Definition: Educational technology is a term used to describe a wide array of teaching-and-learning–

related software and hardware that’s increasingly being used in college and university classrooms. The
ultimate goal of educational technology, also referred to as Ed Tech, is to enable an improved learning
environment, which in turn is meant to boost student outcomes. It has also been proven to increase student
engagement and participation in class.  
Educational technology refers to technology that usually helps facilitate collaboration in an active learning
environment. By using educational technology, educators can create digital, interactive textbooks, gamify
lessons, take attendance, assign homework, hold quizzes and tests and get real time results related to
teaching material, style and format. Educational technology is disrupting traditional education and teaching
methods by offering both teachers and students the ability to learn in an environment that makes use of now-
common devices such as smartphones, laptops and tablets.
Scope and Significance of Educational Technology
Keeping an eye over such broad concepts of educational technology, one is able to map but the areas of its
operation in terms of topic or aspects covered through its study or application. In brief, they may be
summarized as below.
1. Analysis of the process of teaching and learning: Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of
teaching, analysis of the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phase of teaching, levels of teaching,
theories of teaching, principles and maxims of teaching, the concept of learning, relevance of the theories,
the relationship between teaching and learning.
2. Spelling out the educational goals or objectives: Educational technology tries to discuss the topics such
as identification of education needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources available for
satisfaction of these needs.
3. Development of curriculum: This aspect of educational technology is concerned with the designing of a
suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives.
4. Development of teaching-learning material: This area of educational technology is concerned with the
production and development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of stipulated objectives,
design curriculum and available resources.
5. Teaching preparation or teaching-training: Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and
learning. Educational technology, therefore, take care of the proper preparations of teachers for exercising
their complex responsibilities.
6. Development and selection of the teaching-learning strategies and topics: This aspect deals with the
central problems of teaching learning act. Here educational technology tries to describe the ways and
discovering, selecting and developing suitable strategies and tactic of teaching.
7. Development, selection and use of the appropriate audio-visual aids: teaching-learning is greatly
influenced and benefited by the use of appropriate audio-visual aids. Educational technology covers this
aspect by discussing various types of audio-visual aids used for educational purpose, their proper selecting
suiting to a particular teaching-learning situation.
8. Effective utilization of the hardware and mass media: various sophisticated instrument, equipment,
gadget and communication devices brought through mechanization and electronics revolution playing an
effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the teachers and learners in their
respective roles.
9. To work for the effective utilization of the subsystem of education: educational technology considers
education as a system operating, in a systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational
objectives.
10. To provide essential feedback and control through evaluation: educational technology I essentially
concerned with the task of exercising appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by
planning and devising suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the process and products of
the teaching-learning activities.
Thus, educational technology is concerned with all variables, phases, levels, and aspects of the teaching-
learning process. In brief, it works for over all planning and organization of the system or subsystem of
education.
In above discussion, an attempt has been made to identify the scope of the subject educational technology by
mapping out its field of operation, but in true sense, it is unwise to put hedge and boundaries around such a
developing and fast growing subject.
Use and Significance of Educational Technology
In Pakistan, before the 1960‟s the term educational technology was almost unknown to the educational
system. It was used as synonym to audio-visual teaching aids. The role of educational technologist in India,
today, is not merely that of an audio-visual aid master, hardware expert, media expert or programmed text
writer, but of one who is concerned with the information of an overall design to carry out an evaluation of
the total process of education in terms of specific objectives.
Educational technology, as we find it today, has a meaningful present and promising future in our country.
Some of the significant development in this direction may be summarized as follows:
1. There has been a wider and more effective utilization of radio for broadcasting educational programs
throughout the country. These well planned programs are now broadcast throughout the country for both in-
school and out-of-school groups.
2. Another significant development in the use of educational technology is concerned with the development
of television programs.
3. The third important area where educational technology has been useful is the problem of -training and re-
training a large number of school teachers in an effective way.
4. Another application of educational technology in our country is known as distance education.
5. Another major area where educational technology is being used in our country relates to language
instruction.
6. Another field of operation of educational technology in our country is concerned with the correspondence
education,
7. Another use for which educational technology is being put in our country is concerned with preparation,
development and utilization of audio-visual material, and handling as well as maintenance of the hardware
appliances and sophisticated gadgets.
8. In the latest trend, educational technology is providing its worth by utilizing the services of computers and
advanced form of ICT technology in the field of education.

Thus, educational technology has been providing its worth in our country by guiding, planning,
implementing and evaluating various programs of formal as well as non-formal education.
Characteristics of educational technology.
The educational technology has a numerous characteristic some of the following are as follows:
1. Educational technology has contributed in developing various methods, for example, micro-teaching
method, simulate teaching interaction analysis, audio-visual aids and programmed learning method.
2. In the field of educational technology, psychology, science, technology, system art, audio-visual aids and
machines are used.
3. Educational technology is based on the application of the scientific knowledge.
4. educational technology is helpful in making the teaching process objectives, easy, clear, interesting and
scientific.
5. in educational technology, the provision of measuring tools is emphasized for the evaluation of learning
outcomes.
6. educational technology is a continuous dynamic technology.
7. A desired is possible in the behavior of the teachers and pupils.
8. Educational technology encourages learning by controlling the environment.
Types of Educational Technology
Educational technology, as has already been discussed, has a wide range of scope and applicability in the
field of education. In a broader sense, it stands for the application of the principles and techniques of science
and technology as well as psychology and pedagogy in the activities of teaching and learning. As a result, it
has been capable of providing necessary ways and means, theoretical as well as practical, for improving the
process and products of teaching-learning related both formal and informal education. These forms of
educational technology, in general, can be listed as follows:
1. Teaching technology
2. Instructional technology
3. Behavioral technology
4. Instructional design technology
Teaching technology
As already emphasized in this chapter, teaching technology, as a sub-system of educational technology, is
concerned with the task of systematization of the process of teaching. However, teaching cannot merely be
treated as a sum total of certain teaching skills. A teacher has to play the role of technician by learning the
art and science of teaching. Teaching must be regarded as a technology that a teacher should try to know and
practice well if she wishes to be successful in his teaching job.
A technical knowledge and skills of tasks requires that it should be completed with reasonable economy and
greater efficiency. If a teacher can teach well with the least efforts resulting into maximum productivity,
then he can be thought utilizing teaching as technology. The essence of the application of technology lies in
getting more and better output with the least input in terms of time and labor.
