Engineering Physics 2018-19 Module 3

MODULE 3

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
INTRODUCTION:

REVIEW OF VECTOR CALCULUS:

Del operator: It is meant to carry specific vector calculus

∇= ∂ a^ x + ∂ a^ y + ∂ a^ z
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Divergence: It represents the magnitude of a physical quantity emerging or converging at a point.
For example tip of a fountain head is a source of divergence. Electric fields are said to be divergent in
nature.
Mathematically it is obtained by differentiating components of a vector function F (F x ,Fy, Fz )
with respect to position coordinates x,y,z respectively.
∂ Fx ∂ F y ∂ Fz
∇⋅⃗F = + +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
Ex: Volume charge density enclosed in a closed surface is expressed as

∂ Dx ∂ D y ∂ Dz
∇⋅D
⃗= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Right hand side in the above expression is a scalar. Divergence operation on vector yields a
scalar function. Divergence of vector is zero if there is no outflow or inflow. Magnetic fields form
closed loops and their divergence is zero. ∇⋅B=0

Diverging electric field lines from positive charge is an example for Positive divergence
converging electric field lines from negative charge is an example of negative divergence.

Gradient: This operation is performed to study spatial variation of a scalar variable. It yields a vector
function.

Ex: Variation of temperature in a room is represented as

∂T ∂T ∂T
∇T= a^ x + a^ y + a^ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
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The right hand side of this expression is a vector. It is in the direction of maximum increase /
decrease of the scalar variable.

Electric field is represented as gradient of scalar vector potential

∂V ∂V ∂V
E=−∇ V = a^ x + a^ y + a^ z
∂x ∂y ∂z
Curl : This operation is nothing but degree of rotation per unit area. It yields a vector.

a^ x a^ y a^ z
∇ X ⃗a =| ∂ ∂ ∂ |
∂x ∂ y ∂z
ax ay az

Ex: Magnetic field around a straight conductor carrying current is expressed as

∇ XH=J

Curl of an irrotational vector is zero. Static electric fields posses no curl.

∇ XE=0

Vector joining two points (magnitude of the vector):

AB| between the two Cartesian co-
The co-ordinates A and B be (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2), then the distance |⃗
ordinates is given by

A(x1,y1,z1) B(x2,y2,z2)

→
AB =( x 2 −x1 ) a^ x +( y 2 − y 1 ) a^ y +( z 2 −z1 ) a^ z
→
|AB|=√( x 2 −x 1 )2 +( y 2 − y 1 )2 +( z 2 −z 1 )2

Direction of the vector:

The meaning of direction is quite self-explanatory. It simply means that the vector is directed from one
place to another

Vector identities:

∇×(∇× A )=∇ . ( ∇ . A )−∇ 2 A

A . ( B×C )=B.(C× A )−C ( A×B )
A×(B×C )=B .( A .C )−C( A .B )

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Dot Product:
The dot product of two vectors ⃗ A∧⃗ B is a scalar quantity and given by,
⃗A.⃗ B =¿ |⃗ A||⃗
B|cos ϴ , Where ϴ is the angle between ⃗A∧⃗ B
Thus, by definition vector dot product,
j . ^j= k^. k=1
^ i^ = ^
i. ^
^ k^ = ^
But, i^. ^j= i. ^ ^
j . i= j . k^ = k^. ^j=k^. i=0
^
For orthonormal Cartesian component, the dot product of the two vectors ⃗ A∧⃗ B can be calculated as,
A.⃗
⃗ ^ A ^j+ A k^ ) .(B i+
B =( A i+ ^ B ^j+B k^ )
x y z x y z

= ( A x B x+ A y B y + A z B z )
Dot product of A and B represents component of A in the direction of B.

Generally, used to find the component of a force in a given direction – a necessity in electrostatics. It
is a measure of parallelness of two vectors

Ex: Work done F . ⃗x

= ⃗ (Force X displacement)

Potential E.⃗
= ⃗ dl (Electric field X distance)

Rate of flow of water V .⃗

= ⃗ A (Velocity X Area)

Cross Product:
The cross product of two vectors ⃗ A∧⃗ B is a vector quantity and given by,
⃗A X B=¿ | A||B|sin ϴ n^ , Where ϴ is the angle between ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ A∧⃗
B.
Thus, by definition vector cross product,
i^ x i^ = ^j x ^j=k^ x k=0
^
But, i^ x ^j = k^ ; i^ x k^ = ^j ; ^j x k^ = i^ ; k^ x i^ = −
^j ; k^ x ^j = −i ^
^ ; ^j x i^ = −k
For orthonormal Cartesian component, the cross product of the two vectors ⃗ A∧⃗
B can be calculated as,
AX⃗
⃗ B=( A i+ ^ A ^j+ A k^ ) x(B i+ ^ B ^j+ B k^ )
x y z x y z

=¿

Ex: Force on a current carrying conductor kept in magnetic field =

⃗F =( ⃗B XI )L

For an electromagnetic wave, Poynting vector ⃗

P=⃗
EX⃗
H

For a particle moving along a circle, V = r⃗ X ⃗

Linear velocity, ⃗ ω

Generally used to find a vector ¿ to a plane- a relevant feature of magnetostatics.

