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1 What is Research?
Definition:
Research is a scientific approach of answering a research question, solving a research problem, or generating
new knowledge through a systematic and orderly collection, organization, and analysis of data with the
ultimate goal of making the findings of research useful in decision-making.

Research is an original and systematic investigation undertaken to increase existing knowledge and
understanding of the unknown to establish facts and principles. Some people consider research as a voyage of
discovery of new knowledge.
It comprises the creation of ideas and the generation of new knowledge that leads to new and improved insights
and the development of new materials, devices, products, and processes. It should have the potentials to
produce results that are sufficiently relevant to increase and synthesize existing knowledge or correcting and
integrating previous knowledge.
Good reflective research produces theories and hypotheses and benefits any intellectual attempt to analyze
facts and phenomena.
In practice, the term ‘research’ refers to a scientific process of generating an unexplored horizon of knowledge,
aiming at discovering or establishing facts, solving a problem, and reaching a decision.

2 Types of Research
Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of
generating new knowledge about it.
It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based
on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently
contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.
Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project,
utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other
researchers and supervisors.
Classification of Types of Research
There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed
data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project
will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.
According to its Purpose
Theoretical Research
Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge, regardless
of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better
understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.
Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on
documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.
For example, a philosophical dissertation, since the aim is to generate new approaches from existing data
without considering how its findings can be applied or implemented in practice.
Applied Research
Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research
draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such
as engineering, computer science and medicine.
This type of research is subdivided into two types:
1. Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector
through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
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2. Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can
measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as
consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.
For example, market research, because by examining consumption patterns, strategies can be developed for
the development of new products and marketing campaigns, etc.
Note: Applied research is usually based on knowledge or results obtained through theoretical research.
In fact, it is common for research projects to first establish the theoretical framework both to define the field
of study and to identify possible theories that could be tested or applied to solve the specific problem posed in
the project.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory Research/Analytical
Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or
sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth
study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.
Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and
more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.
For example, an investigation of the role social media in the perception of self-image.
Descriptive Research
The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon
without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.
In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or
phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.
For example, investigating how the public census of influential government officials differs between urban
and non-urban areas.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-
and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to
descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions
with the environment.
For example, investigating the brittle behaviour of a specific material when under compressive load.
Correlational Research
The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A
correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed
system change.
According to the Type of Data Used
Qualitative Research
Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a
linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and
participant observations.
In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated
numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled.
Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon
(the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).
For example, examining the effects of sleep deprivation on mood.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and
using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them. This allows generalised conclusions
to be projected over time.
For example, conducting a computer simulation on vehicle strike impacts to collect quantitative data.
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According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental Research
It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled
conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The
phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of
the scientific method.
For example, randomised controlled trial studies for measuring the effectiveness of new pharmaceutical drugs
on human subjects.
Non-Experimental Research
Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As
such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables
required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.
For example, a study on the effects of the use of certain chemical substances in a particular population group
can be considered a non-experimental study.
Quasi-Experimental Research
It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely
experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from
existing groups or populations. This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge,
perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.
For example, assessing the effectiveness of an intervention measure in reducing the spread of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria.
According to the Type of Inference
Deductive Investigation
In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are
expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and
the inductive method is applied correctly.
Inductive Research
In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on
the collection of specific data to develop new theories.
Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation
It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally
verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal Study (also referred to as Diachronic Research)
It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track
changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological
and social areas.
For example, a cohort study that analyses changes in a particular indigenous population over a period of 15
years.
Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)
Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects
at a given time.
According to The Sources of Information
Primary Research
This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is,
it consists of primary, first-hand information.
Secondary research
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Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which
are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet)
Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of
information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking
literature reviews or producing a case study.
Field
Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed
phenomenon occurs.
From Laboratory
Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and
establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.
Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory
Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary
sources through field or laboratory research.
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3 What is scientific research?

• It is based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning;
• It consists of systematic observations, measurement, and experimentation;
• It relies on the application of the scientific methods and harnessing of curiosity;
• It provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of nature;
• It makes practical applications possible; and
• It ensures adequate analysis of data employing rigorous statistical techniques.
The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge
is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself, supporting a theory when a theory’s predictions are
confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions prove false.
Scientific research has multidimensional functions, characteristics, and objectives.

Research in any field

• Attempts to solve a research problem;

• Involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new
purpose;
• is based upon observable experiences or empirical evidence;
• Demands accurate observation and description;
• Employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis;
• attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the
methods employed;
• is a deliberate and unhurried activity that is directional but often refines the problem or questions as
the research progresses.

4 Characteristics of Research

1. The research should focus on priority problems.

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2. The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a researcher should employ a structured
procedure.
3. The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas logically, the scientific researcher cannot
make much progress in any investigation.
4. The research should be reductive. This means that the findings of one researcher should be made
available to other researchers to prevent them from repeating the same research.
5. The research should be replicable. This asserts that there should be scope to confirm the findings of
previous research in a new environment and different settings with a new group of subjects or at a
different point in time.
6. The research should be generative. This is one of the valuable characteristics of research because
answering one question leads to generating many other new questions.
7. The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it should be aimed at reaching a solution
leading to the implementation of its findings.
8. The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary approach, i.e., research approaches from
more than one discipline are needed.
9. The research should be participatory, involving all parties concerned (from policymakers down to
community members) at all stages of the study.
10. The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-bound, employing a comparatively simple
design.
11. The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.
12. The results of the research should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-
makers, business managers, or the community members.

