown was
fiesdivine beings; it is thus significant that Ps 21 :4 says Remaliah of Israel came up to wage war on Jerusalem;
or removed crown may
ofthe human king, "He asked you for life; you gave they besieged Ahaz but could not conquer him." The
am 5:16; Ier 13:18}, yet
it to him-length of days forever and ever." This is responsibility of the king as commander-in-chief is con-
:ed like. Hebrew has no
expressed in a toned-down form elsewhere, with the nected to his need to be strong, as outlined above.
the same word (kisse' Some texts suggest that the king received this
r, and stool. The expres- promise that the Davidic dynasty will last forever, or
in Ps 72:17, "May his name endure forever, his fame ability directly from Yahweh; it is unclear how wide-
s equivalent to reigning
continue as long as the sun." spread this belief was. For example, in the royal psalm,
n's throne is described in
2 Sam 22:48 (I IPs 18:48-49), the royal speaker praises
: 9:17-19). "the God who ... brought down peoples under me."
xts and reliefs suggest 3. Wisdom
Royalwisdom is typically associated with Solomon Psalms such as 144:1, 10, "Blessed be the LORD, my
hing, though this is not
(1Kgs3, 10), but is connected to kings more generally rock, who trains my hands for war, and my fingers
i Samuel 1: 10 mentions
in Prov 8:15: "By me [wisdom] kings reign, and rulers for battle ... the one who gives victory to kings, who
is referred to in several
decreewhat is just." Royal wisdom, at least in the case rescues his servant David," should also be connected
ymically to refer to king-
ofSolomon, is bestowed by Yahweh (1 Kgs 3: 12), and to this ideology that Yahweh is the source of the
o texts mention a special
thus may share in divine wisdom. king's power as military leader. This royal quality is so
important that it is even mentioned in Ps 45:5, a psalm
is quite disappointing.
4. Wealth celebrating a royal wedding.
iety of clothing, jewe1ry,
Ie king, we cannot deter- In 1 Kgs 3: 11-12, Yahweh commends Solomon for
not having asked for riches, indicating that wealth was 2. Judicial responsibilities
~d like, how they might The idea that the king was central to a well-run
ow they might have dif- an expected royal quality. Several texts suggest that
kings had control of both the royal and the Temple society is expressed in Iudg 17:6 and 21 :25: "In those
the south (see CROWN; days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what
treasuries (e.g., 2 Kgs 16:8). Psalms 45:3 and 89:19
bothcall the king "mighty," and the concluding notices was right in their own eyes." With no king, crimes of
for many kings in Kings mention the king's "power" all sorts are rampant. However, exactly what the king's
(e.g., 1 Kgs 16:27). role in the judicial system was at different periods is
hard to reconstruct. Nowhere does the Torah suggest
o mere mortal. He has that the king had any such responsibilities. Yet, in plot-
Ihar iliJ) or "honor" 5. Physical perfection
In addition to these shared attributes, several kings ting his rebellion, Absalom says, according to 2 Sam
ties difficult to translate, 15:4: "If only I were judge in the land! Then all who
iare. Many of the royal are depicted as exceedingly handsome (Saul in 1 Sam
9:2; 10:23; David in 16:12, 18). This partakes in the had a suit or cause might come to me, and I would give
ie ones. Only one text them justice," suggesting some sort of royal judicial
5: "Your throne, 0 God, ideathat the king is perfect in all domains, and that the
king'sbody has symbolic value. ' role. The idea sometimes implied that the king could
rut kings throughout the decide all cases (1 Kgs 3: 16-27) is impossible from a
rve special roles vis-a-vis
E. Royal Responsibilities logistical standpoint; perhaps it represents the belief
.ire of the (Davidic) king that the king was ultimately responsible for justice in
which calls the king "the Liketheir ANE counterparts, the Israelite kings had
responsibilities in four main spheres: military, judicial, the land. There is some evidence that the king was
"the lamp of Israel" in involved as a court of appeals, and in certain property
se qualities placedkihgs cultic,and state building projects. In the Bible, the first
two are much more prominent than the latter two; this cases. To the extent that Moses is depicted in the Torah
noners and Yahweh. The asJsrael's king, the statement that he judges only cases
e these qualities in their balanceis different in the surrounding cultures.
