MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

NAME: LUTAAYA GA
REG NO: O8/U/16801/PS
COURSE NAME: INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
COURSE CODE: ICH 2323
STUDENT NO: 208008697
SUPERVISOR: MR. EDWARD MUBIRU
COORDINATOR: MR.MABUDO GODFREY

Industrial training report submitted in partial fulfillment for

the award of the degree of Bachelor of Science in industrial
chemistry.
SEPTEMBER 2010
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take immense pleasure in thanking my factory supervisor Mr.Mulongo Francis, for his

encouragement and guidance. I would also like to thank my assistant factory supervisor

Mr.Mutesasira Vianey for the valuable advice and support he has given me in the writing of this

report.

Words are inadequate in offering thanks to my University supervisor Mr. Mubiru Edward for his

able guidance and useful suggestions, which helped me in completing this report in time.

My deepest thanks go to Rev.Esther Lutaaya for her love, understanding and financial support.

Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to the ALMIGHTY GOD,

who has blessed me with life, wisdom, knowledge and the gift of education.

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ABSTRACT

This report discusses the production of flexible polyurethane foams by slabstock method. The

study was done from 10th June 2010 to 15th August 2010. In slabstock method, the raw

materials; polyol, isocyanates, blowing agents, catalysts and surfactant are metered continuously

into the mixing head and the mixed reactants, still in liquid form, are poured into a continuous

paper mould on a moving conveyor. In the paper mould, the liquids foam and expand to form a

continuous block of foam. This block is cut into sections, which are then stored for one day to

cure and cool, and then cut into a variety of ways into the shapes

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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................................i

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................ii

CONTENTS..............................................................................................................................................iii

CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................1

1.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................1

1.1.1 Location of the industry..............................................................................................................1

1.1.2 Background of the industry........................................................................................................1

1.2 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE..............................................................................................................1

1.3 PRODUCTS OF THE INDUSTRTY..........................................................................................................2

1.4 WASTE DISPOSAL...............................................................................................................................2

CHAPTER TWO: PRODUCTION..........................................................................................................3

2.1 RAW MATERIALS................................................................................................................................3

2.1.1 Polyol..........................................................................................................................................3

2.1.2 Isocyanate...................................................................................................................................4

2.1.3 Water..........................................................................................................................................4

2.1.4 Auxiliary Blowing Agent..............................................................................................................5

2.1.5 Catalysts......................................................................................................................................5

2.1.6 Silicone oil surfactant..................................................................................................................6

2.1.7 Fillers..........................................................................................................................................7

2.1.8 Additives.....................................................................................................................................7

2.1.9 Prepolymers................................................................................................................................7

2.1.10 Raw material storage and conditioning....................................................................................8

2.2.1 The basic chemistry..................................................................................................................10

2.2.2 Calculating the formulation......................................................................................................12

2.3 MAXFOAM MACHINE......................................................................................................................17

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 2.3.1 Description of Maxfoam machine.............................................................................................17

2.3.2 Operating the maxfoam machine.............................................................................................20

2.4 PROCESS FOR PRODUCING FLEXIBLE POLYURETHANE FOAM..........................................................24

2.4.1 Preparation of raw materials....................................................................................................24

2.4.2 Foam preparation-general points.............................................................................................25

2.4.3 Metering and mixing of components........................................................................................26

2.4.4 Mixing head..............................................................................................................................27

2.4.5 Outlet nozzles...........................................................................................................................28

2.4.6 Conveyor and tunnel................................................................................................................28

2.4.7 Paper feed and take off systems...............................................................................................29

2.4.8 Block handling...........................................................................................................................29

2.4.9 Foam conversion & finishing.....................................................................................................31

2.4.10 Typical slabstock production line for flexible polyurethane foam..........................................32

2.4.11 Faults: causes and remedies...................................................................................................32

CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................................36

3.1 GENERAL CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................36

3.2 RECOMMENDATION........................................................................................................................36

3.3 REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................37

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.1.1 Location of the industry

Tuf foam Uganda limited is located on plot 336, Bwaise, opposite shell petrol station,

along Kampala-Bombo road.

1.1.2 Background of the industry

Tuf foam Uganda limited was founded in October 1996 and officially commenced its

business in 1997. The organization was officially opened by the then Prime Minister

Right Hon.Musoke Kintu on the 31st January, 1997, with Mr. Ketan Patel as the then

Managing Director with 55 employees.