5 Motivation for a research

• He might have genuine interest and curiosity in the existing body of knowledge and understanding of
the problem;
• He is looking for answers to questions which remained unanswered so far and trying to unfold the
truth;
• The existing tools and techniques accessible to him, and others may need modification and change to
suit the current needs.
One might research ensuring
• Better livelihood;
• Better career development;
• Higher position, prestige, and dignity in the society;
• Academic achievement leading to higher degrees;
• Self-gratification.
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Curiosity about unknown
7. Desire to understand the cause and effect of wide spread social problems
8. Appearance of novel and unanticipated situations
9. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedure as an efficient way to gain useful and fundamental
knowledge.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more
factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to
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understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times
compel) people to perform research operations.

6 Desirable Qualities of Research

Good research is one that generates dependable data. It is conducted by professionals and can be used reliably
for decision making.
It is thus of crucial importance that research should be made acceptable to the audience for which research
should possess some desirable qualities in terms of its;
1. purpose,
2. research process,
3. research design,
4. ethical issues,
5. limitations,
6. results or findings,
7. conclusions,
8. recommendations and
9. the researcher’s experiences.

Qualities of good research

We enumerate below a few qualities that good research should possess.
Purpose clearly defined
Good research must have its purposes clearly and unambiguously defined.
The problem involved or the decision to be made should be sharply delineated as clearly as possible to
demonstrate the credibility of the research.
Research process detailed
The research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to permit other researchers to repeat the
research at a later date.
Failure to do so makes it difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the results. This
weakens the confidence of the readers.
Any recommendations made from such research justifiably get little attention from the policymakers and
implementation.
Research design planned
The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
In doing so, care must be taken so that the representativeness of the sample is ensured, and relevant literature
has been thoroughly searched, experimental controls, whenever necessary, have been followed, the personal
bias in selecting and recording data have been minimized.
Ethical issues considered
A research design should always safeguard against causing mental and physical harm not only to the
participants but also to those who belong to their organizations.
Careful consideration must also be given to research situations when there is a possibility for exploitation,
invasion of privacy, and loss of dignity of all those who are involved in the study.
Limitations revealed
The researcher should report with complete honesty and frankness any flaws in procedural design; he followed
and provided estimates of their effects on the findings.
This enhances the confidence of the readers and finally makes the report acceptable to the audience. One can
legitimately question the value of research where no limitations are reported.
Adequate analysis ensured
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Adequate analysis reveals the significance of the data and helps the researcher to check the reliability and
validity of his estimates.
Data should, therefore, be analyzed with proper statistical rigor to assist the researcher in reaching firm
conclusions.
When statistical methods have been employed, the probability of error should be estimated, and criteria of
statistical significance applied.
Findings unambiguously presented
The presentation of the results should be comprehensive, easily understood by the readers, and organized so
that the readers can readily locate the critical and central findings.
Conclusions and recommendations justified.
Proper research always specifies the conditions under which the research conclusions seem to be valid.
It is therefore of importance that any conclusions drawn and recommendations made should be solely based
on the findings of the study.
No inferences or generalizations should be made beyond the data. If this were not followed, the objectivity of
the research would tend to decrease, resulting in confidence in the findings.
The researcher’s experiences reflected.
The research report should contain information about the qualification of the researchers.
If the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of integrity, his report is
likely to be highly valued. The policymakers feel confident in implementing the recommendation made in
such reports.

7 Goals of Research
The primary goal or purpose of research in any field of inquiry; is to add to what is known about the
phenomenon under investigation through the application of scientific methods.
Though each research has its own specific goals, yet we may enumerate the following 4 broad goals of
scientific research:
1. Exploration.
2. Description.
3. Causal explanation.
4. Prediction.
The link between the 4 goals of research and the questions raised in reaching these goals.
Goals/purposes Types of questions

• What is the full nature of the problem or phenomenon?

Exploration • What is going on?
• What factors are related to the problem?

• How prevalent is the problem?

Description • What are the characteristics of the problem?
• What is the process by which the problem is experienced?

• What are the underlying causes of the problem?

Explanation • What do the occurrences of the problem mean?
• Why does the problem exist?

• If problem X occurs, will problem K follow?

Prediction • Can the occurrence of the problem be controlled?
• Does an intervention result in the intended effect?
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Let’s try to understand the 4 goals of the research.