that are too difficult for lesser judges (Exod 18:26; Deut
dng and his power, while
1. Commander-in-chief 1:17) may be instructive.
power downplayed these In 2 Chr 19:4-11, King Jehoshaphat is depicted as
Part of the king's broad role of enforcing stability
in all realms included serving as commander-in-chief, (re)structuring the judicial system, but most believe
ired by Yahweh and the this account to be fictional. Psalm 122:5 expresses the
n, wealth, and strength, leading his people's army in war. Though his military
responsibility could sometimes be delegated, at least royal responsibilities of the king: "For there [in Jerusa-
who can remove them as lem] the thrones for judgment were set up, the thrones
to the transition between in the initial stages of the battle (see 2 Sam 11:1), the
king often participated personally, and the Bible and of the house of David," and in a variety of prophetic
3-14: "Then Samuel took texts kings who fulfill their judicial responsibilities,
l him [David] in the pres- AN.E records recall kings dying in battle (see, e.g.,
2 Kgs23:29). especially concerning the lower classes, are applauded
~ spirit of the LORD came
King, Kingship 510 King, Kingship
(e.g., Ier 22:15lr16a). In contrast, in Ier 22:3, the Although this text is polemical, it likely reflects some over time, it is
"King of Judah sitting on the throne of David" (v. 2) is reality concerning royal cultic activities. Some scholars ferent times, by
addressed: "Thus says the LORD:Act with justice and even suggest that the Israelite king, like his Mesopo Much of thi~
righteousness, and deliver from the hand of the oppres- tamian counterpart, played a major role in the annual which outlines,
sor anyone who has been robbed. And do no wrong or new year festival (see FEASTSAND FASTS). number of soun
violence to the alien, the orphan, and the widow, or Some later kings are also given significant cultic and ,it should nc
shed innocent blood in this place." roles. Two Iudean kings, Iehoash and JOSiah, initiate early 10th cent.
As in other areas, some texts suggest that the king Temple repairs (2 Kgs 12; 22); they were clearly seen with a real king
acquired this power from Yahweh. In 1 Kgs 3:9, Solo- as royal patrons of the Temple. Kings had access to the Most of 1 ~
mon requests and receives "an understanding mind to Temple treasury, ana could use those funds to pay their toward the mo
govern your people, able to discern between good and overlords (e.g., 1 Kgs 15:18). more narrow a
evil," and by the end of the chapter, the entire nation Various understandings of how the royal psalms anti-monarchic a
"stood in awe of the king, because they perceived that were recited suggest that the king played an even king comes fro
the wisdom of God was in him, to execute justice" larger role in the cult. This significant function is often weh or a proph
(v. 28). Proverbs 16:10 goes even further, making the downplayed because it is absent in the Torah, where, displeased Sam
king infallible and quasi·divine in this respect: "Inspired according to the Priestly source, priests were the main complaining tha
decisions are on the lips of a king; his mouth does not officiants, a role played by Levitical priests in Deuter weh as king (v. ~
sin in judgment." onomy. In 2 Chr 26:16-21, King Uzziah is punished need not be con
In contrast to ANE norms, however, there is no severely for offering incense in the Temple, usurping a human king; n
instance where the king legislates in the Bible. Law, a priestly role; the Chronicler also revises the tradition kings and huma
the Bible claims, ultimately derives from Yahweh who that David's sons served as priests (1 Chr 18:17). But all the disadvar
reveals the law, which the king is obligated to observe the rest of the Bible, including the depiction of the all aspects of p
and enforce. This contrasts sharply, for example, with Temple and palace as proximate buildings, suggests (1 Sam 8:11-17
the laws of Hammurabi, which Hammurabi claims to that kings often had cultic roles that connected them long list of roys