1.2 ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

Managing
Director

General
Manager

Financial Purchasing Production

HRD Officer Sales Manager
Controller Manager Manager

Raw Materials Dispatching Maintenance

Accountant Chemists
stores supervisor Officer Engineer

Electrical &
Assistant
Sales man Security Officer Mechanical
Chemist
Technician

1
1.3 PRODUCTS OF THE INDUSTRTY

The industry deals in the manufacturing of slab stock polyurethane foam products such as

flexible mattresses, orthopedic/rebounded mattresses, baby cotts, cushions and pillows.

1.4 WASTE DISPOSAL

The tunnel of the maxfoam machine has got extracting fans which remove the fumes emitted

during production. These fumes are then emitted into the atmosphere. They include; toluene

diisocyanate, methylene chloride and amine catalysts.

The foam crumbs generated during production are collected in dust bins, and then taken for final

disposal by Kampala city council.

2
 CHAPTER TWO: PRODUCTION

2.1 RAW MATERIALS

2.1.1 Polyol

Polyol is a source of hydroxyl reactive groups. Processing and properties of the resultant foam

can be markedly influenced by the choice of starting polyol structure. Ninety percent of all

flexible foams produced today are made from polyether type polyols. These polyols may be

broadly grouped into the following categories.

 Polyoxypropylene diols.

 Polyoxypropylene triols.

 Polyoxypropylene tetrols and higher analogs.

 Ethylene-oxide-capped diols, triols, tetrols and higher analogs.

 Random and block polymers of the above in which the polyol is made with both ethylene

and propylene oxides. When the oxides are fed as a mixed feed, the products are termed

hetero polyols.

 Graft or copolymer polyols which contain stable dispersions of a solid particulate

polymeric phase in the liquid polyol phase.

 Cross-linkers which are typically short-chain polyfunctional molecules added to increase

load bearing or initial foam stability.

3
2.1.2 Isocyanate

The isocyanate provides the source of NCO groups to react with functional groups from the

polyol, water and cross-linkers in the formulation. All the isocyanates used in the industry today

contain at least two isocyanate groups per molecule.

In flexible foams, the isocyanate most commonly used is toluene diisocyante (TDI). The two

most important isomers of TDI are shown below.

Two grades are supplied under the shell trade name caradate.

Caradate 80: 80 parts of 2, 4 isomer and 20 parts of 2,6 isomer, used for general purpose foams.

Caradate 65: 65 parts of 2, 4 isomer and 35 parts of 2,6 isomer, used for specialty foams.

2.1.3 Water

Water is a source of active hydronium ions. Isocyanate reacts with water to give carbondioxide

gas and polyurea molecules. The gas diffuses into nucleated bubbles and aids in foam expansion.

The polyurea molecules enter into and contribute to the properties of the final polymer.

Carbondioxide is the primary blowing agent.

4
2.1.4 Auxiliary Blowing Agent

Auxiliary blowing agents may be used in a foam formulation to aid in attaining densities and

softness not obtainable with conventional water-isocyanate blowing chemistry.

Auxiliary blowing agents function by absorbing heat from the exothermic reactions, vaporizing

and providing additional gas useful in expanding the foam to a lower density. Since they are

nonreactive and contribute nothing to the polymer structure, such blowing agents give softer

foams than those blown to the same density with only water. Because the auxiliary blowing

agent acts as a heat sink, higher total catalyst package levels are generally needed to maintain

adequate cure of the foam. In the case of methylene chloride, delayed action amine catalysts are

needed to overcome processing problems.

Examples of auxiliary blowing agents include; trichlorofluromethane, methylene chloride and

among others.

2.1.5 Catalysts

 Amine: These catalysts accelerate and control the rate of the water: isocyante reaction.

Examples are: Di-methylamino-ethanol, often referred to as DMAE or DMEA, DABCO

(triethylene diammine).

 Tin salts: This catalyst is specific for the reaction between polyol and isocyanate. For

flexible slabstock foam, stannous octoate (tin II 2-ethyl hexoate) is the preferred gelling

catalyst. It is oftenly referred to as ‘catalyst t-9’ (tradename of M& T chemicals Inc). To

control accurately the small quantities required, stannous octoate as supplied is normally

diluted with polyol before use.