If teacher is in the position to make the use of technology in teaching, he must be well equipped with the
technological skills like the following, besides having a good knowledge or mastery over the subject matter:
1. Communication skills,
2. Skills of interaction with his students,
3. Skill of making the students to learn and think independently, and
4. Skill of evaluating and reinforcing pupil’s learning behavior, etc.
Fundamental principle and characteristics of teaching technology
Teaching technology, suggested by E.G. Vedanagayam (1988), can be distinguished because of certain
characteristics and fundamental principles as follows:
1. Teaching is a scientific process and its major components are content, communication, and feedback.
2. There is a close relationship between teaching and learning.
3. It is possible to modify, improve and develop the teaching-learning activities.
4. The terminal behavior of the learner, in terms of learning structures can be established by appropriate
teaching environment.
5. Teaching skills can be developed and strengthened by means of feedback devices with or without
sophisticated techniques.
6. Pre-determined learning objectives can be achieved by designing suitable teaching activities.
7. Use of achievement motivation technique enhances the output of the teacher and the learner.
Contents of teaching technology
Teaching technology process certain basic things in the shape of the philosophy and acts of teaching. A
teacher has to imbibe the art and techniques of this technology. How should a teacher in practice proceed for
the use of teaching technology in the process of teaching- learning? This aspect has been closely analyzed
by scholars like Glazer, Bruner, Gagne and Davies. Davies(1971), in his work Management of learning, has
presented the contents of teaching, leading of teaching controlling of teaching. These four steps
systematically prescribe the contents of teaching technology to be learnt and practiced by a teacher for
becoming a teaching technician.
1. Planning of teaching: Through this step, teaching technology helps a teacher to plan the details of his
teaching journey to be traveled along with his students. For this purpose, it tells that a teacher must first try
to formulate teaching-learning objectives to be realized through the on-going teaching-learning process and
then very carefully plan for the realization of these set of objectives by taking care of (i) the entry behavior
of the learners (ii) selection of appropriate learning experiences, (iii) selection of proper teaching methods,
strategies and aid material, and (iv) creating a conducive and helpful environment for proper teaching-
learning.
2. Organization of teaching: in its second step, teaching technology supplies the necessary knowledge and
skills to the concerned teacher for arranging, relating and organizing all the available teaching-learning
resources, men and material, for the proper realization of the set teaching-learning objectives in the most
effective, efficient and economic way possible. Specifically here, it may talk about the ways and means of
seeking cooperation of the administration personnel, parent and community; developing teacher’s own
competencies for better communication including use of proper teaching method, aids, strategies;
organization and utilization of the available physical facilities and resources for a better teaching-learning.
3. Leading of teaching: the contents of teaching technology in this step provide necessary knowledge and
skills for teacher to motivate, encourage, and guide and thus, lead his students on the path of learning for the
realization of the set teaching-learning objectives.
4. Controlling of teaching: Through its last step of managing teaching, the contents of teaching may help a
teaching to acquire necessary knowledge and skill for the proper measurement and assessment of the
teaching-learning outcome, i.e. the output of his teaching in view of set teaching-learning objectives.
Instructional Technology
This kind of technology is meant for helping the instructor and the learner in the desired instructional task
for the realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a particular teaching-learning situation. The
term instructional stands for a certain type of command meant for getting some specific information,
knowledge and understanding about a thing system or a process. Instructional technology, in this way, first
try to plan what type of instruction and instructional material are needed in a particular teaching-learning
situation and then suggest ways and means for the utilization of this instructional material for the proper
realization of the instructional objectives.
Instructional technology may be defines as a subsystem of educational technology which helps the instructor
or the learner himself as a part of his self-learning or auto instruction bye determining the media, methods
and material for realization of the stipulated instructional objectives in a given teaching-learning situation.
Setting of instructional objectives
Instructional objectives make a very core and heart of any instructional process. Instructional technology
may help the instructor and learner to take decisions about the instructional and learning objectives in close
cooperation of the following:
1. The age and grade level of the learner.
2. The physical, emotional, social and mental potential of the learner.
3. The previous experiences of the learner related to the subject and topic.
4. The men-mental resources available for imparting instruction.

Taking decisions about the instructional material

We have to select the teaching-learning experiences and then organize and integrate them properly for
utilizing in the course of instruction. This instructional material then divided into properly related and
sequenced units by following the principles of simple to complex, specific to general, theory to practice, etc.
all such decision about the selection of the instructional material, for carrying out the task of instruction in
view of the realization and stipulated instructional objectives, are always facilitated by knowledge and skills
provided by the instructional technology.
Taking decision about the media and method
Instructional technology may help the teacher and also the learners to select and make use of appropriate
media and methods for carrying out teaching-learning process.
There are varieties of media and method available for imparting instruction. One has to take proper decision
about the selection of particular media and method or a combination of media and methods depending upon
the nature of the piece of instruction and resources and environment available in a particular teaching-
learning situation.
It contains the topic like the following in its prescribed syllabus of course:
1. Instructional strategies like lecture strategy, demonstration strategy, etc.
2. Special instructional procedures for carrying out auto-instructional or self-learning like programmed
instruction, instruction carried out with the help of teaching machines, etc.
3. Cooperative or group instructional strategies like working on project, living and learning in the
community, etc.
4. Knowledge and application of various types of audio-visual aids and instructional material such as
radio, television, tape recorder, projector, charts, etc.

Taking decision about the proper instructional environment

Particular type of environment is essential for carrying out particular type of instruction, and at then helps
the teacher as well as learner for organization of that type of instructional environment.
Helping in the task of evaluation
Evaluation is the real key and controlling agency of any type of instructional activity carried out by the
teacher in the shape of auto-instruction. How far a teacher or learner has been successful in
realizing the stipulated instructional objectives can be made known only through a well-planned strategy of
evaluation.
Behavioral Technology
Meaning
“Any manifestation of life is activity”, says Woodworth (1945), behavior is a collective name of such
activities.
Behavioral technology, as one of the kind/type in its board form, may be utilized to study and bring
modification in the behavior of all living organisms.