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Line integration: The line integral is an integral where the function to be integrated along a curve.
Thus, it’s an integration in one dimension.

Ex: If the charge density along a line charge is ρl, then the total charge on a line is given by

L
q=∫ ρl dl
0

B
W =∫A E⋅dl
Work done to move a unit charge in an electric field is given by

Surface Integration: A surface integral is a generalization of multiple integrals to integration over

surfaces. It can be thought of as the double integral analog of the line integral. It’s an integration in
two dimensions.

Ex: If the charge density on a uniform surface is ρs, then the total charge on a surface is given by

Q=∬ ρS dx dy =∮ ρ S ds
S

Volume Integration: A volume integral refers to an integral over a 3-dimensional domain, that is, it

is a special case of multiple integrals. Thus, it’s Integration in three dimensions.

Ex: If the charge density in a volume is ρv, then the total charge in a volume is given by

Q=∭ ρ v dxdydz =∮ ρv dv
V

Review of Coulomb’s law:

The electrostatic force between two charged bodies is directly proportional to the product of their
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the separating distance. Its acts along the position
vector joining the two charges. The force is attractive for unlike charges and repulsive for like
charges.

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q q
⃗F12= 1 1 2 r^
Force on charge q2 due to q1 separated by a distance r is 4 πε |⃗r |2 newton
where ε is the permittivity of the medium, ε = εo . εr and its value εo = 8.85x10-12 F/m, εr is the
relative permittivity, q1 and q2 are in coulombs, ‘ r’ is in meters.

Vectorial form:

  
R12  r2  r1

1 q1q2 ^
Coulomb’s law is given by F⃗ = 4πε R
⃗ 12|2 12
|R
⃗R
12
^
R12 ^
R12
Where is the unit vector in the direction of =
|R |
⃗
12

Electrical field Intensity (Electric Field Strength): It is the electrostatic force experienced by a unit
positive charge.

⃗E= Lt F
q→0 q

In the above diagram, the electric field intensity at q2 due to q1 is given by

qq q1
⃗E= 1 1 2 r^ 1 =
( )
4 πε |⃗r |2 q 2 4 πε|⃗r|2
r^ N
C or
V
m

E is the same as ⃗
Electric field is a vector and direction of ⃗ F . It can be also represented as the gradient
of potential along the direction of decreasing potential.

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⃗E=− dV V
dx = −∇ V m

In Cartesian coordinate system,

∂V ∂V ∂v
E=−[ a^ x + a^ y + a^ z
∂x ∂y ∂z ]

Electric flux (Φ): Number of lines of force passing normal to the surface. Lines of force emanate
from positive charge and converge on negative charge. It is a scalar quantity and unit is Nm2C-1.

Faradays Law of electric flux:

The number of lines of force emanating from a charge is directly proportional to the quantity of
charge.

Electric flux density or Electric displacement (D):

It represents the lines of force crossing unit area normally.

→ flux (Φ )
D=
i.e, for ϴ=0, area( A )

→ flux(Φ )
D=
If the flux lines are inclined by an angle ϴ to the normal, then area( A )⋅cos θ

→ →
Also D=ε E

GAUSS LAW
It is a technique to evaluate electric intensity at a point due to a symmetric charge distribution. Gauss
quantified Faraday’s postulates on electric flux.

Statement of Gauss flux law in electrostatics:

The total electric flux over a closed surface ∮ D ∙ ds is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface
⃗ ⃗
s
(q).

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Total electric flux Φ = ∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗

ds =q
s

Proof:

Imagine a point charge ‘Q’ kept at the origin of a sphere of radius ‘r’. Let the flux density passing
normally through the surface be ⃗
D . A closed sphere of any shape can be imaged surrounding the
charges are known as Gaussian surface.