5
2.1.6 Silicone oil surfactant

Almost all flexible polyurethane foams are made with the aid of nonionic, silicone-based

surfactants. In broad terms, surfactants perform several functions. They:

 Lower surface tension

 Emulsify incompatible formulation ingredients

 Promote nucleation of bubbles during mixing

 Stabilize the rising foam by reducing stress concentrations in thinning cell-walls

 Counteract the defoaming effect of any solids added to or formed; for example

precipitated polyurea structures, during the foam reaction

 Assist the mixing of the components to form a homogeneous liquid.

Among these functions, stabilization of the cell-walls is the most important. By doing this,

the surfactant prevents the coalescence of rapidly growing cells until those cells have attained

sufficient strength through polymerization to become self-supporting. Without this effect,

continuing cell coalescence would lead to total foam collapse. Surfactants also help to control

the precise timing and the degree of cell-opening. Selection of a surfactant or surfactant

combination for any given foam system is a task requiring literature review, supplier

consultation and small-scale foam experimentation.

2.1.7 Fillers

Finely divided inert inorganic fillers are often purposely added to foam formulations to increase

density, load bearing and sound attenuation.

6
Typical fillers include the many grades of barium sulphate and calcium carbonate. Care is always

taken to dry the fillers or to know the precise water content available and factor that data into the

foam calculations. Normal concentrations used are from 20 to 150 parts per hundred parts polyol.

These fillers are heavy and will settle out of a polyol mixture unless constant agitation is used.

2.1.8 Additives

Various additives are incorporated into a foaming system to impart specific desired properties.

These include; Colorants, Flame Retardants, Bacteriostats, Cell-Openers and among others.

2.1.9 Prepolymers

Prepolymers are liquid intermediates between monomers and a final polymer. They are formed

by reacting an excess of either polyol or isocyanate so that the product is still liquid and contains

the reactive functional group of the reagent in excess. Prepolymers offer the following

advantages:

 A reduced vapor hazard because of increased molecular weight of the isocyanate

component (vapor pressure of any free isocyanate is reduced according to mole fraction);

 Increased viscosity leading to better mixing of foam components;

 Improved hard-segment formation by prereacting of chain extenders incompatible with

normal foam components;

 Control of desired or undesired side reactions by prereacting some ingredients under

precisely regulated conditions

7
Most prepolymers used are isocyanate-tipped. A strict prepolymer is formed (see example

below) when just enough polyisocyanate is added to react with all hydroxyl sites available.

If there is excess or residual free isocyanate monomer present, the product is called a quasi-

prepolymer. Like other isocyanates, the final prepolymer can react to form all the normally

expected structures.

2.1.10 Raw material storage and conditioning

All raw materials for producing flexible polyurethane foams are protected from moisture during

storage. Polyols are generally hygroscopic and absorb water from the air, so the water content

can increase by a few percent in a short period of time and can lead to shifts in characteristic

values, increased carbondioxide generation and therefore lower foam density and reduced foam

strength.

Protection against moisture is particularly important in the storage of polyisocyanates. The

polyurea which forms during reaction with atmospheric moisture is separated off as a solid so

encrustations occur in the storage container and particles are deposited which can block the lines
8
and nozzles. For this reason, air entering the storage container when raw materials are removed

should be dry.

Polyurethane raw materials can only be stored for a limited time. While most of the basic

components can be stored unmixed in sealed containers for months and years, mixtures

(formulations) are likely to undergo a chemical change in a matter of weeks. This is shown by

discoloration, increased viscosity, and a reduction in reactivity and foam stability.

High temperatures can sharply reduce the storage stability of the raw materials. Temperature

control of the raw materials during prolonged storage is also appropriate. High temperatures can

impair the quality, and low temperatures can impair the processability by making the viscosity

too high. For completeness, raw materials containing blowing agents (H-FC, H-CFC) are

generally stored at temperatures below 30 °C. As a general rule, the statutory regulations on

storing chemical raw materials are always observed.

Polyol and isocyanates are usually stored in tanks of 10-30 cubic metres capacity. As the

foaming reactions are strongly influenced by temperature, the materials are ideally kept at a

constant temperature. The tanks are in places where the temperature is within a range of 20-

28°C.

Catalysts and silicone oil surfactants are stored in the drums in which they are delivered and

solutions made up as required.

Methylene chloride is also kept in drums.

2.2 PRINCIPLES OF FLEXIBLE POLYURETHANE FOAM PRODUCTION

9
2.2.1 The basic chemistry

The Polymerization Reaction

The polyurethane polymer forming reaction occurs between an isocyanate and an alcohol as

follows;

The hydrogen on the nitrogen atom of the urethane group is capable of reacting with additional

isocyanate to form an allophanate group.