Behavioral technology, in a broader technical sense, may also include behavior modification strategies
which are not based on learning principles. However, in school situations, the task of behavioral technology
has almost become synonymous with the behavioral analysis and behavior modification carried out through
the principles of operant conditioning (shaping of the desired behavior) and observational learning (imitation
of a model behavior)
Use and application of behavioural technology
1. Analysis of behavior: behavior technology may very well help in analysing the observed behavior of
individual in proper way. An analyst with its help may state the behavior in specific, observable behavioural
terms, e.g. he is day dreaming or wasting time in gossiping or reacting in a specific situation, etc.
2. Setting the target behavior for behavioral modification: once the existing behavior is known and analyzed
into specific behavioral terms, the help of behavioral technology may be taken for setting as well as stating
the target behavior (desired modified behavior) in specific behavioral terms. As a result of such naming,
identifying and fixing of desired modified target behavior in specific term, the actual task of behavior
modification, then become quite scientific, purposeful and goal-oriented.
3. Proving suitable ways and means for behavioral modification: here it can help:

 The learners to acquire the desired learning experiences in terms of knowledge, understanding,
skills, application, attitudes and values, by bring changes in their entry behaviour.
 The teacher by suggesting ways and means for bringing changes in the learning and acquisition
behaviour of their students.
 The parents, teachers, educational administrators, guidance personnel and social workers, by
suggesting suitable technology for the prevention and treatment of behavioural problems and
disorder.
 The parents and teachers to work with their children and students for the optimum growth and
development of the desirable personality traits and behavioural acts.
 The teachers in learning proper teacher behaviour and acquiring needed teaching skills through
special behavioural technology techniques like interaction analysis, micro-teaching, stimulated
teaching, action research. Etc.
 The teachers to manage properly the classroom behavior and interaction of their students aimed
at creating proper conducive environment for effective teaching-learning.

For inducing the desired behaviour or for bringing the needed modification in the existing behaviour,
behaviour technology, as said earlier, makes use its own technology including the appropriate learning
principles based on operant conditioning and social learning.
In shaping technique (based on Skinne‟s operant conditioning), a slightly modified or improved behaviour is
properly reinforced for attaining the desired degree of modification in one‟s behaviour.
In adopting modelling as a technique of behaviour modification, the appropriate target behaviour is put
before the child by a model for his observation.
Instructional design technology
Instructional as a process stands for helping the individual as a learner for achieving the suitable teaching-
learning situation. A good instruction is goal oriented with a specific purpose or purposes implying that the
manner in which the learner is imparted instructions (assisted in his learning process) should always be a
well-conceived, planned and effectively controlled phenomenon.
These instructional design, as Dr. Robert C. Branch, Syracuse University, USA emphasizes (1996:44), are
meant for “responding to the complexities associated with the instructional episode by analyzing, defining,
testing and recommending strategies for implementing instructions.”
The term instructional design, in its simple meaning, thus stands for layout or plan describing the manner in
which an instruction process (involving teaching and learning and its interaction) should be carried out for
attainment of the stipulated objectives.
Instructional design technology, for exercising such control and manipulation, may be seen to adopt a new
distinctive approaches like systems approach, cybernetic approach and training psychology for generating
effective instructional design with a clear cut motive and helping the learner and teacher in the attainment of
the stipulated instructional objectives.
Q: Describe role of educational technology in learning?
Role of Educational Technology in learning:
Educational Technology has absolutely revolutionized the entire education system. Until recently, the
teachers used to be the sole interpreter of knowledge to the learners and the textbooks the sole resource.
Educational technology has affected the conventional roles and it has opened up the new areas of teacher
functions such as management of resources and management of learning. Today, teachers have a range of
media to assist and supplement the instructional work.
Educational process can’t proceed systematically without the help of educational technology. Every aspect
of educational system is fully enlightened with educational technology.
Which greater role did technology play in your learning experiences:
1. technology-as-teacher
2. technology-as-partner in the learning process? Technology can play;
3. a traditional role - as delivery vehicles for instructional lessons
4. in a constructivist way as partners in the learning process.
In constructivist way:
 the learners learn from the technology and the technology serves as a teacher.
 the learners learn the content presented by the technology in the same way that the learner learns
knowledge presented by the teacher.
In traditional way:
 technology helps the learner build more meaningful personal interpretations of life and his/her world.
 technology is a learning tool to learn with, not from.
 it makes the learner gather, think, analyze, synthesize information and construct meaning with what
technology presents.
Technology serves as a medium in representing what the learner knows and what he/she is learning. 
technology serves as source and presenter of knowledge.  it is assumed that "knowledge is embedded in the
technology  the technology presents that knowledge to the student
From the traditional point of view:
 Technology like computers is seen as a productivity tool.  The popularity of word processing, databases,
spreadsheets, graphic programs and desktop publishing in the 1980s points to this productive role of
educational technology.  With the eruption of the INTERNET in the mid 90's, communications and
multimedia have dominated the role of technology in the classroom for the past few years.
From the constructivist point of view:  educational technology serves as learning tools that
learners learn with.  it engages learners in "active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and cooperative
learning.  it provides opportunities for technology and learner interaction for meaningful learning.  In this
case, technology will not be mere delivery vehicle for content. Rather it is used as facilitator of thinking and
knowledge construction.
From a constructivist perspective, the following are roles of technology in learning:
1. Technology as a tools to support knowledge construction - for representing learners' ideas, understandings
and beliefs - for producing organized, multimedia knowledge bases by learners
2. Technology as information vehicles for exploring knowledge to support learning-by-constructing - for
accessing needed information - for comparing perspectives, beliefs and world views
3. Technology as context to support learning-by-doing - for representing and stimulating meaningful real-
world problems, situations and contexts for representing beliefs, perspectives, arguments and stories of
others - for defining a safe, controllable problem space for student thinking
4. Technology as a social medium to support learning by conversing - for collaborating with others - for
discussing, arguing and building consensus among members of a community - for supporting discourse
among knowledge-building communities
5. Technology as intellectual partner to support learning-by-reflecting - for helping learners to articulate and
represent what they know - for reflecting on what they have learned and how they came to know it - for
supporting learners internal negotiations and meaning making - for constructing personal representations of
meaning - for supporting mindful thinking
Research indicates that:  Technology not only "increases students learning, understanding and achievement
but also augments motivation to learn, encourages collaborative learning and supports the development of
critical thinking and problem- solving skills".  Russell and Sorge (1999) also claims that the proper
implementation of technology in the classroom gives students control of their own learning and . . . tends to
move classrooms from teacher-dominated environments to ones that are more learner-centered.  The use of
technology in the classroom enables the teacher to do, differentiated instruction considering the divergence
of students, readiness levels, interests, multiple intelligences and learning styles.  Technology also helps
students become lifelong learners.