Exploration and Explorative Research
Exploration is finding out about some previously unexamined phenomenon. In other words, an explorative
study structures and identifies new problems.
The explorative study aims at gaining familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
Exploration is particularly useful when researchers lack a clear idea of the problems they meet during their
study.
Through exploration, researchers attempt to
• Develop concepts more clearly;
• Establish priorities among several alternatives;
• Develop operational definitions of variables;
• Formulate research hypotheses and sharpen research objectives;
• Improve the methodology and modify (if needed) research design.
Exploration is achieved through what we call exploratory research.
The end of an explorative study comes when the researchers are convinced that they have established the major
dimensions of the research task.
Description and Descriptive Research
Many research activities consist of gathering information on some topic of interest. The description refers to
these data-based information-gathering activities. Descriptive studies portray precisely the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation, or group.
Here we attempt to describe situations and events through studies, which we refer to as descriptive research.
Such research is undertaken when much is known about the problem under investigation.
Descriptive studies try to discover answers to the questions who, what, when, where, and sometimes how.
Such research studies may involve the collection of data and the creation of distribution of the number of times
the researcher observes a single event or characteristic, known as a research variable.
A descriptive study may also involve the interaction of two or more variables and attempts to observe if there
is any relationship between the variables under investigation.
Research that examines such a relationship is sometimes called correlational study. It is correlational because
it attempts to relate (i.e., co-relate) two or more variables.
A descriptive study may be feasible to answer the questions of the following types:
• What are the characteristics of the people who are involved in city crime? Are they young? Middle-
aged? Poor? Muslim? Educated?
• Who are the potential buyers of the new product? Men or women? Urban people or rural people?
• Are rural women more likely to marry earlier than their urban counterparts?
• Does previous experience help an employee to get a higher initial salary?
Although the data description in descriptive research is factual, accurate, and systematic, the research cannot
describe what caused a situation.
Thus, descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another.
In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. In sum,
descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied.
But there are always restrictions on that. All research must have an impact on the lives of the people around
us.
For example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the people of a community falls under descriptive
research.
But the readers of the research will have the hunch to know why this has happened, and what to do to prevent
that disease so that more people will live a healthy life.
It dictates that we need a causal explanation of the situation under reference and hence a causal study vis-a-
vis causal research.
Causal Explanation and Causal Research
Explanation reveals why and how something happens.
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An explanatory study goes beyond description and attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables. It explains the reason for the phenomenon that the descriptive study observed.
Thus if a researcher finds that communities having larger family size have higher child death or that smoking
is correlated with lung cancer, he is performing a descriptive study.
If he is explaining why it is so and tries to establish a cause-and-effect relationship, he is
performing explanatory research or causal research. The researcher uses theories or at-least hypotheses to
account for the factors that caused a certain phenomenon to occur.
Look at the following examples that fit causal studies:
• Why are people involved in crime? Can we explain this as a consequence of the present crisis in the
job market or for lack of parental care?
• Will the buyers be motivated to purchase the new product in a new container? Can an attractive
advertisement motivate them to buy a new product?
• Why has the share market shown steepest ever fall in stock prices? Is it because of IMF’s warnings
and prescriptions on the commercial banks’ exposure to the stock market or because of an abundant
increase in the supply of new shares?
Prediction and Predictive Research
Prediction seeks to answer: when and in what situations the event will occur, if we can provide a plausible
explanation for the event in question.
The precise nature of the relationship between explanation and prediction, however, has been a subject of
debate.
One view is that explanation and prediction are the same phenomena except that prediction precedes the event
while the explanation takes place after the event has occurred.
Another view is that explanation and prediction are fundamentally different processes.
We need not be concerned with this debate here but can simply state that in addition to being able to explain
an event after it has occurred, we would also be able to predict when the event will occur.

8 Precautions in Research
Whether a researcher is doing applied or basic research or research of any other form, he or she must take
necessary precautions to ensure that the research he or she is doing is relevant, timely, efficient, accurate, and
ethical.
The research is considered relevant if it anticipates the kinds of information that will be required by decision-
makers, scientists, or policymakers.
Timely research is completed in time to influence decisions.
• Research is efficient when it is of the best quality for the minimum expenditure, and the study is
appropriate to the research context.
• Research is considered accurate or valid when the interpretation can account for both consistencies and
inconsistencies in the data.
• Research is ethical when it can promote trust, exercise care, ensure standards, and protect the rights of
the participants in the research process.

9 Difference between Research Method and Research Methodology

Research methods and research methodology are the two terms that are often confused as the same. Strictly
speaking, they are not so, and they show differences between them.
If we zone in on the etymology of the word ‘methodology,’ it refers to ‘method’+’ology.’ ‘Ology’ typically
means a discipline of study or a branch of knowledge. Thus technically speaking, the methodology is the study
of methods.
Research Method
By research method, we simply mean the research techniques or tools to be used for conducting research
irrespective of whether the research belongs to physical or social sciences or any other disciplines.
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The methods include three broad groups.