have created to establish justice in the land, and which to Yahweh, to whom they were subservient. First Samuel 12
he presents to the gods as a sign that he is fulfilling his terms of having
royal obligation. The Bible often views Yahweh as the G. State Building Projects the chapter, the
ultimate king, and Yahweh does not give up the legisla- The biblical king is the master builder, who builds al disaster to pur
tive role to human kings (see GOVERNMENT,OT). palaces (e.g., 1 Kgs 7; 22:39), temples (e.g., 1 Kgs6), reflect two mu
and even whole cities (e.g., 1 Kgs 12:25; 2 Kgs 14:22). kingship: it refle
F. The Cult It is of course unlikely that the king was personally by nature, kings
There are many different perspectives on the role involved in all aspects of such projects, but they are AS; THEOCRAC
of the Israelite king in the cult. In some texts, the king attributed to him because he offered the resources for Misgivings ai
is not involved at all (so in the Priestly material and in them, and constructed them for the glory of his king well. The anon
Deuteronomy), while in others, he plays a crucial role ship. Building projects are also attributed symbolically 40-55), unlike
in building cult-sites, supporting the cult, and officiating to the king in Mesopotamia. Also, as in Mesopotamia, never describes ;
there. It is impossible to know which is accurate, but some northern kings moved their capitals, affording not be accidental
it is noteworthy that the Bible as a whole gives the them opportunities to have their "own" city with an "anointed" (45:
Israelite kings a less significant cultic role than they had "original" palace, emphasizing their royal power and Davidic covenant
elsewhere in the ANE. wealth. chapters Yahweh
The early kings play a larger cultic role than later Unfortunately, there are no extant descriptions of directly to his pe
ones according to extant texts. Saul is given the choic- royal building projects beyond those of SOLOMON, this prophet of tl
est meat at a sacrifice at a high place (1 Sam 9:24) and which used a wide variety of imported luxury items for the value of hum
ritually slaughters meat and builds an altar (14:33-35). construction (see TEMPLE OF SOLOMON; TEMPLE, The Torah alsc
David arranges the transfer of the ark to Jerusalem JERUSALEM).First Kings 10:21 sums up their lavish is mentioned in OJ
(2 Sam 6), and wants to build the Temple for Yahweh ness: "All King Solomon's drinking vessels were of gold, 17:14-20. This u
(chap. 7). In 1 Chr 22-29, David makes all the prepara- and all the vessels of the House of the Forest of Leba- parts limit the po
tions for building the Temple. According to 2 Sam 8: 18, non were of pure gold; none were of silver-it was not mulate symbols 0
"David's sons were priests." Soon after he assumes king- considered as anything in the days of Solomon." Here wives (vv. 16-17)
ship, Solomon offers 1,000 burnt offerings at Gibeon too, as in the other areas of royal responsibilities, Solo priests (v. 18), ar
(1 Kgs3:4), and later he builds the Temple (5:15-6:38), mon is depicted as having divine abilities (1 Kgs 5:12). behavior that WOl
where he officiates (8:14, 22, 54, 63). It is Solomon, other members 0
not the priests, who consecrates the Temple (8:64), and H. Misgivings about Kingship name only. In Prk
Solomon then declares a religious festival (vv. 65-66). Although many passages assume that kingship is a tioned, Some bell
Jeroboam, first king of the north, builds cult-sites at central and crucial Israelite institution, others criticize na~i) (~'tp~) or '
Dan and Bethel, appoints priests, reorganizes the cultic kingship. It is difficult to judge what the majority opin king; if so, it is nc
calendar, and ascends to the altar (1 Kgs 12:26-33). ion was at different time periods, but looking at the issue minor role and is J
 511 King, Kingship
overtime, it is clear that there was ambivalence at dif- These misgrvings in Samuel, Deutero-Isaiah, the