Total flux leaving the entire spherical surface is Φ = ∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗

ds
s

Q
From the definition of flux density, D=
⃗ a^n
4 π r2

Q
Thus, Φ= ∮ 4 π r 2 a^n ∙ ⃗
ds
s

Q
= ∮⃗ ds ∙ a^n
4 π r2 s

Q 2
(∮ ds ∙ a^n=4 π r )
. 4 π r2 ⃗
= 2
4πr s

Total flux Φ = Q

Differential or point form of gauss Law:

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The divergence of electric displacement density in a medium at a point is equal to the charge/unit
volume at the same point.

∇∙⃗
D =ρv

This equation is called Maxwell’s first equation for static field.

Gauss divergence theorem:

Statement: The integral of the normal component of the flux density over any closed surface in an
electric field is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of the flux throughout the space
enclosed by the surface.

ds=∮ ∇ ∙ ⃗
∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗ D dv
s v

Explanation: Consider a Gaussian surface enclosing a charges Q with a charge density ρ v and
electric flux density D.

Then total charge, Q=∫ dQ

¿ ∮ ρv dv
v

¿∮ ∇ ∙ ⃗
D dv ------(1) [ since ∇ ∙ ⃗
D=ρ v]
v

By applying Gauss law to the Gaussian surface, Q= ∮ D ∙ ds

⃗ ⃗
-------(2)
s

From eq (1) and eq (2)

ds=∮ ∇ ∙ ⃗
∮ ⃗D ∙ ⃗ D dv
s v

Stokes theorem: Curl of a vector over a surface is equal to the line integral of the vector along the
line enclosing the surface

For Magnetic Intensity (H),∮ ∇ XH ∙ ds=∫ H ∙ dl

s l

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Biot – Savartz law:

Statement: The magnitude of the flux density at a point due to a current element is directly
proportional to the product of the current (I), the length of the current element (dl) and the sine of the
angle(sinθ) between the current element and the position vector to the point from the current element
and it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and the current
element.
This law gives the magnetic flux density at a point due to a current carrying conductor.

dl

Let AB be a conductor carrying a current I .The magnetic flux density at a point P due to a current
element dl is obtained from Biot-Savartz law as

I dl Sinθ μ
dB ∝ K 2 where K= 0 is the constant of proportionality
r 4π

μ0 I dl Sinθ
Or d B= r^ Wb/m2 or tesla (T)
4π r2

μ0 ( ⃗
dl X r⃗ ) r⃗ r⃗
dB = (^r = = )
4π r3 |r⃗| r
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The direction is such that the flux density is perpendicular to the plane containing the current element
and the position vector to the point at which the flux density is calculated.

Gauss law for magnetic fields:

In a closed surface of a magnetic field, every line that enters the surface, there must always be a line
emerging out of the surface.

Since Magnetic flux lines always form a closed loop. The total flux over the closed surface = 0.

ɸ=∮ ⃗
B∙⃗
ds = 0
s

But from gauss divergence theorem,

ds=∮ ∇ ∙ ⃗
∮ ⃗B ∙ ⃗ B dv
s v

Thus, ∮ (∇ ∙ B ) dv=0
⃗
v

Where dv is the volume enclosed by the closed surface and hence dv is not zero

Hence, ∇ ∙ ⃗
B=0

Divergence of magnetic field is zero [There is no source or sink for magnetic field].They form closed
loops. Hence magnetic fields are said to be solenoidal.

Ampere’s law (Ampere’s Circuital Law):

→
B)
Amperes law states that the line integral of magnetic flux density ( over any closed path is equal
to the product of current enclosed by the path and the permeability of the medium (μ).
∮⃗B ∙⃗dl=μI ∵⃗ B =μ ⃗
H

Or H ∙⃗
∮⃗ dl =I

By the concept of curl, differential form is ∇ x ⃗

H = ⃗J

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

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The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux through
it.
The induced emf will be in a direction which opposes the change which causes it.
dɸ
Induced emf e = - where Φ is the flux linking with the circuit.
dt

Integral form of Faraday’s Law:

Consider a closed loop subjected to change in magnetic flux Φ. The emf induced is given by

E ∙⃗
e = ∮⃗ dl -----(1)

dɸ dB ⃗
The change in magnetic flux, - =¿ -∫ ∙ ds ------(2)
dt dt

dɸ
Induced emf e = -
dt

d⃗
B ⃗
dl=¿-∫
E ∙⃗
∮⃗ ∙ ds is the integral form (from eq (1) and (2))
dt

Differential form of Faradays Law:

According to Stokes theorem, ∮⃗ dl=∮ ∇ X ⃗

E ∙⃗ E ∙ ds ---------(1)
s

d⃗
B ⃗
E ∙⃗
From integral form of Faraday’s law , ∮ ⃗ dl=¿-∫ ∙ ds -----(2)
dt

From eq(1) and eq(2)

∮ ∇ X ⃗E ∙ds =−∫ d ⃗B ∙ ⃗
ds
s dt

d⃗B
E =¿ -
Thus, ∇ X ⃗
dt

MAXWELL EQUATIONS
The following are the four Maxwell’s equations for static fields.