• The first group includes methods dealing with collection and description of data;
• The second group consists of techniques used for establishing a statistical relationship between
variables;
• The third group deals with methods used to evaluate the reliability, validity, and accuracy of the results
discerned by the data.
A physical scientist may employ, for example, such tools as an electron microscope or a radio telescope to
obtain his data.
In contrast, a social scientist or a manager may use, as a technique, an opinion poll or sample survey with a
mail questionnaire or conduct a personal interview to obtain his data.
He might conduct a telephonic interview, group discussion, case study approach to gather data. Still, in
essence, they are employing the same technique ‘observation’ of some kind, that generates data for research.
Nevertheless, the scientists in their disciplines employ tools and techniques that may differ widely in nature
and complexity.
Research Methodology
The research methodology is a way to study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in
studying his research problems systematically, along with the logic, assumptions, justification, and rationale
behind them.
Whenever we choose a research method, we must justify why we prefer this particular method over others.
The methodology seeks to answer this question.
Thus, when we speak of research methodology, we not only talk of research methods but also keep in view
the logic and justification behind the method we use in the context of our research undertaking.
A researcher’s methodology aims at answering such questions as:
• Why was this particular group of people interviewed and not the other groups?
• How has been the research problem defined?
• How many individuals provided the answers on which the researcher’s conclusions were based?
• Why were these particular techniques used to analyze data?
• In what way and why has been the research hypothesis formulated?
• What level of evidence was used to determine whether or not to reject the stated hypothesis?
Difference between Research Method and Research Methodology
If the subject into which you conduct research is a scientific subject or topic, then the research methods include
experiments, tests, the study of many other results of different experiments performed earlier about the topic
or the subject and the like.
On the other hand, research methodology about the scientific topic involves the techniques regarding how to
go about conducting the research, the justification of the use of particular tools of research, advanced
techniques that can be used in performing the experiments, and the like.
A method is what you did. It is a simple description. You selected, for example, 100 rats and measured their
weights. You fed some rats and some not.
A week later, you measured their weights again.
The methodology is why that should give you a meaningful result and why you used some specified method
and not some other one.
This would, in particular, include the way you have controlled for errors, e.g., why you fed the rats for a week
rather than a month and why 100 rats you thought were enough.
The table below summarizes the primary differences between the research methods and research methodology.
Research Method Research Methodology

Research method seeks to answer: what did the Research methodology seeks to answer: how did the
researcher use to complete his research. researcher complete his study.
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Methodology explains and justifies the techniques

Research methods are the techniques and tools by
and tools by which you may proceed with your
which you research a subject or a topic.
research.

Research methods involve the tasks of conducting Research methodology involves the learning of
experiments, tests, surveys, and the like utilizing various techniques to conduct research and acquiring
the knowledge and skills learned through research knowledge to perform tests, experiments, surveys,
methodology. and critical analysis.

The research method aims at finding solutions to Research methodology ensures the employment of
research problems. the correct procedures to solve the problems.

Research methodology paves the way to choose

Research methods are the end of any scientific or
appropriate research methods and thus is the
non-scientific research.
beginning of any research.

10 Research methods
Experiments

People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete various tests to measure
their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration, reasoning ability etc.) usually verbally, on
paper or by computer. The results of different groups are then compared. Participants should not be anxious
about performing well but simply do their best. The aim of these tests is not to judge people or measure so-
called intelligence, but to look for links between performance and other factors. If computers are used, this has
to be done in such a way that no previous knowledge of computers is necessary. So people should not be put
off by this either.
The study might include an intervention such as a training programme, some kind of social activity, the
introduction of a change in the person’s living environment (e.g. different lighting, background noise, different
care routine) or different forms of interaction (e.g. linked to physical contact, conversation, eye contact,
interaction time etc.). Often the interaction will be followed by some kind of test (as mentioned above),
sometimes before and after the intervention. In other cases, the person may be asked to complete a
questionnaire (e.g. about his/her feelings, level of satisfaction or general well-being).
Some studies are just based on one group (within-group design). The researchers might be interested in
observing people’s reactions or behaviour before and after a certain intervention (e.g. a training programme).
However, in most cases, there are at least two groups (a between-subjects design). One of the groups serves
as a control group and is not exposed to the intervention. This is quite similar to the procedure in clinical
trials whereby one group does not receive the experimental drug. This enables researchers to compare the two
groups and determine the impact of the intervention. Alternatively, the two groups might differ in some
important way (e.g. gender, severity of dementia, living at home or in residential care, etc.) and it is that
difference that is of interest to the researchers.

Surveys
Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by means of questionnaires
but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also be used. There are different types of survey.
The most straightforward type (the “one shot survey”) is administered to a sample of people at a set point in
time. Another type is the “before and after survey” which people complete before a major event or experience
and then again afterwards.

Questionnaires
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Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people and/or people who may
not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments. They enable people to take their time,
think about it and come back to the questionnaire later. Participants can state their views or feelings privately
without worrying about the possible reaction of the researcher. Unfortunately, some people may still be
inclined to try to give socially acceptable answers. People should be encouraged to answer the questions as
honestly as possible so as to avoid the researchers drawing false conclusions from their study.
Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions and open-ended
questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have a fairly low response rate and people do not
always answer all the questions and/or do not answer them correctly. Questionnaires can be administered in a
number of different ways (e.g. sent by post or as email attachments, posted on Internet sites, handed out
personally or administered to captive audience (such as people attending conferences). Researchers may even
decide to administer the questionnaire in person which has the advantage of including people who have
difficulties reading and writing. In this case, the participant may feel that s/he is taking part in an interview
rather than completing a questionnaire as the researcher will be noting down the responses on his/her behalf.