Reaction of isocyanate with urethane

10
The Gas Producing Reaction

To make foam, the polyurethane polymer must be expanded or blown by the introduction of

bubbles and a gas. A convenient source of gas is the carbon dioxide produced from the reaction

of an isocyanate group with water.

The intermediate product of this reaction is a thermally unstable carbamic acid, which

spontaneously decomposes to an amine and carbon dioxide. Diffusion of the carbon dioxide into

bubbles previously nucleated in the reacting medium causes expansion of the medium to make

foam. Further reaction of the amine with additional isocyanate gives a distributed urea.

The approximate total heat release per mole of water is 47 kcal. The disubstituted urea reacts

with isocyanate to form a biuret. The reaction is as follows;

11
      R-N=C=O + RNH-C(O)-NHR" RNH-C(O)-NR' - C(O)-NHR" 5

     Isocyanate         Substituted Urea                         Substituted biuret

2.2.2 Calculating the formulation

Formulae for polyurethane calculations.

A. Equivalent Weight

The equivalent weight (eq. wt.) tells you how many grams of a product you need to have for one

equivalent of reactive groups.

I. Eq.wt of any polyol;

For example Eq.Wt of a triol with 1.65% OH = (17)/ (1.65/100) = 1033

NOTE: Eq.Wt of any polyol can also be given by the formula below;
12
For example Eq.Wt of a triol with 54.45 OH number;

Where 56.1 is the atomic weight of potassium hydroxide and 1000 is the number of milligrams

in one gram of sample

II. Equivalent weight of an isocyanate for example Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI)

Where 42 is the atomic weight of the NCO group.

For example, Eq.Wt of a diisocyanate analyzed at 48.2% NCO is;

B. Percent Hydroxyl ( % OH )

This is got by; rearrangement of equation (2), substituting from equation (3) and reduction of

constants.
13
C. Hydroxyl number (OH number)

It is the number of milligrams of KOH equivalent to the hydroxyl content 1.0g of polyol

It is got by rearrangement of equation (5)

D. Stoichiometric weight of Toulene Diisocyanate (TDI) required for 100 parts of polyol.

E. Stoichiometric weight of TDI required for X parts of water

F. Total Amount of TDI

The total amount of TDI used in the formulation is the product of the TDI index and the sum

of the TDI necessary for the reaction with polyol and water and any other reactive

ingredients. An index of 105 means that there are 5% excess equivalents of TDI available in

the system (in excess of the Stoichiometric amount required by the polyol and water and any

other reactive ingredients).

14
 The following example illustrates how this equation may be used to calculate the weight of

TDI to be used in the formulation shown. In this example, triol (OH number= 54.56) = 100

parts, water added to the formulation = 3.6 parts, and TDI index (105) = X parts.

A typical foam formulation

Considering the setting up of a typical slabstock foam formulation based on a shell caradol

polyol, with a hydroxyl (OH) VALULE 42mg KOH/g and water content 0.03%, and caradate 80,

on a slabstock machine having five streams that’s to say polyol, isocyanate, aqueous activator

(water, amine and silicone oil N0.2), stannous octoate solution, and methylene chloride .

Basic formulations are presented, by industry convention in a standardized format based on 100

parts by weight of polyol. Most other constituents are then shown as parts per 100 of polyol.

Often abbreviated as pph, though the isocyanate required is shown as an index figure not as

weight. The water shown is the total present not just that added in the aqueous activator.

The basic formulation has to be converted to a set of machine settings for a run; this is most

conveniently recorded on the run sheet which is a record of all relevant parameters.

Taking as an example of foam of 25-26 kg/m³ density and medium hardness, atypical basic

formulation is:

15
 Raw material Parts/100 Flow rate Conversion Machine

(pph) (kg/min) factor setting

Polyol 100 109.00 2.671569 40.8 HZ

TDI (index 105) 45.40 49.49 0.937734 53 kg/min

Water 3.68 4.01 0.871739 4.6 kg/min

Amine 0.40 0.44 0.001092 403 rpm

Silicone 1.00 1.09 0.004719 231 rpm

Stannous octoate 0.24 0.26 0.000426 610 rpm

Methylene chloride 6.00 6.54 0.186857 35 kg/min

NOTE:

 The parts by weight for; polyol, Water, amine , silicone , stannous octoate , methylene

chloride are obtained using the following formula;

(Flow rate of raw material ÷ Flow rate of polyol) × 100

For example water; (4.01÷ 109) × 100 = 3.68 parts by weight.