1. ∇ ∙ ⃗
D= ρ

2. ∇ ∙ B
⃗ =0

H= ⃗J (Amperes law)
3. ∇ x ⃗

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4. ∇ x ⃗
E= 0

The following are the four Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields.

1. ∇ ∙ ⃗
D= ρ

2. ∇ ∙ B
⃗ =0

∂⃗
D
H=¿ J⃗ +
3. ∇ x ⃗ (Modified amperes law)
∂t

dB⃗
E =¿ -
4. ∇ X ⃗ (Faradays law)
dt

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:
Consider a closed surface enclosing a volume of charge density ρ. If there is any charge flow through
this surface, then charge flow through small area ds is ⃗J ∙ ⃗
ds

Total amount of charge flowing outwards = ∮ J ∙ ds

⃗ ⃗
s

Consider a small volume dv inside the surface, the charge in the volume is ρ dv

= ∮ ρ ∙ dv
⃗
Charge in the entire volume
v

As the charge flows outwards, the net charge present inside the volume decreases with time.

Therefore, amount of charge flowing outwards = Decrease in the net charge inside the volume

−∂
∮ ⃗J ∙ ⃗
ds= ∮ ρ∙ ⃗
∂t
dv [The negative sign represents the decrease in charge]
s v

But from divergence theory ds=∮ ∇∙ ⃗J dv

∮ ⃗J ∙ ⃗
s v

Hence, ∮ ∇∙ ⃗J dv = −∂
∂t ∮
ρ ∙⃗
dv
v v

∮ ∇∙ ⃗J dv = −∮ ∂t∂ ρ ∙ ⃗
dv
v v

−∂ ρ
∇∙ ⃗J=
∂t

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Maxwell Ampere’s Law:

Consider the expression for ampere’s law , ∇ x ⃗
H= ⃗J

Taking divergence on both sides, ∇ .¿

Since the divergence of a curl is zero, thus ∇∙ ⃗J =0

This means that divergence of current is zero or there is no net accumulation or loss of charge. [There
are no sources or sinks of current].This is true in the case of steady direct currents which are
continuous through out the circuit.

However in a circuit containing a capacitor, during discharging, the current starts at the positively
charged plate and the charge diminishes as the current flows to the negatively charged plate where it
accumulates. Hence we can look upon the condenser plates as sources or sinks of currents. So
Maxwell concluded that the equation ∇ x ⃗
H= ⃗J is incomplete and besides the term J⃗ , there must be a
term added such that the sum of the two will give zero divergence.

The new term was found as follows.

From the equation of continuity

−∂ ρ
∇∙ ⃗J= where ρ is the charge density
∂t

−∂ ∂⃗
D
∇∙ ⃗J= (∇∙⃗
D ) =−∇ ∙ (∇ ∙ ⃗
D =¿ ρ ¿
∂t ∂t

∂⃗
D
i.e, ∇∙ ⃗J =−∇ ∙
∂t

∂⃗
D
i.e, ∇∙ ⃗J + ∇ ∙ =0
∂t

∂D ⃗
or ∇∙( ⃗J + ∂ t ¿=0

∂⃗
D
Thus although ∇∙ ⃗Jis not zero but the divergence of ( ⃗J + ¿ is always zero .Hence Maxwell made
∂t
∂⃗
D
the assumption that the term J⃗ in amperes law must be replaced by ( ⃗J + ¿.
∂t

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∂⃗
D
∴ H=¿ J⃗ +
For time varying fields ∇ x ⃗
∂t

∂⃗
D
The term is known as displacement current density .It is clear from the above expression that the
∂t
rate of change of electric displacement produces magnetic field just as the conduction current J⃗ does.

Maxwell’s equations in word form:

1. The total electric flux density through a closed surface enclosing a volume V is equal to the
total charge within the volume.
2. The total magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
3. The magneto motive force around a closed path is equal to the conduction current (J⃗ plus the
rate of change of electric displacement ⃗D through the surface bounded by the path.
4. The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through the surface bounded by the path.