Interviews

Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be administered by telephone or using
more advance computer technology such as Skype. Sometimes they are held in the interviewee’s home,
sometimes at a more neutral place. It is important for interviewees to decide whether they are comfortable
about inviting the researcher into their home and whether they have a room or area where they can speak freely
without disturbing other members of the household.
The interviewer (which is not necessarily the researcher) could adopt a formal or informal approach, either
letting the interviewee speak freely about a particular issue or asking specific pre-determined questions. This
will have been decided in advance and depend on the approach used by the researchers. A semi-structured
approach would enable the interviewee to speak relatively freely, at the same time allowing the researcher to
ensure that certain issues were covered.
When conducting the interview, the researcher might have a check list or a form to record answers. This might
even take the form of a questionnaire. Taking notes can interfere with the flow of the conversation, particularly
in less structured interviews. Also, it is difficult to pay attention to the non-verbal aspects of communication
and to remember everything that was said and the way it was said. Consequently, it can be helpful for the
researchers to have some kind of additional record of the interview such as an audio or video recording. They
should of course obtain permission before recording an interview.

Case studies

Case studies usually involve the detailed study of a particular case (a person or small group). Various methods
of data collection and analysis are used but this typically includes observation and interviews and may involve
consulting other people and personal or public records. The researchers may be interested in a particular
phenomenon (e.g. coping with a diagnosis or a move into residential care) and select one or more individuals
in the respective situation on whom to base their case study/studies. Case studies have a very narrow focus
which results in detailed descriptive data which is unique to the case(s) studied. Nevertheless, it can be useful
in clinical settings and may even challenge existing theories and practices in other domains.

Participant and non-participant observation

Studies which involve observing people can be divided into two main categories, namely participant
observation and non-participant observation.
In participant observation studies, the researcher becomes (or is already) part of the group to be observed. This
involves fitting in, gaining the trust of members of the group and at the same time remaining sufficiently
detached as to be able to carry out the observation. The observations made might be based on what people do,
 13

the explanations they give for what they do, the roles they have, relationships amongst them and features of
the situation in which they find themselves. The researcher should be open about what s/he is doing, give the
participants in the study the chance see the results and comment on them, and take their comments seriously.
In non-participant observation studies, the researcher is not part of the group being studied. The researcher
decides in advance precisely what kind of behaviour is relevant to the study and can be realistically and
ethically observed. The observation can be carried out in a few different ways. For example, it could be
continuous over a set period of time (e.g. one hour) or regularly for shorter periods of time (for 60 seconds
every so often) or on a random basis. Observation does not only include noting what happened or was said but
also the fact that a specific behaviour did not occur at the time of observation.

Observational trials

Observational trials study health issues in large groups of people but in natural
settings. Longitudinal approaches examine the behaviour of a group of people over a fairly lengthy period of
time e.g. monitoring cognitive decline from mid to late life paying specific attention to diet and lifestyle
factors. In some cases, the researchers might monitor people when they are middle-aged and then again after
15 years and so on. The aim of such studies is usually to determine whether there is a link between one factor
and another (e.g. whether high alcohol consumption is correlated with dementia). The group of people involved
in this kind of study is known as a cohort and they share a certain characteristic or experience within a defined
period. Within the cohort, there may be subgroups (e.g. people who drink moderately, people who drink
heavily, people who binge drink etc.) which allow for further comparisons to be made.
In some cases, rather than following a group of people from a specific point in time onwards, the researchers
take a retrospective approach, working backwards as it were. They might ask participants to tell them about
their past behaviour, diet or lifestyle (e.g. their alcohol consumption, how much exercise they did, whether
they smoked etc.) They might also ask for permission to consult the participants’ medical records (a chart
review). This is not always a reliable method and may be problematic as some people may forget, exaggerate
or idealise their behaviour. For this reason, a prospective study is generally preferred if feasible although a
retrospective pilot study preceding a prospective study may be helpful in focusing the study question and
clarifying the hypothesis and feasibility of the latter (Hess, 2004).

Studies using the Delphi method

The Delphi method was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s in the military domain. It has
been considered particularly useful in helping researchers determine the range of opinions which exist on a
particular subject, in investigating issues of policy or clinical relevance and in trying to come to a consensus
on controversial issues. The objectives can be roughly divided into those which aim to measure diversity and
those which aim to reach consensus.
Different ways to employ this method have been devised but they tend to share common features, namely a
series of “rounds” in which the participants (known as “panellists”) generate ideas or identify salient issues,
comment on a questionnaire (constructed on the basis of the results from the first round) and re-evaluate their
original responses. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of the forecasts/opinions
made by the experts and of their reasons.
There is no limit to the number of panellists involved but between 10 and 50 might be considered manageable.
The panellists are chosen on the basis of their expertise which could take many forms (e.g. academic,
professional or practical knowledge, personal experience of having a condition, being a service user etc.).