Summing Up  Educational technology plays various roles.  From the traditional point of view: - It
serves as representer of knowledge just like teachers. - It also serves as a productivity tool - With Internet,
technology has facilitated communication among people.  From the constructivist perspective: -
educational technology is a meaningful learning tool by serving as a learning partner.
1. Educational technology has provided a scientific base to the educational theory and practice. It has
transformed a passive classroom to an active and interactive classroom, with audio-visuals, charts and
models, smart classrooms and e-learning room which has drastically motivated and increased the attention
level of the students.
2. The introduction of educational technology has modernised the teaching-learning climate of the
educational institutions. The learners to be exposed to professionally designed programmes on video or
computers.
3. Educational technology has helped and supplemented the teachers in their instructional programmes
through the structured lessons for remedial, enrichment or drill purposes. The learners get training for self
instruction and teachers are relieved of the burden of routine repetition for exercise and revision purposes.
4. Through a systematic organisation of content and instructional materials, educational technology has
provided well-integrated structured materials for teachers thus saving a lot of their time which in turn may
be utilized for creative work and quality improvement.
5. The training and use of educational technology contributes towards the professional growth of teachers. It
equips them in the use of scientific methods for solving educational and administrative problems. It adds to
the teaching competence of teachers and inculcates a scientific outlook and scientific temper in teachers and
students.
6. Educational technology has improved the teaching-learning process and made it more effective and
process oriented. Television, Radio, V.C.R, Computers and LCD projectors etc. have enriched and
facilitated effective transmission of knowledge.
7. Educational technology has not only maintained the standards of education but also improved the ways of
teaching by giving it Teaching Aids and Programmed Instructional Material.
8. Mechanism of feedback devices for modification of teaching-learning behaviour have produced effective
teachers in the teacher-training institutes.
9. Students who appear for higher or competitive examinations have been benefitted by educational
programmes on T.V, Radio and Internet.
10. Educational technology has opened up new fields of educational researches in the field of examination
process, evaluation and classroom-teaching.
11. Educational technology has provided practices and strategies that help teachers to teach according to
individual differences of learners.
12. Educational technology has provided scientific foundation to education through the theories of learning
and intelligence.
Thus educational technology is required in each and every aspect of teaching learning process. Educational
technology serves all the purposes for modern education. Education today can’t go far without the help of
educational technology. The innovations of technology in the field of education have done wonders to
educational process. It has not only maintained the structure but also improved the nature of the educational
process.
Q:What is Learning? Explain Maxims of learning in detail?

SYSTEMS APPROACH:
System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives.
Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a
unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an example – various
parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every component of the
digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.
In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and parts, namely,
pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The teaching-learning
process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the components of a system. In this
case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a programme of instruction, all in a particular
pattern of interaction.
The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and
effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of
providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction
including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the
organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the total
system fulfilling the objectives.
In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected resource
material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the subject, know
his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their learning capacities
and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and
utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach
to achieve the stated objectives.
Major steps in the systems approach in education are:
1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and  defining instructional goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to  take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available  alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and  supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in  student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’  learning.
ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH
i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.
ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining
the defined goal.
iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other
factors.
iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in
terms of student learning.
v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.
LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH
i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or
approach.
ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel.
Some are not prepared for the extra load.
iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though
it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.
CONCLUSION. From the above discussion, it is understood that system approach is a systematic
attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. In education, this means planned
and organised use of all available learning resources, including audio-visual media, to achieve the desirable
learning objectives by the most efficient means possible.
Programmed Learning: Concepts, Types and Steps
The term educational technology has a wide range of application at present. The examples of educational
technology include both hardware and software learning sequences. In the hardware, we find the teaching
machines, the computer-assisted instruction, the learner- controlled instruction and the CCTV. The examples
of software instructional sequences are programmed learning material either in the book form or in a
teaching machine form and various types of self- instructional materials.
Programmed learning is the most appropriate example of the latest concept of instructional technology. It is
educational innovation and auto-instructional device. It is not only a technique for effective learning but also
a successful mechanism of feedback device for the modification of teacher-behaviour.
Programmed learning has arrived on the educational scene mainly due to the laboratory experiments of Prof
B.F Skinner. Prior to Skinner the concept of “Conditioning” as presented by pavlov and Watson and the
‘Law of effect’ as formulated by Thorndike are the main historical links in the developing chain of
important events.
The procedure for shaping behaviour as developed by Skinner was called ‘operant conditioning’ and this
finally becomes the basis for programmed learning technology. Now it has become an established form of
technology of teaching.
According to Prof. Gagne, programmed Learning consists of making teaching models which take into
account the initial and terminal response of the student, are graded in accordance with a detailed schedule
and permit intermediate assessment of the strategies employed.
There are three key words in this definition:
1. The accounting of the initial and terminal response of the learner.
2. Gradation of the teaching models.
3. Evaluation of the instructional strategies used for shaping of terminal behaviour.
Thus, it may be seen that programmed learning has the following three important ingredients.
1. The terminal behaviour is presented step by step using the principle of successive approximation.
2. At every step the learner has to make a response.
3. The response of the learner is reinforced by the knowledge of result.
From the above discussion, it may be noted that, programmed learning is a practice of breaking down a body
of subject matter into its constituent elements and requiring the pupil to master one step before proceeding to
the next It allows for more pupil involvement in the learning process. Since it is a self-institutional device, it
is mostly individualised. In this technique learning is more rapid as well as interesting. It is directed towards
specific objectives.
Basic Concepts of Programmed -Learning:
Programmed learning is based on certain basic concepts which have been derived from experimental work
of Operant Conditioning.
These are as follows:
1. Stimuli & Responses:
A stimulus is that aspect of an environment which guides or controls the behaviour of an individual. It is any
condition, event, or change in environment of an individual which produces a changing behaviour. For
example, a question is asked by a teacher, is a very familiar stimulus in the class-room teaching.
A response is a part of, or a change in a part of behaviour. The example of a response is the’ answer’ given
by students when faced with a question.