ferenttimes, by different groups, for different reasons. Torah, and elsewhere contrast very sharply with the
Much of this ambivalence is expressed in 1 Samuel, promise given to David in 2 Sam 7:14-16, which is
le in the whichoutlines the establishment of the monarchy. The not at all ambivalent, and instead contains extremely
\STS). numberof sources and date of this material is disputed, strong, unconditional language concerning David's
ngnificant andit should not be seen as a straightforward history of successor( s):
I Josiah, initiate earlyio= cent. BCE attitudes, reflecting what happened
'ere clearly seen with a real king named Saul. I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son
lad access to 'the Most of 1 Sam 8-12 reflects a negative attitude to me. When he commits iniquity, I will punish
inds to pay their toward the monarchy, but it might be expressing a him with a rod such as mortals use, with blows
more narrow anti-Saul sentiment under the guise of inflicted by human beings. But I will not take my
ie royal psalms anti-monarchical sentiment. There the request for a steadfast love from him, as I took it from Saul,
played an' even king comes from the people, rather than from Yah- whom I put away from before you. Your house
function is often weh or a prophet, and the text notes that "the thing and your kingdom shall be made sure forever
2 Torah, where, displeased Samuel" (1 Sam 8:6). Yahweh's answer, before me; your throne shall be established
; were the main complaining that the request reflects rejection of Yah- forever.
'iests in Denter- weh as king (v. 7; compare 10: 19), is confusing-there
iah is punished need not be competition between Yahweh as king and In some places, similar language is used, but the
imple, usurping a human king; many ANE civilizations had both divine promise is conditional (e.g., 1 Kgs 9:4-5). It is unclear
ses the tradition kingsand human kings. Samuel continues by reciting which of these ideas developed first. Thus it is impor-
=hr 18:17). But all the disadvantages of kingship-the king will tax tant to remember the full range of expression concern-
lepiction of the all aspects of production, and will use corvee labor ing kingship, from those who rejected it to those who
ldings, suggests (1 Sam 8: 11-17). Exactiy which king or period this believed it was a divinely ordained institution, and even
:onnected them long list of royal obligations represents is unknown. those who believed that the king partook in Yahweh's
vient, FirstSamuel 12: 19 characterizes asking for a king in divinity.
terms of having "added to all our sins," and earlier in
the chapter, the people are threatened with agricultur- 1. The End and the Idealization of Kingship
der, who builds aldisaster to punish their request. These chapters thus Kingship came to an end in 586 BCE, with the
(e.g., 1 Kgs 6), reflect two mutually reinforcing arguments against Babylonian capture of Jerusalem and destruction of the
); 2 Kgs 14:22). kingship:it reflects a rejection of Yahweh as king, and Temple. Second Kings 25:7 and its parallels suggest
was personally bynature, kings abuse their subjects (see KING, GOD that Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, was blinded,
s, but they ate AS; THEOCRACY). and his children were killed; eleven years earlier, King
ie resources for Misgivings about kingship appear elsewhere as Jehoiachin had been exiled to Babylon. An attempt by
ory of his king- well. The anonymous prophet Deutero-Isaiah (Isa Ishmael "of the royal family" to resurrect the Davidic
ed symbolically 40-55), unlike the other prophets of consolation, monarchy failed (2 Kgs 25:25). The very end of 2 Kings
1 Mesopotamia" never describes a future ideal Davidic king. This can- records the release of King Jehoiachin from prison in
oitals, affording not be accidental, for he calls Cyrus of Persia Yahweh's Babylon; some see this notice as reflecting the author's
1" city with an "anointed" (45: 1), and in 55:3-4 reinterprets the hope that the Davidic dynasty would be restored.