The parts by weight for TDI are calculated using equation (9), shown on page 15.

 The method to convert this basic formulation to machine throughput setting for the five

streams is shown below;

(Flow rate) ÷ (Conversion factor) = Machine setting

For example, for polyol; Machine setting = 109/2.671569 = 40.8

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2.3 MAXFOAM MACHINE

2.3.1 Description of Maxfoam machine

All metering streams are pumped via three way valves through a potring into the mixing head;

the stirrer in the mixing head is driven by a motor.

Via an adaptor and two flexible (1) of equal length, the mixture is transported to the bottom of

the trough (2).

The foaming action starts in the trough and after a certain dwell time, which can be measured by

a stop watch, the foam will reach the troughlip (3) where it flows onto the bottom paper, which is

supported by the pourplate (9).

The foam is arrested by a ‘starting block’ and is consequently made to rise into the upper part of

the trough against the sideflange (4) and the rear troughwall (5). The coveyor (19) is now started

and takes with it the bottom-and sidepapers. The bottom paper (18) must run smoothly over the

pourplate (6).

Sealing strips (11) do not seal the joint between the pourplate and the sidepapers (17) but reduce

friction between sidepaper and pourplate. From the sidepaper unroll (16) sidepaper runs via

sidepaper inlet roller (14) between the sidewall (13) and pourplate (9). The sidepaper at the

bottom side folded inwards (10) by some 70-80 mm (3 inches) by means of a sidepaper folding

station (15). At the topside, the sidepaper is held in position by 8 guide rollers (20). At the end of

the pourplate the foam will have almost reached its full height. The bottom side of the foam

block moves smoothly onto the slat conveyor (19), via the slipping lay down sheet (12).

17
18
2.3.2 Operating the maxfoam machine.

Calibration.

a. The reproducibility of foam production depends mainly upon the degree of accuracy of

all metering streams, thus before any test or production can be done, all pump circuits

have to be tested and calibrated.

b. The output, versus ratometer indication or dial indication has to be plotted on separate

graphs and attention is given to the proportional relationship between indication and

output.

Ventilation.

All fans are checked.

Checklist

19
a. Checking is done to ensure that the correct polyol and TDI tanks are selected and that

there is sufficient material to cover the intended production period.

b. All returns to the tank are checked to make sure that they are correctly selected.

c. Air supply is checked to see whether it is`on’ and that 80 p.s.i is available.

d. The main panel is switched `on’ and before starting up any of the metering streams, all the

three-way valves are checked to make sure that they are operating satisfactorily; those that

may be sluggish in operation are removed.

Manual/Auto start selector is set to Auto and all the selected valves are checked to make

sure that they are operating correctly, both opening and closing.

Note: Drips are caught in large polythene bag.

e. After carrying out d, manual mode is selected and recirculation of polyol and TDI is

started.

f. Temperatures are then checked and controlled, normally 20-22°C. (68.72 °F).

g. Flushing out of the old activator (water, amine and silicone oil) and replenishing of this

and the other activator tanks is done where necessary.

h. Recirculation of the activators.

Note: Pressures on all streams are checked.

i. The activator is checked to know whether it flows through the mixing head and the

pressures are noted. A high pressure indicates either jet too small or blockage-clean or

replace.
20
j. Whilst carrying out flow checks, the flows must be free from air. If air is present the

levels in the tanks are checked and it is also made sure that the filters are clean.

k. The starting block unit is assembled, ensuring that:

1. the startboard will clear the paper guide rollers.

2. The sheet foam gaskets are in light contact only with the sidepapers (too much pressure

here will cause the sidepapers to be pulled downwards.

l. Mixing Head.

1. The spigot which locates the mixing head barrel is cleaned and the sealing O-rings are

checked to make sure that they are okay.

2. The stirrer locating shaft is cleaned, the O-ring are checked and then lightly smeared

with white grease and the stirrer is assembled in the drive shift.

3. The barrel is fit and the stirrer is checked to ensure that it is not catching on the inside

of the barrel, first turning the drive belt by hand and then under power.

Note: The actual r.p.m (rounds per minute) can be set at the time.