2. The Transfer of Stimulus Control:
When the learner’s responses from the stimuli of initial behaviour, get transferred to the appropriate stimuli,
this is called transfer of stimulus control.
3. Prompting:
A prompt is a supplementary stimulus added to the another stimulus for facilitating an errorless response.
4. Gradual Progression:
It means step presentation of material in a logical sequence.
5. Reinforcement:
Generalisation means responding to similar elements in different leaning situations. Discrimination is
differentiating between two or more stimuli and making an appropriate response.
7. Extinction:
Extinction means weakening of a response. When a response occurs and remains unreinforced, the response
does not become firmly connected to the stimuli present
8. Concept Formation:
It is a process of generalization within certain specific limits and discrimination of one stimulus from
another within that limit
9. Successive Approximation:
It means approaching the terminal behaviour in a step by step sequence by a cumulative effort on the part of
the learner.
10. A frame or a Didule:
It is a unit of subject matter which the learner handles at one time. It has three parts: stimulus (stimule),
response (respule) and feed-back (corrule).
11. Operant Span:
It is the number of responses that a student can handle in one frame or didule.
12. Terminal behaviour:
The behaviour that the student is expected to have acquired at the end of a programme sequence is called
terminal behaviour.
Principles of programme- Learning:
The principles of programming imply the rules and systems by which a programme is constructed.
The following principles are considered to be the basic ones for programmed learning:
1. Objective specification:
Which means identifying the terminal behaviours that the learner will be able to perform when he has
completed the programme.
2. Small Step Size:
Which involves dividing the information to be communicated into small units.
3. Overt Responding:
It means that pupils must act on each unit of information by means of exercises provided to assimilate it.
4. Success or Minimal Error:
This means that error and failure must be avoided at all costs because they are construed as obstacles to
learning.
5. Immediate feedback:
In order to ensure success and satisfaction, the pupil must know that his action is correct.
6. Logical, graded progress:
It implies two things-relevance of content and its graded presentation.
7. Self Pacing:
It is used for programme development and validation.
Types of Programmed – Learning:
Various forms of programmed learning modules have been reported. This includes software which is mainly
represented by linear, branching and mathetics. The other form is hardware which is represented by Learner
Controlled Instruction (LCI) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and teaching machines.
Linear programme is one in which every learner follows the identical sequence, that is, the frames or
didules are encountered in a single, pre-arranged order. The proponent of this type of programme style is
B.E Skinner (1958).
Branching programme is one where the particular response emitted on a frame or didule determines
the alternative frame/ frames, the learner proceeds to next. The proponent of this programme type is Norman
Crowder (1960)
Mathetics is one in which there is the systematic application of reinforcement theory to the analysis and
construction of complex repertoires. This also represents mastery of subject matter.
In it, the behaviour is generally classified as in involving discrimination, generalisation, and chaining. This
style is considered to be an extension of the linear model of programming. The exponent of this style is
Thomas E Gilbert (1962).
Computer-assisted Instruction is one where use of the Computer as a highly adaptive teaching
machine weakens the distinction between software and hardware. This type of instructional module was
developed by Stolurow and Davis (1965).
Steps in Programming:
1. Topic Selection:
The programmes should select the most familiar topic; otherwise he has to take the help of a subject expert.
2. Content Outline:
After topic selection, its outline may be prepared which cover all the materials, one plans, to teach. For this
programme one has to refer to examine relevant books and materials.
3. Instructional Objectives:
Instructional Objectives must be formulated which involve both task description and task analysis. The
former is the description of terminal behaviours which the learner is expected to achieve and the latter is the
series of component behaviours that he is required to acquire in the process of achieving terminal behaviour.
4. Entry Skill:
The learner should have some pre-reqisite ability and skill to understand properly the new programme. This
background experience is called the entry skill and a suitable programme cannot ne prepared without proper
assessment of the entry skill.
5. Presentation of the Material:
Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the educational point of view. Then the
programmed material should be presented in a sequence of frames arranged as steps towards terminal
behaviour.
6. Student Participation:
On analysis of the terminal behaviour one will find the critical responses of the students.
7. Terminal Behaviour Test:
The effect of programme can be ascertained by administering the terminal behaviour test. It is also known as
performance assessment. This provides feedback to the programme and shows the effectiveness of the
instructional materials.
8. Revision:
Lastly the programme may be revised on the basis of feedback. The instructional materials may be edited
and modified according to the needs and requirements of the target audience.
Programmed Learning is a self-instructional device. A rapid learner can cover the material quickly and slow
learner may proceed on his own pace. It helps the learner to teach himself at any place and pace according to
his convenience. The analytical thinking and self-direction of learners are also promoted through the use of
programmed learning materials.

Purposeful and Lasting conditions of Learning

DEFINITION OF LEARNING:“Learning is modification of behavior through experience.”
1. Awareness. I’m sure it sounds self-evident to say that students, in order to learn, need some awareness of
the subject matter at hand. That is, they must recognize that there is something they need to learn before they
can hope to learn it. It’s always sobering to realize just how many students not only don’t know anything
about the subject but don’t even recognize how much they have to learn. They don’t know what they don’t
know.
I’ve always believed that my first job, as a teacher, is to open students’ eyes to the fact that there’s a lot they
don’t know — a whole world of information out there in general, and about my subject in particular — that
might ultimately be of use to them.
2. Interest. After establishing that there is much to learn, teachers must then answer the question of why
students should care. That’s a hard one, especially for those of us who teach general education or “core”
courses, because most of our students are not naturally interested in what we’re talking about. They’re
taking our class only because it’s required for graduation or transfer and, frankly, would not darken our door
otherwise.
That’s why it’s up to us, early on and often, to help them understand why the information we’re sharing is
meaningful to them personally. Otherwise, they’re unlikely to feel very motivated and almost certainly will
not learn as much as they could.
3. Motivation. Although experience suggests that students are more likely to learn if they have some interest
in the subject matter, there are plenty of other reasons for them to pursue mastery — even if they don’t care
about the material or envision using it in the future. One good reason is grades and everything that goes with
them: good academic standing; approbation from parents, peers, and others; and admission to an academic
major or graduate program. I spent hours struggling with precalculus, not because I cared about math but
because it was required and I didn’t want to ruin my GPA.