>yal power and Davidiccovenant as applying to all Israel. Also, in these It is unclear if there was an attempt to reestablish
chapters Yahweh is often depicted as a king coming the Davidic monarchy after the return from exile, typi-
descriptions of directlyto his people's aid. These factors suggest that cally dated to 538 BCE. Sheshbazzar, of Davidic descent,
of SOLOMON, this prophet of the Babylonian exile had given up on was one ot the leaders of the return, and Zerubbabel,
uxury items for the value of human kingship. his relative, followed him. They are both, however,
ION; TEMPLE, The Torah also has misgivings about kingship, which called "governor" rather than "king"; it is unlikely that
up their lavish- ismentioned in only one of the law collections, in Deut the Persian government would have tolerated a king of
:lswere of gold, 17:14-20. This unit likely is composite, but all of its the Persian province of Yehud. Some historians, based
Forest of Leba- partslimit the power of the king, who may not accu- on little evidence, posit an unsuccessful attempt to rees-
mulatesymbols of power, such as wealth, resources, or tablish a Davidic monarchy in this period. Expectations
olornon." Here wives (vv. 16-17), who is subservient to the Levitical that the monarchy would be restored are reflected in
nsibilities, Solo- priests (v. 18), and who (v. 20) must not engq,ge in the early postexilic prophets Haggai and Zechariah (see
~s(1 Kgs 5:12). behavior that would result in "exalting himself above esp. Hag 2:23; Zech 6:9-15). Our sources for the period
other members of the community." He is a king in are very minimal, and it is impossible to evaluate the
name only. In Priestly material, the king is never men- extent to which hopes or attempts of reestablishing the
it kingship is a tioned. Some believe that (as in Ezekiel) the Priestly Davidic dynasty continued.
others criticize nasi' (~'W~) or "ruler" stands in for the melekh or Given the problems in dating biblical sources, it is
o majority opin- king;if so, it is noteworthy that the nasi' plays a very also difficult to know if, instead of trying to restore the
dng at the issue minorrole and is hardly royal in stature. monarchy, new ideas developed concerning a future
King, Kingship 512 Kingdom of God, Kingdom of Heaven Kingdon
ideal Davidic king. Certainly the idea of a Messiah in the Hebrew Bible (1994); M. W. Hamilton. The outset in,
developed already in the pre exilic period, perhaps as a Body Royal: The Social Politics of Kingship in Ancient dom of (
frustrated reaction to the shortcomings of most "real" Israel (2005); Dale Lauderville. Piety and Politics: The Judaic us,
Davidic kings; messianism expresses the hope that a Dynamics of Royal Authority in Homeric Greece, Bibli· inadverter
fair, just, and powerful king will reign instead of the cal Israel, and Old Babylonian Mesopotamia (2003); him; inste
corrupt king (see MESSIAH, JEWISH). B. M. Levinson. "The Recontextualization of Kingship used (see
Kingship is the central political institution in the in Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomistic History's difference
Bible. Kings are recognized already in Genesis, and the Transformation ofTorah." VT51 (2001) 511-34; T. N. Whether e
material in Judges is structured to show why kingship is D. Mettinger. King and Messiah: The Civil and Sacral the origina
necessary, implying that only a king can maintain social Legitimation of the Israelite Kings (1976); S. R. A. judgment j
order. Two long books, Samuel and Kings, contain a Starbuck. Court Oracles in the Psalms: The So-Called of the qual
wide variety of stories ranging from the founding to the Royal Psalms in Their Ancient Near Eastern Context The pro
end of monarchy. Prophets speak to kings, wisdom lit- (1999); K. W Whitelam. The Just King: Monarchical come to re
erature offers advice to kings and about how to behave Judicial Authority in Ancient Israel (1979). do. Jesus m
before them, and Psalms contains poems likely recited MARC ZVI BRETTLER ing and pro
by kings, and on their behalf. It comes as no surprise, in the devt
then, that even when kingship ended as a practical KINGDOM OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN communitn
reality, it did not die as an idea. Instead, the Jews who [rr1J?Q malkhuth; ~CXo\Ae;CX basileiaJ. The Scriptures of God infh