4. A polythene bag is held under the mixing head and the solvent flushing system is

checked for correct operation.

5. Checking whether adequate solvent is available.

m. Trough and pourplate.

1. The lip of the trough is put on 70% of the expected block height measured from the

horizontal slat conveyor.

The position of the trough can be adjusted with jacking units.

2. The inclination of the first pourplate is set at an angle of 1-4° by using jacking units.
21
The start of a run

1. The fans are started.

2. Auto start is selected

3. The mixer is started before components

4. The Auto start sequence controller is started

5. When the foam reaches the starting board, the conveyor is started slowly and the speed

moved up to the final setting in a few seconds.

6. After a few minutes, the height of the block, the foam profile, the rise profile and also

the position of fullrise can be observed.

7. After the foam has passed the sidepaper rewind, the starting board with supports is

dismantled and removed from the conveyor.

Termination of a run

1. The finishing board is prepared and is had ready for shut down

2. Auto stop is pressed.

3. The solvent purge is commenced and then the mixer is started for 10-15 seconds. The

mixer is stopped and purging is continued until the transparent flexible tubes are filled

with clear solvent. 10-15 litres of the solvent are used.

22
4. In the meantime the stopping board is inserted and pushed down the pourplate by means

of two ½ inch steel tubes.

5. The conveyor is stopped when the block is about 20ft (6.5 metres) from the trough and

tear papers.

6. The conveyor is restarted.

7. The metering units are switched off.

8. They are switched off from the main switch

9. The nucleating air valve is kept open.

10. The mixing head is dismantled and is cleaned with an extra flush of solvent.

11. The trough is cleaned before the content has cured, the scrap is deposited onto the

bottompaper

12. When the trough is clean, the scrap from the cleaning is collected into a piece of

bottompaper and moved into a container.

23
2.4 PROCESS FOR PRODUCING FLEXIBLE POLYURETHANE FOAM

2.4.1 Preparation of raw materials

a. Polyol

When inorganic fillers and additives are added to the polyol, time is allowed for the

dissolving process which starts during mixing. When the mixture is not mixed for a long

time, air bubbles remain in it, and this causes holes in the foam.

b. Catalysts

I. Amine

When preparing amine, polyol is added first in a container, followed by amine 2, then

amine 1, they are added in a ratio of 6:3:1 respectively. The mixture is then stirred

thoroughly.

Amine 2 is called the auxiliary amine, its use is to dry the sides of the foam block such

that the cutter doesn’t stick on it.

(Bis (2-dimethylaminoethyl) ether) is always used as amine 1; it accelerates

and controls the rate of the water: isocyanate reaction.

Polyol is added to increase volume such that the pumps can run efficiently. Pumps

cannot efficiently pump small volumes.

II. Stannous octoate

The solution is made by adding the correct amount of stannous octoate to a known

weight of solvent (polyol). The mixture is stirred well because of the high viscosity. But

24
 care is taken not to stir-in any air as this takes a lot of time to come out of solution.

Polyol is added to increase volume such that the pumps can run efficiently. Pumps

cannot efficiently pump small volumes. Polyol and Stannous octoate are added in a ratio

of 2:1 respectively.

2.4.2 Foam preparation-general points

To enable full height block to be produced from the very start of a run, a piece of scrap foam or

wood, the full expected height of the block and 2-3cm narrower in width, is put in the paper

mould in the conveyor. This stop acts as a wall for the liquid and supports the front of the rising

foam block. The stop should be as close to the mixing head as possible at the start of the run.

When starting, the conveyor speed should be slightly faster than the calculated figure to prevent

underrunning. After 20-30 seconds of running, the speed is gradually reduced in steps until the

ridges of fingers in the area between the uncreamed liquid on the paper and beginning of the

rising foam, is reduced to about 10-20cm in length. This speed will in turn give the highest block

that can be produced from a given throughput of components.

The stannous octoate level can be optimized whilst the machine is running by adjusting the level

in steps of 0.02 pph (parts per hundred). The initial setting is reduced by this amount. At the

change, the foam is marked and small splits are looked for in the shoulder of the block at the

paper take-off. If there are no splits, reduction is done by further steps until they do, then the

stannous octoate level is increased, just sufficient to remove the splits. This process gives the

most open foam with good springy feel.

25
2.4.3 Metering and mixing of components

The materials are delivered to the mixing head in the correct ratios and at the right throughput.