Besides grades, one of the best forms of motivation I’ve found involves professional standards and
expectations. Most students in my first-year composition courses have little interest in grammar or sentence
structure as such, but their ears perk up when I explain that they’re going to be judged in the work force
based on how well they use the language. Which brings me to the importance of:
4. Relevance. Students learn more efficiently and effectively if they understand the relevance of a topic to
anything else in their lives or the world at large. One of the biggest complaints about a college education —
especially now, when even some bright students are considering skipping college altogether — is that it’s
largely theoretical. It’s also true that a fair amount of theory is often necessary for students to fully grasp
certain concepts.
But our courses don’t have to be all theory. We should constantly be looking for opportunities to connect
what we’re teaching to the “real world” outside our classrooms (which includes, by the way, the rest of the
college experience). I don’t just mean bringing in news articles on current events or pop-culture references. I
also mean showing students how the work they’re doing in class will prepare them for what they’ll be doing
in a year or five years.
I tell my composition students from Day 1 to ignore the “ENGL” prefix. It’s not an “English” or “language
arts” course. It’s a writing course, and the reason they’re in it is that they’re going to have to write their butts
off just to get through college. And then they will spend the rest of their professional lives writing reports,
proposals, letters, emails, etc. (They generally do not regard that as good news, but at least it makes the
material immediately relevant.)
5. Engagement. Students who understand the relevance of what they’re learning are more likely to become
engaged with it. Engagement itself is something else they need in order to achieve mastery.
Of course, “engagement” has become kind of a buzzword, used to describe everything from flipped
classrooms to service learning. But what does it really mean? For me, it means that students are immersing
themselves in the subject matter. They’re listening carefully in class, participating in discussions, and
reading the text and other course materials closely. It also means they’re thinking carefully about the
concepts, especially those they find difficult.
Most of all, engagement means that they have gone beyond mere listening and thinking to actually doing.
That’s easier in some disciplines than others. After all, students have to write in a writing class or conduct
experiments in a biology lab. Getting students to “do” history or sociology might be more of a challenge, but
I’m sure the best teachers in those disciplines have figured out how.
6. Reinforcement. That includes the repetition that is so necessary for learning, covering concepts again and
again to make sure students understand. It also includes assessment, determining how well they are grasping
concepts and then modifying our teaching accordingly. And it entails the motivational tactics (positive or
negative) that teachers employ, such as grades, recognition, praise, constructive criticism, and so forth.
Mostly, though, I think of reinforcement in terms of students’ desire to see evidence — apart from anything
we or their textbooks say — that the material is actually important in the broader scheme of things. This is
where bringing in articles, surveys, or even guest speakers can be really valuable.
I cut my instructional teeth teaching technical writing to mostly upper-division engineering students. Talk
about a bunch of folks who really didn’t want to be there. Their body language practically screamed: “Why
do we have to take another English class? We’re engineers, for crying out loud.”
After combating that level of resistance for a semester, I started bringing in, during the first week, an
engineer friend of mine who had graduated from the same program. As he explained to them how much
writing he had to do on a daily basis on the job, you could see their attitudes starting to change. That was
some serious reinforcement.
7. Support. As college professors, we have a natural aversion to “hand-holding.” Yet sometimes a bit of
hand-holding is precisely what the situation calls for — in the case of a terrified nontraditional student, for
example, or a thoroughly lost first-generation student. Occasionally, we have to step out of our own comfort
zones and expand our role from mere teacher to coach, counselor, or even cheerleader.
Support can take many other forms, too. It can mean making sure students have all the tools they need to
succeed in the course. That includes intellectual tools (like critical-thinking skills), technical ones
(mathematical formulae, organizational structures, or taxonomies), and physical resources (lab equipment,
texts, and other course materials).
But primarily, we as faculty members have to build an environment in which students feel safe yet
challenged, accepted yet pushed, valued as human beings yet evaluated as scholars. Our continuing quest,
both individually and as a faculty, is not so much to figure out how to teach best as to figure out how to
create a place where students can and will learn.
That is the quest of a career, of a lifetime, full or trial and error, fits and starts, failures and successes. But
undertaking that quest is, for me, what it means to be a teacher, and it is worth every moment of time and
every ounce of effort.

Q: Explain effective and efficient teaching in detail?

Effective teaching can be defined in many ways including teacher behavior (warmth, civility, clarity),
teacher knowledge (of subject matter, of students), teacher beliefs, and so forth. Here we define effective
teaching as the ability to improve student achievement as shown by research. As noted, this is but one way
to define effectiveness. However, teacher effects on student achievement are the preferred definition of high
quality teaching by American policy makers, and those in many other countries as well.
op Qualities of an Effective Teacher
The skills needed for effective teaching involve more than just expertise in an academic field. You must be
able to interact with people and help them understand a new way of looking at the world. This is not an easy
job! Although there are many different ways to teach effectively, good instructors have several qualities in
common. They are prepared, set clear and fair expectations, have a positive attitude, are patient with
students, and assess their teaching on a regular basis. They are able to adjust their teaching strategies to fit
both the students and the material, recognizing that different students learn in different ways. As a teacher,
you are a role model who sets the tone for the class. If you are able to show enthusiasm and commitment,
your students are more likely to reciprocate. Conversely, when you are negative, unprepared, or impatient,
these qualities will be reflected in the attitudes of your students. Undergraduate students at Georgetown have
high expectations of their instructors, and they also have many competing interests beyond the course you
are teaching. Give them a reason to remember your class as an important part of their college experience!
Positive
Keep your students engaged with a positive attitude. Teaching is most effective when students are motivated
by the desire to learn, rather than by grades or degree requirements. Many first-time TAs are confused by the
new authority of being a teaching assistant, and mistake intimidation for respect. Think of your students as
teammates, not adversaries. Learning and teaching are challenging, but that doesn't mean that you can't have
fun in the classroom. Stay focused, but don't be afraid to be creative and innovative. Allow yourself to be
enthusiastic and find ways to let students see what is interesting about your subject.
Prepared
You should know the course material. If students are required to attend lectures and read assignments, then
it seems reasonable that you would do the same. Most faculty expect graduate TAs to attend lectures,
especially if they have never taken or taught the course. Review key concepts and ideas if you are unclear
about them, particularly if it has been a while since you have worked with the topics you will be teaching.