Maxwell’s equations in integral form:

→ →
∫ D⋅ds=∫ ρ dv
S v
→ →
∫ B⋅ds =0
S
→ ¿

l
→ →
∫ H⋅dl=∫
S
( )
→
J+
∂D
∂t
→
⋅ds
→

∂B →
∫ E⋅¿ dl=−∫ ∂ t ⋅ds
l S

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an
electric field and a magnetic field or EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric
vectors

Derivation of wave equation in terms of electric field using Maxwell equation

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Consider the Maxwell equation,

∂D⃗
∇x ⃗ H = ⃗J + …….(1)
∂t
⃗ =- ∂B
⃗
and ∇x E ……..(2)
∂t
But we know that, D=ɛE substituting in eq (1)
∂⃗E
∇x ⃗H = ⃗J +ɛ ………..(3)
∂t
And also B=µH substituting in eq (2)
⃗ =- µ ∂H
⃗
∇x E ………..(4)
∂t
The electric field equation relating the spatial co-ordinates of ⃗ E to its time co-ordinate,
Hence, taking curl for both sides in eq(4)
∇x∇x E ⃗ =- µ ∂(∇x H ⃗ ¿ ¿ ………… (5)
∂t
ρ
But, ∇x∇x ⃗ E = ∇(∇. ⃗ E)−∇2 ⃗ E ⃗= v
since, ∇. E
ε
ρ
=∇( v ¿−∇2 ⃗ E ……….. (6)
ε
Using eq(5) and eq(6)
ρv H¿ ¿
∇( ¿−∇ E
2
⃗ = - µ ∂(∇x ⃗
ε ∂t
ρv 2 ∂ ∂⃗
E
∇( ¿−∇ ⃗ E = - µ ( ⃗J + ɛ )
ε ∂t ∂t
∂2 ⃗
E ∂ ⃗J ρv
i.e, ∇ 2 ⃗ E -µ ɛ 2 = µ + ∇( ¿ ……………. (7)
∂t ∂t ε
For free charges, ρ v =0 and ⃗J =0
∂2 ⃗E
Hence, ∇ 2 ⃗ E -µ ɛ 2 =0 ……………..(8)
∂t
Eq(8) represents the wave equation in terms of electric field.
Similarly, the equation can be written in terms of magnetic field as,
2 ∂2 ⃗
H
∇ H -µ
⃗ ɛ =0 ……………..(9)
∂t 2
Then comparing eq (8) and eq (9) with classical wave equation
1 ∂2 ⃗ F
∇ 2 ⃗F - 2 2 = 0 …………….(10)
v ∂t
1
We get, 2 =µɛ
v
1
Or v = ………….(11)
√ με

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PLANE WAVES

These are the electromagnetic waves in which electric and magnetic fields are uniform over a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
For example, for an electromagnetic wave propagating along X axis , if the electric and magnetic
fields do not vary along Y and Z axes but vary along X axis ,then the wave is said to be a plane
wave.
∂Hy ∂H y ∂Hz ∂Hz
= = = =0
ie., ∂ y ∂y ∂y ∂z

Relation between E and B for a uniform plane wave:

The equation of plane electromagnetic waves in terms of electric field (E) and magnetic field (B) is

E μ
given by,
B
=
√
ε
but µ=µ0 µr and ɛ=ɛ0 ɛr

E μ
For vacuum,
B
= 0
ε0 √
TRANSVERSE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Consider a uniform plane wave propagating along X direction in a medium where there are no free

→
∇ . D = ρ=0
charges. From Maxwell’s equation
→
∇ . εE= ρ=0
∂ Ex ∂ E y ∂ Ez
+ + =0
For free space ∂x ∂ y ∂ z ………..(1)
As the wave is propagating along X direction .So Ey and Ez remain constant along Y and Z

∂Ey ∂ Ez
=0=
direction respectively. ∂y ∂z
∂ Ex
=0
So from (1) ∂x …..(2)
∂ Ex
∴ =0⇒ E x=
∂x Constant or Ex =0.
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For a plane wave Ex cannot be a constant as it is periodic.

∴ E x =0

This means that a uniform plane wave progressing in the x direction has no X component of electric
field. It indicates that electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. A similar analysis
would show that the X component of magnetic field is also zero.

POLARIZATION OF PLANE WAVE:

The polarization of a uniform plane wave refers to the time varying behavior of the electric field at
some point in space.

Linear polarization:

In a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave, the electric vector remains in one direction at all times.

For example, consider a wave propagating along Z direction.