Since metering accuracy is very important, the flow levels are kept stable. Once in the mixing

head, the materials are mixed together completely. The mixing conditions used influence the size

of the foam cells. Metering and mixing is achieved by a low pressure machine. The pressure

referred to being the pressure of the materials at the inlet of the mixing head. The low pressure

machine is described in details below;

Low-pressure machine

With low-pressure machines, the components are usually circulated by gear pumps for a short

time prior to pouring. Simple switch valves controlled by timing devices which determine

pouring time ensure that the components enter the agitator mixing chamber simultaneously.

After each shot, the mixing chamber is cleaned by aqueous flushing agents to remove any

remaining reaction mix.

Low pressure machines have a recirculation line for each component and a valve to change the

flow from recycle to delivery to the mixing head. The delivery of material to the mixer stats by

starting the gear pump.

26
Fig. 1: Principle of a low-pressure machine

Note: Only two streams have been shown for simplicity. Further streams would have the same

layout up to the mixing head.

2.4.4 Mixing head

On a low pressure machine the components are mixed by the use of a high shear stirrer. The

speed of the stirrer influences the cell size of the foam. All raw materials are metered as separate

27
streams and are fed in the polyol line except TDI, just before the mixing head rather than directly

into the head. Nucleating air is put into the polyol line. Inorganic fillers and additives are also

added to polyol. This reduces the number of entry points on the head and also provides a small

degree of premixing.

2.4.5 Outlet nozzles

The mixed material leaves the mixer at a high velocity and if allowed to fall directly onto the

paper there is a lot of splashing leading to holes in the foam. To avoid this splashing and to give

a smooth laydown on the paper, an outlet nozzle of larger diameter than the mixer is used to

reduce the velocity of the liquid.

2.4.6 Conveyor and tunnel

The ingredients of the foam formulation discharged through the nozzle fall onto the front of a

conveyor belt, called the foam line. The conveyor first passes through an enclosed, ventilated

section, or tunnel, where the ingredients react quickly to form the foam "bun." From its

maximum expansion, the foam begins to release blowing agent and unreacted chemicals. These

emissions are exhausted from the enclosed section. To produce foam free from faults the

conveyor must have a flat surface, and must run smoothly. The conveyor is tilted downwards at

an angle of 3 and 5 degrees away from the mixing head and assists in building up of the block

height.

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2.4.7 Paper feed and take off systems  

Three papers are used. However the three papers must run exactly at the same speed to avoid

tearing the foam. The papers are usually fed from free-running rollers and pulled by a motor

driven take off roller at the end of the primary conveyor. Normally the bottom paper is pulled off

at the end of the secondary conveyor, but it can be left on and cut off later during block

trimming.

2.4.8 Block handling

a) Block cutting

As the block leaves the conveyor it must be cut into pieces of convenient sizes for

transport to storage and curing area. This done by a travelling cut-off saw which can move

along the conveyor with the block as the cut is made.

b) Block storage

Hot block curing

The design of the hot block curing facilities and handling of the blocks in this area is done

correctly to produce top quality foam and to minimize health and fire risks. The foam blocks

leave the cut-off knife about 5-8 minutes after the foaming reaction begins near the mixing

head. The reaction is strongly exothermic and the open celled foam is a good insulator, the

blocks therefore become very hot. Typically, for water blown formulation containing 4.8pph

water with a block cross section between 70 and 200cm wide and 70cm to 100cm high, the

centre of the block will reach 160-170°C. The time to reach this temperature will be about

20-30 minutes after foaming and block will not start to cool for another 3-4 hours. After that

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 it will take another 20 hours to cool to room temperature. This means that the whole curing

cycle takes about 24 hours from the formation of the block on the machine.

During this hot stage, the block gives off gases which contain free toluene diisocyanate and

amine catalyst. Furthermore it can, if incorrectly made, scorch (a yellow or brown

discoloration of the foam, particularly in the core) or even catch fire spontaneously.

Therefore the design of the curing area takes the following points into consideration:

 Adequate ventilation: the roof is set slightly above the wall to provide an opening all

round. In case of fire, this will allow the smoke to escape so assisting in fire fighting.

 High-output, automatic water sprinkler system.

 Good escape routes for personnel incase of fire.

When handling blocks in the first 24 hours after making, the following precautions are taken:

 The blocks are stood or moved onto a smooth surface to prevent damage to the skin of

the block which is still soft.