Think about how the material can be most effectively demonstrated and design a strategy. Write an outline
or take notes to follow during a lecture, and prepare your overheads, diagrams, handouts and other aids well
in advance. Don't wait until the morning of the class!
Organized
Have a plan for what you want to teach. Your job is to illustrate key points and essential context, to help
students integrate all of their work (reading, labs, exams, papers, lectures, etc.) for the course. Given that
there is never time to teach everything, choose the most important concepts and show how they are related.
Explain ideas so students are able to build on material they have already mastered, whether from your course
or previous classes. Don't just focus on what you happen to be teaching today. Show students how what they
are learning now is connected to material covered later in the course. Keep your long term goals in mind,
pace yourself so that you don't run out of time at the end, and try to end every class with a conclusion.
Clear
Effective teachers can explain complex ideas in simple ways. As you develop expertise in an academic field,
it is easy to forget that students may have no prior knowledge of fundamental concepts that you take for
granted. Help students understand and use new terminology, so they can become fluent in the language of
your discipline. Many concepts can be more effectively demonstrated with visual aids such as diagrams,
drawings, charts, slides, etc. Make sure that they are large enough to see, neat enough to read, and don't
stand in the way! Think about the role body language can play. Having your teaching observed by someone
else (or even better, having it videotaped) can reveal habits that you would never notice on your own.
Active
Keep your students thinking. Unless they are actively using the concepts you are teaching, most students
will remember only a small fraction of what you teach. A lecture is an efficient way to deliver information to
large numbers of people, but it is an inefficient way to provide students with lasting knowledge and skills.
Consider using at least some classroom time for activities other than traditional lectures, discussions or
question and answer sessions. Problem solving exercises in small groups can take no more than a few
minutes, yet allow students to engage with the material being covered.
Patient
Remember what it is like to learn something for the first time. Give students time to process information and
answer questions. Know that it is fine for students to make mistakes if they can learn from them. Realize
that learning can be hard work, even for the most motivated students. Rather than blaming students when
things don't go right, consider ways you could change your approach to reach them more effectively.
Concepts, background information or conclusions that seem obvious to you may not be so clear to someone
who is new to the subject. Be patient with yourself, too. Teaching can be difficult and frustrating at times.
Give yourself the same opportunity to make mistakes and learn from them.
Fair
Consider what it would be like to be one of your students. Chances are you would want an instructor who set
clear expectations, applied them consistently and could admit when they were wrong. Whether you mark off
points on an exam question, give a low grade on a paper, or penalize someone for a late assignment, you
should be able to explain why you did it. Of course it helps if you have already outlined clear policies, both
for the entire course and for each assignment. Once you have set standards, it is very important to apply
them equally and consistently, otherwise you will lose credibility. On the other hand, if you make a mistake
or don't know the answer to a question, it is much better to acknowledge rather than ignore it.
When you are an effective teacher, your teaching takes hold, and your students slowly but surely learn from
you, and the learning is permanent.  Remember, too much too fast won’t last.  It is much better to spend 10
days teaching one skill that your students will be able to use for a lifetime, than teaching 10 different skills
in 10 days that your students will forget the day after you taught them.  The problem that you may be faced
with is being expected to move quickly through an overly ambitious curriculum. If you have the sense that
your students have not grasped a concept, then spend more time on it.
When you are efficient, you have the ability to take care of the day to day administrative paperwork that
seems to be never ending such as attendance, grading papers, your grade book, your lesson plans, etc. in an
efficient manner. Administrative items must be dealt with efficiently so that you are freed up to teach.
Understanding the difference between being effective and being efficient will help you understand what is
important and what you need to devote their time to.
Characteristics of Effective Teachers
1. Effective teachers have mastered their subject, are well read, and can answer questions
spontaneously about what they teach.
2. When the effective teacher lectures, he or she is well prepared and can carry on a discussion in an
orderly manner
3. Effective teachers can relate their subject area to real life circumstances and offers practical
illustrations to enhance student understanding
4. Effective teachers know how to check for understanding. They encourage students’ questions and
opinions.
5. The effective teacher is enthusiastic about his/her subject area and communicates this to his/her
students.
6. The effective teacher is approachable, friendly, and makes himself/herself available to his or her
students after school hours.
7. Effective teacher are concerned about their students’ and places a high priority on their achievement.
8. The effective teacher has a sense of humor and knows how to motivate his/her students will
humorous stories and appropriate jokes.
9. The effective teacher displays warmth, and kindness, and does his or her best to understand student
circumstances that may interfere with their academic success.
10. The effective teacher knows how to use their resources and is not afraid to ask for help when needed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFICIENT TEACHERS
1. The efficient teacher understands and is sensitive to administrative timelines.
2. The efficient teacher understands the policies and procedures of the school.
3. Efficient teachers have daily routines for completing lunch counts, taking attendance, and grading
work, and recording of grades.
4. The efficient teacher makes time to call parents and schedules meeting with administration and other
teachers as needed.
5. Teachers, who are efficient, have procedures in place to manage supplies such as pencils, paper, and
other non-teaching items.
6. The efficient teacher keeps a neat and orderly work environment.
7. Teachers who are efficient set goals for the entire school year, and plan their objectives for each
lesson on a weekly basis.
8. The teacher, who is efficient, knows how they are going to handle problems with students, parents,
administration, and other teachers before they happen.
9. The efficient teacher knows how to cut through red tape and does his/her job regardless of any
outside circumstance that may interfere with student learning.
10. The efficient teacher is concerned with teaching and takes responsibility for the academic success of
his or her students.
Meaning of simulated teaching
Simulation is a controlled representation of reality. Simulation means role- playing or rehearsal in which the
process of teaching is carried out artificially. Simulated teaching is a teacher training technique. It is used to
bring about modification in the behavior of the teacher. It introduces pupil teacher to teach in non-stressful
conditions.
Simulated teaching is used prior to the classroom teaching practice with the objective of developing a
specific skill of communication. It can be used for pre-service teachers to make them effective.
In simulated teaching, one pupil-teacher acts as a teacher and other teacher trainers act as students. The
teacher in this situation teaches considering the student as school students.
Basic Assumption
(1) Teacher behavior is modifiable by the use of feedback device.
(2) The underlying skill of teaching can be modified and practiced.
(3) Teacher behavior can be identified.