Ey

EX

The electric field can have X and Y components. The resultant electric field vector will be oriented in
a particular direction tanθ = Ey / EX . As the wave advances EX and Ey change in magnitude but the
change is always such that the ratio EY / EX remains constant. The electric vector varies from 0 to
Emax and back to zero in one direction and then to 0 to E max and back to zero in opposite direction.
During one cycle, the electric vector appears to traverse a straight line as shown in figure.

The electric intensity of a uniform plane wave in a conducting medium can be written as

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→
E ( x ,t )=E0 e−αz cos(wt−βz) a^ x

This represents a linearly polarized wave as the electric field is always in the x direction.

This can assumed to be two components

→
E x ( z ,t )=E 0 e−αz cos( wt−βz+θ x )
x

→
E y ( z, t )=E oy e−αz cos(wt− βz+θ y )

At z = 0 and when they are in phase ,

θ x=θ y =θ

→
E x (0 , t )=E 0 cos(wt −βz+θ )
x
Then

→
E y (0 , t )=Eoy cos( wt−βz +θ )

→ Eox
E x (0 , t )= E (0 , t )
So Eoy y

This equation describes a linear relationship between two components. Linear polarization is a
special case of elliptical polarization in which the phase difference is zero or 180.

+Emax

Ey= costant .EX

- Emax

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Circular polarization:

In a circularly polarized wave, the electric vector describes a circle over one cycle as the plane wave
advances. Here the phase difference between the X and Y components of electric field will be out
of phase by 90 .The electric vector will have a constant magnitude but changes its direction
describing a circle.
→
E x ( x, t )=E 0 e−αz cos( wt−βz +θ x )
x

→
E y ( y ,t )=Eoy e−αz cos(wt−βz+θ y )

When
Eox =E oy =Eo and at z =0, θ x=θ y ±900

→
E x ( z ,t )=E 0 e−αz cos(wt− βz+θ x )
………….(1)

→
E y ( z, t )=E o e−αz cos(wt− βz+θ x )
…………..(2)

Squaring and adding (1) and (2)

→ →
2 2 2
E ( 0 ,t )+ E Y (0 , t )=E
x 0

Ey

Ex

Elliptical Polarization:
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In an elliptically polarized plane wave the electric vector E constantly changes both its magnitude and
direction and electric vector describes an ellipse during one cycle.

EY

2 2
Ex E
E

2
 1Y
2
EX E1 E 2

In an elliptically polarized wave, there will be a phase difference ( not equal to 90 0 )between Ex
and E y .When the components are out of phase , the electric vector E rotates as a function of time
describing an ellipse. It attains the maximum value E max in the direction of major axis and a
minimum value Emin in the direction of minor axis.

→
E x ( x, t )=E 0 e−αz cos( wt−βz+θ x )
x

→
E y ( x, t )=E oy e−αz cos(wt− βz+θ y )

0
At z = 0, θ x=θ y ±90 and
Eox ≠E oy

→
E X (0 , t )
=cos( wt−βz +θ x )
E0 x

→
E y (0 ,t )
=sin( wt−βz+θ x )
E0 y

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→ →
2
x E 2( 0 , t )
E (0 , t ) y

2
+ 2
=1
0x 0y
E E

This is the equation for ellipse. Hence the wave is elliptically polarized.

OPTICAL FIBER
Introduction
A conventional method of long distance communication uses radio waves (10 6 Hz) and
microwaves (1010 Hz) as carrier waves. A light beam acts as carrier waves which is capable of
carrying far more information since optical frequencies are extremely large (1015 Hz).
Soon after the discovery of laser, some preliminary experiments in propagation of information
carrying light waves through the open atmosphere wave carried out, but it was realized that the
unwanted elements such as rain, fog etc, leads to adverse effects. Thus in order to have an efficient
and dependable communication system one would require a guiding medium in which the
information carrying light waves could be transmitted. This resulted in the development of optical
fiber which is an efficient guiding medium for laser light.

Optical fibers are essentially light guides used in optical communication as waveguides.
Use of light waves in place of radio and microwave has improved the speed of communication.

The principle behind the transmission of light waves in an optical fiber is total internal reflection.

Basic principle – Total Internal Reflection

The basic principle of optical fiber is multiple total internal reflections. When a ray of light
travels from denser to a rarer medium, at an angle of incidence greater that critical angle ϴ c, the ray is
not refracted but it is reflected into the same denser medium. This property is called total internal
reflection. Light signals are transmitted through optic fibers by multiple total internal reflections.