 The blocks are not stacked one on top of the other, as this would increase the effective

mass of hot foam. This would prevent blocks surrounded by others from cooling

normally and can lead to excessive heat build-up and fire.

 The blocks are kept in store until cold, which is usually about 24 hours after making.

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NOTE: End Blocks

The first as well as the last 1-2 metres of foam being produced always have an uncontrolled

composition of chemicals, and are, therefore, particularly risky. These block ends are, therefore,

put in a special area outside in the open.

2.4.9 Foam conversion & finishing

a) Block Transportation

The foam blocks are brought to the conversion section from the curing area or block store by

manual trolleys.

b) Block Edge Trimming

Usually the blocks are first trimmed and cut to overall size required for further conversion into

a great variety of semi-finished and finished products.

The blocks are trimmed one side at a time by means of a manual vertical-cutting machine.

c) Horizontal Slitting

After having cut the blocks to size, they can be slit into sheets and mattresses on a horizontal

slitting machine.

The Stack slitting machine slits the block into a stack of sheets, that’s to say the sheets can be

left on the machine until part of or the entire block has been converted into sheets. This type

of machine has a thin knife-guide, and is usually automatically operated.

The finished products are then transported to the finished product store.

2.4.10 Typical slabstock production line for flexible polyurethane foam

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2.4.11 Faults: causes and remedies

I. Mechanical Splits in sideskin- see picture A

These vertical splits are caused by too low speed of the sidepaper, so the block runs faster

than the sidepaper, the brake tension may be too high or there is too much friction

between the fallplate and sidewall, so this problem can be solved by checking the

sidepaper running

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II. Closed cells-see picture B

It can happen, that the top surface of the block is covered over the full width with a large

number of warts, which don’t blow off, this is an indication that the foam is closed, in

other words the stannous octoate level is too high. This problem can simply be cured by

reducing the stannous octoate level.

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III. Bottom corner splits: see picture C

The block, which is below, is a typical product of a Maxfoam run during which the

fullrise was too close to the end of the fallplate. The left hand bottom corner split runs

under an angle of 45-60° into the block, on the right hand side the split runs horizontally

into the block. The way to cure the problem is by;

1. reducing the amine

2. reducing the fallplate length

3. increasing the speed of the conveyor

4. increasing the output

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IV. Lump in the center of the topskin- see picture D

The cross section of the block shows a vertical line of densified material in the center of

the block, together with a small lump on the top surface. This problem is caused by a low

viscosity of the mass at the top of the trough. To solve this problem the viscosity has to

be increased, which means that the amine level has to be raised.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 GENERAL CONCLUSION

There remains a great challenge to solve the problem of low pump efficiency. This problem

lowers the production capacity and the quality of foams. When the efficiencies of pumps are

poor, it means that the selected/desired concentrations of raw materials will not be attained;

instead concentrations lower than the desired ones will be attained, hence reducing the quality of

foams and production capacity. In foam production, quality of foams and production capacity are

very sensitive to the concentrations of raw materials.

In the light of this, it is recommended that something should be done to address this problem.

3.2 RECOMMENDATION

Below are suggested measures which may be undertaken to increase production and also

improve quality of foams;

1. Routine maintenance of pumps and replacement of worn out pump parts:

This will help to solve the problem of low pump efficiencies, hence increasing output and

also improving quality of foams since the desired concentrations will now be attained.

2. Construction of a laboratory:

To assure the product quality, the laboratory performs routine tests on selected batches.

Most of the tests, such as density measurement, tensile and compression strength tests are

mechanical in nature.

Since expansion of polymer into a cellular state greatly increases the surface area, reaction of

the foam with environmental agents, for example moisture and air, are correspondingly faster
36
 than that in solid polymer. Ageing problem is thus serious for polyurethane foam. The life

time of foam can be estimated from accelerated tests by keeping foam samples in an oven.

However the training was of great importance to my career. I learnt many new things and these

include;

 how to make flexible polyurethane foams

 how to mix the raw materials required for production in the right quantities.

 how to manage materials(materials management)

 how to convert foam blocks into finished products like; flexible mattresses,

orthopedic/rebounded mattresses, baby cotts, cushions and pillows.

3.3 REFERENCES

1. Michael Szycher “Szycher's handbook of polyurethanes” 1999

2. Arthur H. Landrock “Handbook of plastic foams: types, properties, manufacture, and

applications” 1995

3. www.freepatentsonline.com

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