11 Steps in defining research problem

Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
 14

Ask yourself, ‘What is it that really interests me as a professional?’ In the author’s opinion, it is a good idea
to think about the field in which you would like to work after graduation. This will help you to find an
interesting topic, and one which may be of use to you in the future. It is imperative that you identify one of
interest to you before undertaking your research journey.

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into subareas.

At the onset, you will realise that all the broad areas mentioned above – youth welfare, refugees, domestic
violence, consumer behaviour and HIV/AIDS – have many aspects. In preparing this list of subareas you
should also consult others who have some knowledge of the area and the literature in your subject area. Once
you have developed an exhaustive list of the subareas from various sources, you proceed to the next stage
where you select what will become the basis of your enquiry.

Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.

It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all subareas. Out of this list, select issues or subareas about which
you are passionate. One way to decide what interests you most is to start with the process of elimination. Go
through your list and delete all those subareas in which you are not very interested. You will find that towards
the end of this process, it will become very difficult for you to delete anything further. You need to continue
until you are left with something that is manageable considering the time available to you, your level of
expertise and other resources needed to undertake the study.

Step 4 Raise research questions.

At this step ask yourself, ‘What is it that I want to find out about in this subarea?’ Make a list of whatever
questions come to your mind relating to your chosen subarea and if you think there are too many to be
manageable, go through the process of elimination.

Step 5 Formulate objectives.

Both your main objectives and your subobjectives now need to be formulated, which grow out of your research
questions. The main difference between objectives and research questions is the way in which they are written.
Research questions are obviously that – questions. Objectives transform these questions into behavioral aims
by using action oriented words such as ‘to find out’, ‘to determine’, ‘to ascertain’ and ‘to examine’. Some
researchers prefer to reverse the process; that is, they start from objectives and formulate research questions
from them. Some researchers are satisfied only with research questions, and do not formulate objectives at all.

Step 6 Assess your objectives.

Now examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of achieving them through your research endeavour.
Consider them in the light of the time, resources (financial and human) and technical expertise at your disposal.

Step 7 Double-check.
Go back and give final consideration to whether or not you are sufficiently interested in the study, and have
adequate resources to undertake it.

12 Research Hypothesis: Definition, Elements, Format, Types of Research

When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, we call it a hypothesis. Almost all studies begin with one or
more hypotheses. A hypothesis, more specifically, a research hypothesis, is formulated to predict an assumed
relationship between two or more variables of interest.

If we reasonably guess that a relationship exists between the variables of interest, we first state it as a hypothesis and
then test it in the field.
 15

Hypotheses are stated in terms of the particular dependent and independent variables that are going to be used in the
study.

Research Hypothesis Definition

A research hypothesis is a conjectural statement, a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, and an educated prediction
about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables that we expect to happen in our study.

Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen
during your experiment or research.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see,
the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When experimenting, researchers might
explore some different factors to determine which ones might contribute to the outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When
writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

Regardless of the type of hypothesis, the goal of a good hypothesis is to help explain the focus and direction of the
experiment or research. As such a good hypothesis will

• State the purpose of the research.

• Identify which variables are to be used.

A good hypothesis;

• Needs to be logical.
• Must be precise in language.
• Should be testable with research or experimentation.

A hypothesis is usually written in a form where it proposes that if something is done, then something will occur.

Finally, when you are trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the
following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on any previous research on a topic?

• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research on your topic. Once you
have completed a literature review, start thinking of potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion
section in the journal articles you read. Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

Basic Format of a Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of “If {this happens}, then {this will happen}.” One way to structure your
hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you make changes to the independent variable.
 16

The basic format might be:

“If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent
variable}.”

A few examples:

• Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math test than students who do not eat breakfast.
• Students who experience test anxiety before an exam gets higher scores than students who do not experience
test anxiety.
• Drivers who talk on the mobile phone while driving will be more likely to make errors when on driving than
those who do not talk on the phone.
• People with high exposure to ultraviolet light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer than those who do
not have such exposure.

Look at the last example.

Here the independent variable (exposure to ultraviolet light)) is specified, and the dependent variable (skin cancer) is
also specified. Notice also that this research hypothesis specifies a direction in that it predicts that the people with
exposure to ultraviolet light will have a higher risk of cancer.

This is not always the case. Research hypotheses can also specify a difference without saying which group will be
better or higher than the other.

For example, one might formulate a hypothesis of the type: ‘Religion does not make any significant difference in the
performance of cultural activities.’ In general, however, it is considered a better hypothesis if you can specify a
direction.

Research hypotheses serve several important functions. The most important one is to direct and guide the research. A
few of the other functions of the research hypothesis are enumerated below:

• A research hypothesis indicates the major independent variables to be included in the study;
• A research hypothesis suggests the type of data that must be collected and the type of analysis that must be
conducted to measure the relationship;
• A research hypothesis identifies facts that are relevant and that are not;
• A research hypothesis suggests the type of research design to be employed.

Types of Research Hypothesis

Two types of research hypothesis are;

1. Descriptive hypothesis.
2. Relational hypothesis.

Descriptive Hypotheses

Descriptive hypotheses are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variables.
These hypotheses are formulated in the form of statements in which we assign variables to cases.