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[Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g. glass–air)]

Fiber construction and fiber dimension:

An optical fiber consists of a very thin transparent cylindrical core having refractive index n1
surrounded by a cylindrical shell called cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2. The core
cladding system is surrounded by plastic jackets

Angle of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture:

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Consider an optical fiber into which light is launched at one end from a medium of refractive
index (R. I.) no. Let n1be the R.I; of core and n2 be that of the cladding. Assume that a ray of light
enters the fiber at an angle
θ0 with respect to the axis of the fiber. The light ray refracts at an angle
θ1 and strikes the core – cladding interface at an angle of 90-ϴ . If (90-ϴ ) is greater than the
1 1

critical angle for the core – cladding interface, the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the
interface.

It is clear from the fig. that any light ray which enters the core at an angle less than 0 will
θ
undergo total internal reflection at core – cladding interface and propagates along the fiber. The angle
θ0 is called the acceptance angle. “It is the maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the
θ θ
axis of the fiber and propagates down the fiber”. Sine of the acceptance angle 0 , sin 0 is called
the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. It represents the light gathering capacity of the optical
fiber.

Applying Snell’s law at ‘O’

sin θ0 n1
= → (1 )
sin θ1 n0

Applying Snell’s law at ‘B’

n1 sin( 90−θ1 )=n2 sin 90

n2
cosθ1 =
n1 →(2)

Rewriting equation (1),

n1 n1
1−cos2 θ 1
n0 √
sin θ0 = sin θ1
n0 =

n1 n 22 √ n21− n22
=
n0 √ 1−
n 21 ,
sin θ = 0
n0 →(3)

If the medium surrounding the fiber is air, then n0=1,

sin θ0 = √ n 21 - n 22

θ
If i is the angle of incidence of an incident ray w.r.t. the axis of the fiber, then ray will be able to
propagate, If θi <θ 0

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if sinθi <sin θ0

or sinθi < NA

This is the condition for ray propagation.

Fractional Index Change ( Δ ) :

It is the ratio of the RI difference between the core and cladding to the RI of core of an optical
n1 −n2
Δ=
fiber, i.e., n1 where; n1 is RI of core and n2 is RI of cladding.

Relation between N.A. and Δ :

We have,

numerical aperture,
N . A .= √ n12−n 22

= √ ( n1+ n2)( n1−n2)

n1 −n2
Δ=
But n1

i.e. n1 Δ=n 1−n2

∴ N.A=√ (n ¿ ¿1+ n1) n1 2 ∆ ¿

n1 ≈n 2 n1 + n2≈2 n1
Since ;

Hence N.A =√ (n ¿ ¿1+ n1) 2 ∆ ¿ ¿ n1 √ 2 ∆

Modes of propagation:
Light propagates as an electromagnetic wave through an optical fiber. All waves having ray directions
above the critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due to total internal reflection. But all such waves do
not propagate along the fiber. There are certain ray directions allowed for the propagation. These allowed
ray directions or possible number of path of light in an optical fibers are known as modes of propagation. The
paths are zig-zag paths excepting the axial direction. The number of modes that a fiber will support depends
on the diameter of the core and wavelength of the wave being transmitted.

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Types of optical fibers:

Depending on the RI profile and number of modes that a fiber can support, we have three types of
optical fibers. They are
1) Step index single mode fiber, 2) Step index multi-mode fiber

3) Graded index multi-mode fiber

Note: Refractive index profile is a curve which represents the variation of refractive index with respect to the
radial distance from the axis of the fiber.

1. single mode fiber or Step indexed single mode fiber:

A step index single mode fiber has a core diameter of about 8 to 10µm and external diameter
of cladding is 60 to 70µm. The RI of the core has a uniform value. The cladding also has a uniform
RI but slightly lesser than that of the core. The RI of the fiber changes abruptly at the core – cladding
interface. Hence it is called a step index fiber. This fiber can support only one mode of propagation
along its axis. Hence it is called a single mode fiber.

Due to narrow diameter of the fiber only laser can be used as the source of light with these
fibers. There is no intermodal dispersion in the fiber. These are widely used in submarine cable
systems.

2. Step index multi-mode fiber:

This fiber has a core diameter of 50-100µm

and that of cladding diameter is 100 -250 µm. The RI
remains uniform in the core and cladding region
respectively. But the RI changes abruptly at the
core – cladding interface. Because of larger
diameter, this fiber allows many modes to
propagate through it.

The step index multimode fiber can accept

either a laser or LED as source of light. It is used in
data links which has lower band width
requirements. These fibers are least expensive.