at this point were interpreting what we call Scripture of Israel and the NT portray God as king of the uni· provided m
studied earlier texts about the ideal David, and about verse, the fundamental force behind all that is and shall ing circums
Yahweh as king, and further developed these notions be. In Hebrew, the abstract noun kingdom [malkhuth] power of GI
with new beliefs concerning messianism, anticipating derives naturally from the term king (melekh 1711), so of usages c(
the day when "the LORDwill become king over all the that the fact of divine, royal power is conveyed. The and the vari
earth" (Zech 14:9). biblical phrases "kingdom of God" as well as "kingdom
When most people think of biblical kings, they of heaven" focus on God's role in shaping human A. Israel,
contemplate the ideal future Davidic king or Messiah. experience. At the same time, kingdom in Semitic B. Early J
Yet biblical kings were people who had tremendous languages, as well as in Greek (where basileia similarly C.Jesus'
authority in the political structure. Some texts suggest derives from the noun for king [basileus ~CXo\AeU51l, I. Intel
a type of system of "checks and balances," where royal can refer to the area over which royal rule extends (see NeVI
power intersected with priestiy and prophetic power, KING, KINGSHIP). a. TI
and of course was checked, as needed, by Yahweh. It The interchangeability between "kingdom of God" b. Ps
is difficult to know how in fact this was carried out, and "kingdom of heaven" in the Bible sometimes 2. The
especially given the ideology that existed among some reflects a shift of emphasis, from the divine power 3. Jesus
that the king was in some sense divine. behind the kingdom to the extent of that kingdom. In Bibliograp
English, a kingdom might refer to a limited and local
J. Second Temple Period Kingship manifestation of power; in an attempt to avoid a limit· The topic:
For discussion of kingship in the Second Temple ing sense, alternative translations-such as "reign of of the most v,
period, including the NT, see ANTIOCHUS; DAVID God," "rule of God," and "dominion of God"-have within critica
IN THE NT; GOVERNMENT, NT; HASMONEANS; been attempted. But the fact is that human experience ing coherencs
HEROD, FAMILY;KING OF THE JEWS; KINGDOM inevitably limits the language of power (in space or
OF GOD, KINGDOM OF HEAVEN;ROMAN EMPIRE; time, and usually in both), regardless of whether the A. Israel and
SELEUCID EMPIRE; SON OF DAVID. conception involved is royal, imperial, or democratic. Whether iI
Similarly, historical experience also brings abusive pos future, ancien:
Bibliography: G. W Ahlstrom. "Administration of the sibilities of any human kingdom to light, and for that kingdom as tl:
State in Canaan and Ancient Israel." CANE 1 (1995) reason some interpreters have preferred to use some of creating, shapi
587-603; M. Z. Brettler. God Is King: Understanding the language instanced above, or even "God's imperial Of human activ
an Israelite Metaphor (1989); G. Buccellati. Cities and rule," which in terms of susceptibility to limiting or sions through
Nations of Ancient Syria (1967); M. Cogan. I Kings. abusive senses offers the worst of all solutions. purpose, its 4)
AB 10 (2001); M. Cogan and H. Tadmor. II Kings. AB These attempts at paraphrase fail to observe that, and its 5) exter
11 (1988); J. Day, ed. King and Messiah in Israel and although the experience of rule by kings (both foreign as king, ail cI(
the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the Oxford Old and domestic) was overwhelmingly negative in ancient clearly represen
Testament Seminar (1998); N. S. Fox. In the Service Israel, Israelite hope remained fixed on a better king· are also represe
of the King: Officialdom in Ancient Israel and Judah dom, rooted in God and therefore neither limited nor sion, representa
(2000); N. K. Gottwald, ed. Social Scientific Criticism tyrannical. Presumably, modern readers are capable of among the man
of the Hebrew Bible and Its Social World: The Israelite the cognate adjustment in English, or other languages. First, the kiI
Monarchy (1986); F. E. Greenspahn. When Brothers In any case, a factor specific to the development of created life in aJ
Dwell Together: The Preeminence of Younger Siblings Judaism also needs to be taken into account from the ""U""Vl! of any J