For example,
 17

• The prevalence of contraceptive use among the currently married women in Bangladesh exceeds 60%.

In this example, the case is ‘currently married women,’ and the variable is ‘prevalence of contraceptives.’ As a second
example,

• The public universities in Bangladesh are currently experiencing budget difficulties.

Here’ public universities’ is the case, and ‘budget difficulties’ is the variable.

Likewise

• The National Board of Revenue claims that over 15% of potential taxpayers falsify in their income tax return.
• At most, 75% of the pre-school children in community A have a protein-deficient diet.
• The average sales in a superstore exceed taka 25 lac per month.
• Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer.
• The average longevity of women is higher among females than among males.
• Gainfully employed women tend to have lower than average fertility.
• Women with child loss experience will have higher fertility than those who do not have such experiences.

All examples of descriptive hypotheses.

It is important to note that the Descriptive hypothesis does not always have variables that can be designated as
independent or dependent.

Relational Hypotheses

Relational hypotheses, on the other hand, are the statements that describe the relationship between variables
concerning some cases. For example,

• Communities with many modern facilities will have a higher rate of contraception than communities with few
modern facilities.

In this instance, the case is ‘communities,’ and the variables are ‘rate of contraception’ and ‘modern facilities.’
Similarly, “People who use chewing tobacco have a higher risk of oral carcinoma than people who have never used
chewing tobacco’ is a relational hypothesis.

A relational hypothesis is again of two types: correlational hypothesis and the causal hypothesis. A correlational
hypothesis merely states that variables occur together in some predictable relationships without implying that one
variable causes the other to change or take on different values. Here is an example of a co-relational hypothesis:

• Males are more efficient than their female counterparts in typing.

In making such a statement, we do not claim that sex (male-female) as a variable has any influence on the other
variable’ typing efficiency’ (less efficient-more efficient). Here is one more example of a correlational hypothesis:

• Saving habit is more pronounced among Christians than the people of other religions.

Once again, religion is not believed to be a factor in saving habits, although a positive relationship has been observed.

Look at the following example:

 18

• The participation of women in household decision making increases with age, their level of education, and the
number of surviving children.

Here too, women’s education, several surviving children, or education does not guaranty their autonomy in decision
making.

With causal hypotheses (also called explanatory hypotheses), on the other hand, there is an implication that a change
in one variable causes a change or leads to an effect on the other variable.

A causal variable is typically called an independent variable, and the other the dependent variable. It is important to
note that the term “cause’ means roughly to mean ‘help make happen.’ So, the independent variable need not be the
sole reason for the existence of or change in the dependent variable. Here are some examples of causal hypotheses:

• An increase in family income leads to an increase in the income saved.

• Exposure of mothers to mass media increases their knowledge of malnutrition among their children.
• An offer of a discount in a department store enhances the sales volume.
• Chewing tobacco increases the risk of oral carcinoma.
• Goat farming contributes to poverty alleviation of rural people.
• The utilization of child welfare clinics is the lowest in those clinics in which the clinic personnel are poorly
motivated to provide preventive services.
• An increase in bank interest rate encourages the customers for increased savings.

In the above example, we have ample reasons to believe that one variable (for example, family income and savings,
misuse of credit, and farm size) has a bearing on the other variable.

We cite two more examples to illustrate the hypothesis, general objective, ultimate objective, and a few specific
objectives.

General objective:

• To compare the complications of acceptors of laparoscopic sterilization and mini-laparotomy among

Bangladeshi women.

Research hypothesis:

• The risk of complications is higher in the mini-laparotomy method of sterilization than laparoscopic
sterilization.

Specific objectives:

• To assess the complications of laparoscopic sterilization and mini-laparotomy.

• To assess service providers’ knowledge and perception regarding the complications, preferences, and
convenience of the two methods.

Ultimate Objectives:

• To introduce and popularize laparoscopic female sterilization method in the National Family Planning
Program to reduce rapid population growth rate.
 19

In a study designed to examine the living and working conditions of the overseas migrant workers from Bangladesh
and the pattern of remittances from overseas migrant workers, the general objective, specific objectives, and the
ultimate objective were formulated as follows:

General objective:

• To examine the living and working conditions of the overseas migrant workers from Bangladesh.”

Specific objectives:

• Characteristics of migrant workers by significant migration channels;

• Countries of destination;
• The occupational skill of the workers;
• Pattern and procedures of remittances;
• Impact of remittances on government revenue;
• Better utilization of remittances.

Ultimate objective:

• To suggest ways and means minimize the differences in the policy adopted by the public and private sectors in
their recruitment process in the interest of the workers;
• To ascertain the extent of possible exploitation of the workers by the private agencies and suggest remedies for
such exploitation.

Research hypothesis:

• Private agencies, in most cases, exploit migrant workers.