3. Graded Index multimode fiber:

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It is a multimode fiber with a core consisting of concentric layers of different refractive

indices. Therefore RI of the core decreases radially outwards from the fiber axis. The RI of the
cladding remains uniform. The geometry of the GRIN fibe rs similar to that of step indexed
multimode fiber. The RI profile and the modes of propagation are shown in fig. such as RI profile
causes a periodic focusing of light propagating through the fiber. These fibers allow laser or LED
light as a source. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices. These fibers are most
expensive.

Normalized frequency (V – number):

It is the relation between fiber size, the refractive indices and the wavelength of light
propagating through the fiber. It is given by,

πd 2 2
V= n −n
λ √ 1 2

Where, d is diameter of the core; n1 is RI of the core; n2 is RI of the cladding; λ is wavelength

πd
of light. Since, √ n21−n22=NA, we can write, V = NA
λ

V2
The number of modes supported by a fiber is given by, M N =
2

Attenuation:
The loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber is called
attenuation. The attenuation or fiber loss is due to the following factors:

1. Absorption losses
2. Scattering losses
3. Radiation or bending losses
4. Coupling losses.

1. Absorption Losses:
The loss of signal strength occurs due to absorption of photons during its
propagation. Photons are absorbed by
a) Impurities in the silica glass present inside core and cladding.
b) Intrinsic absorption by the glass material itself.

a. Absorption by impurities:

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The impurities that are generally present in fiber glass are iron, chromium, cobalt,
copper etc. During signal propagation when photons interact with these impurities, the
electrons absorb the photons and get excited to higher energy levels. Later these electrons
give up their absorbed energy in the form of light photons. But this is of no use, since these
photons differ in wavelength and phase.
b. Intrinsic Absorption
The fiber material itself has a tendency to absorb light energy however small it may be.
Hence there will be a loss and is known as intrinsic absorption.

2. Scattering Losses:
The optical power is lost due to the scattering of photons.
This scattering is due to the non-uniformity in the density of
the fiber material, which leads to the variation in the RI of
the fiber. Structural inhomogeneities and defects created in
the fiber can also cause scattering. The loss of light energy by
scattering is found to be wavelength dependent. It decreases
with increase in the wavelength of light to be transmitted
through the fiber.
3. Bending Losses (Radiation Losses):
Radiation losses occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types of bends
a) Microscopic bends
b) Macroscopic bends

Microscopic bends are caused during manufacturing as well as due to the applied stress on the
fiber. Macroscopic bending arises during the installation of the fiber. At the point of a bend, light will
escape to the surrounding medium due to the fact that the angle of incidence at that point becomes
lesser than the critical angle.
To minimize these losses, the optical fiber has to be laid without sharp bends and they
should be freed from the external stresses by providing mechanical strength through external
coverage.

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Attenuation co-efficient:
Attenuation is the loss of power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the
fiber. It is also referred as fiber loss.

10 Pout
Attenuation co-efficient or attenuation i.e. α=-
L ( )
log
Pin
dB/km

Where Pi is the optical power launched at the input and Po the output power after traveling a distance
L km.

Application:

Point – point communication system using optical fibres:

In a point - point communication system, we have analog information such as voice of a
telephone user. The voice gives rise to electrical signals in analog form coming out of the transmitter
section of the telephone. With the help of a coder, the analog signal is converted into binary data. The
binary data in the form of a stream of electrical pulses are converted into pulses of optical power by
modulating the light emitted by an optical source such as a laser diode or LED. This unit is called
optical transmitter, from which the optical power is launched into the fiber.

During the propagation of the signal, attenuation or losses occurs. This may reach a limiting
stage beyond which it may not be possible to retrieve the information from the light signal. Hence a
repeater is needed in the transmission path. A repeater consists of a receiver and a transmitter. The
receiver converts the optical signal into corresponding electrical signal and then it is amplified. These
electrical signals are again converted into optical signals and fed into the optical fiber.

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At the receiving end the optical signal from the fiber is fed into a photo detector. Hence signal
is converted to pulses of electric current. This is then fed to a decoder which converts the binary data
into an analog signal, which will be the same information such as voice; which was there at the
transmitting end.

Advantages of optical fibres:

1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts of information, i.e. these support transmission of
signals over a large bandwidth.
2. Attenuation is very low.
3. Power required for optical fiber communication is very less.
4. The information or signals are fully secured.
5. The rate of information transfer is very high.
6. Because of their compactness and lightweight, fibers are much easier to transport.
7. Since number of repeaters required in optical fiber communication are less and raw materials
are abundantly available, optical fibers are less expensive.
The only disadvantage of optical fiber communication is that it requires highly skilled
workmanship, since it has very small thickness.

********************

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