13 Basic and applied research

Researchers in this field try to find immediate solutions to existing problems facing a society or an industrial
or business organization.
The approach is much more useful as it strives to find information that will directly influence practice.
People cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what is going to develop from basic research. If we
only did apply research, we would still be making better spears.
The needs of social action inspire applied research. It aims at finding a practical solution for an immediate
problem of the society making optimal use of the available resources.
The problem-solving nature of applied research means it is conducted to reveal answers to specific questions
related to action, performance, or policy needs.
In contrast to pure research, applied research entails large-scale studies with subsequent data collection
problems.
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge
for knowledge’s sake.
One might legitimately say that the goal of applied research is to improve human conditions. For example,
applied researchers may investigate ways and means to:
• Improve agricultural crop production;
• Treat or cure a specific disease;
• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation;
• Suggest innovative and modified methods of measurement in any specific investigation.
 20

Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely basic research toward
applied research for the sake of the human population.
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This trend, they feel, is necessitated by the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the
overuse of the earth’s natural resources.
In recent years, applied research, under the banner of operations research, has extensive applications in health
and family planning programs to identifying problems and designing and evaluating policies and programs
that will deliver the most significant benefit at an affordable cost.
In social sciences, research is often a mixture of both basic and applied; some stages of a study may have
a basic flavor, while other stages may be more applied.
Examples of Applied Research
Example #1
Eclampsia is a major cause of maternal mortality in Bangladesh.
From the clinical observations in Bangladesh and elsewhere, it is observed that the early cesarean section may
nullify the violent effect of this grave disease.
To date, no such study has been undertaken in our country. It is proposed that a comparative study between
Caesarean section and Vaginal delivery in Eclamsia be undertaken.
The study will help to reduce the maternal and prenatal mortality considerably and thus improve our health
status.
Example #2
It has been observed that in Bangladesh, the proportion of women who are delivered through Caesarean section
is very high.
It is suspected that a small height is one of the risk factors for difficult deliveries. A study may, therefore, be
conducted to verify if this proposition is true.
Example #3
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Ethnic minority businesses are in existence in many parts of the world. Their effort to enter into business is
often explained as an essential alternative means of earning and maintaining their livelihood.
Afro-Caribbean, Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi settlers in Britain comprise a majority of the ethnic
business communities.
These ethnic business entrepreneurs are facing various problems that inhibit their business development and
activities.
A large number of organizations and services were developed to redress the small enterprises’ sectors in
Britain.
Hakim (1994) undertook a study to identify the awareness and uses of different kinds of services by the
Bangladeshi ethnic entrepreneurs covering available advisory services and sources of assistance in Britain.
Based on his study findings, the author concluded that Bangladeshi ethnic entrepreneurs were not sufficiently
aware of the advisory services and assistance provided by different organizations.
Those who were aware they did not fully utilize these services. The author then made a number of
recommendations for favorable and positive action by the concerned authority.
Example #4
In the adventure travel survey in a US county, the managers of a group of county river basin outfitters wanted
to know how to increase customers’ satisfaction and repeat business for their multi-day river trips.
They wanted to make their business more predictable and profitable.
To achieve their goals, they conducted applied consumer research with several riveroutfitting companies to
help answer questions of interest to managers.
Traditionally, basic research was considered as an activity that preceded applied research, which in turn
preceded development into practical applications.
Recently, these distinctions have become much less clear-cut, and it is sometimes the case that all stages will
intermix.
 21

This is particularly the case in fields such as biotechnology and electronics, where fundamental discoveries
may be made alongside work intended to develop new products, and in areas where public and private sector
partners collaborate in order to develop greater insight into key areas of interest.
Basic Research vs. Applied Research
# Basic Research Applied Research

Basic research is sponsored by an agency or

Applied research is sponsored by an agency
1 organization committed to the general
with a vested interest in the results.
advancement of knowledge.

Results in basic research are the property of Applied research results become the property
2
society and the research community. of the sponsor.

Studies related to basic research rely on the Studies related to applied research follow
3 established reputations of the researchers and are explicit terms of reference developed by the
totally under their control. sponsor to serve the sponsor’s needs.

Budget allocations are generally based on global Budget accountability is directly related to the
4 proposals, and accounting is left to the sponsor and relates to agreed terms of
researchers. reference, time frames, and methodologies.

The conduct of research is based on ‘good faith’ In applied research, The work is contractual
5
between the funding agency and the researcher. between sponsor and researcher.

The research produces findings and conclusions, Applied research includes applied
6 but rarely suggestions or recommendations recommendations or suggestions for action
except those related to further research needs. leading to implementation.

Basic research tends to extend an identifiable By its nature, applied research tends to be
7
scholarly discipline. interdisciplinary.

Basic research is typically focused on a single set Contract research frequently analyzes the
8
of testable hypotheses. consequences of alternative policy options.

Decision-rules relate to predetermined

Decision-rules relate to theoretically- based tests
9 conventions and agreements between the
of statistical significance.
sponsor and the researcher.

Research reports are targeted to other specialized Research reports are intended to be read and
10
researchers in the same field. understood by laypersons.

The driving goal is to contribute to basic The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or
11
theoretical knowledge. use of results.

Success comes when results appear in a scholarly

Success comes when results are used by the
12 journal and have an impact on others in the
sponsor/client in decision making.
scientific community.