Characteristic
(1) This technique requires very systematic planning in advance that ensures attainment of desired goals.
(2) This method is effective for the practice of teaching skills by pupil teacher.
(3) The training is provided in artificial situations. Through mock trails learns are fully trained to face real
situations.
(4) Through feedback drawbacks are noted in teaching, they are pointed out along with appropriate
suggestions to rectify them.
Procedure of simulated training
Following are the six steps that are usually followed in simulated teaching.
(1) Assignment of role:-
The student teachers are assigned the roles of teachers and observe resp. It is done rotation basis.
(2) Deciding skill to be practiced
At this stage, the skill to be practiced is decided and planning and preparation for it are done. Each trainee
selects the topic according to his interest and intelligence.
(3) Preparation of work schedule
At this stage, it is decided who will teach first and who will observe and how everyone would be teaching
/observing one by one.
(4) Determining technique of observation
In this stage, the decision is taken about the type of observation technique to be adopted. It also includes
which type of data is to be collected and how these data are to be intercepted.
(5) Organization of first practice session
The first practice session is started and its observations are recorded for judging the teaching behavior.
This followed by feedback and suggestions for further improvement.
(6) Alteration of procedure
The whole procedure is changed at this stage. There is a change of teacher, change of observers, change of
teaching skill and change in topic to be taught. Every student is given the opportunity to play the role of
teacher, a student, and a teacher.
Precaution for simulated teaching
(1) Pupils for the same subject should go for practice.
(2) Each pupil-teacher should be provided with the opportunity to play the role of teacher, student, and an
observer.
(3) For practice pupil- the teacher should prepare micro- lesson plan.
(4) At the end of the session there should be a decision for diagnostic processes.
Advantage of simulated teaching
(1) It is for experiencing problem situation.
(2) This technique helps us in acquiring some classroom manners.
(3) The use of this technique enables us to study and analyze the teaching problems.
(4) Self-confidence in teaching developers through simulated teaching.
(5) This technique helps in explaining the behavior problems in the classroom and contributes to its
solutions.
(6) This technique makes a person more aware of the role.
(7) It bridges the gap between theory and practice of teaching.
(8) It provides them with the reinforcement to develop various teaching skills.
Limitation of simulated teaching
(1) its use can not be made in all subjects of the curriculum.
(2) This method requires a lot of preparation on the part of the teachers which they might not be ready to
take.
(3) The observer who is doing the role, may incorrect reading.
(4) For beginners, it may be difficult to practice a few teaching skills such as questioning,
(5) No emphasis is given to teaching the content.
What is Team Teaching?
As the name suggests, it is a group of teachers, working as a team and teaching. The team can range from 2
to 5 teachers who will teach the same group of students.
The different types of teaching may include:
1. Teaching the same group at the same time
2. Shared teaching as per the area of expertise
3. Teaching different subgroups within a large group of students.
Team Teaching Method:
The team-teaching method is one of the greatest innovations in the teaching sector. It came into existence in
the year 1954 in the USA and is mainly focus on developing courses and teaching strategies.
Team teaching also knowns as a collaborative teaching or co-teaching method. The definitions of team
teaching defined by different people in different ways.
Team Teaching Definition:
“Team teaching is a type of instructional organization involving teaching personnel and the students assign
to them in which two or more teachers gives responsibility, looking together, for all or a significant part of
the instruction for some group students”. – as per Spanish.
“In this teaching strategy two or more than two teachers involve to make a plan of any given subject, or
subjects cooperatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effect on the students periodically” – by
educationist
“It is a form of organization in which individual teachers decide to pool resources, interest, and expertise to
the device and implement a scheme of work suitable to the needs for their pupils and the facilities of their
school”.- as per David Warwick
Characteristics of Team Teaching:
1. The team-teaching method is flexible
2. In team teaching, teachers need to decide their activities by themselves
3. It is a collective responsibility
4. In team teaching, the whole responsibility is on all the teachers
 5. The requirements of pupils, schools and other things also considered
6. Teaching and evaluation both done on the co-operative basis
Few other characteristics are,
1. Economic factors
2. Enthusiasm structured
3. Staff development
4. Experience-centered work
Types of Team Teaching:
There are mainly 2 types of team teaching methods, they are
1. Hierarchic team teaching:
This type of team teaching method just similar to a pyramid where different levels of teachers organized in a
structure from top to bottom. The team leader placed at the top, mid-level teachers just below the team
leader and normal teachers at the bottom.
2. Synergetic team teaching:
In this type of teaching method, there is no differentiation between teachers. Through the cooperation of two
or more teachers working together, synergetic team teaching groups can be formed.
Advantages of Team Teaching in Education:
1. Low cost:
One can get an efficient form of learning at a very low cost; as such no new resources required to start team
teaching.
2. Support for teachers:
Usually, teachers overburdened with the fact that they have to complete the curriculum by the end of the
term, even if they have creative ideas to teach students they do not have enough time to plan and impart the
same to the students.
Moreover, it can also happen that teachers have ideas but need guidance to develop the skill and impart the
same to the students.
Team teaching eliminates such problems and other problems of a similar kind. When teachers collaborate
they could play on their strengths and weaknesses and together as a team can make a successful way to teach
and learn.
3. Closer integration of staff:
Very often teachers in schools and colleges lack bonding and friendship among themselves. Even worse a
competitive environment sees among the teachers.
The main motive of educational institutes is to impart value to students and work as a whole for being
efficient knowledge importers. Envy or competition among teachers can harm the Institute and the student’s
mind.
With team teaching, teachers bound to bond, as frequent discussions and planning make them develop a
good relationship. A happy staff can effectively inculcate the vision of the Institute
4. Variety of ideas:
When teachers come together with their teaching style, ideas and expertise come together, if planned
perfectly, the mixture of best ideas and styles will put forth many ways out of a single topic. It thus helps in
better learning
5. Better involvement of students:
A new method is always appealing; students might wonder what new things they are going to learn. A team
of teachers will have various ways and ideas to put forth, which make the students, put on their thinking cap
and question ‘why’ for all things. They will come up with various questions, queries, and ideas.
A dynamic discussion session will increase student’s involvement and thus helps in bringing out the best in
students
6. Mental stimulation to students:
In traditional lecture only one teacher is teaching, the ideas, thoughts are only one way. Often students
forced to accept whatever taught and they do not bother to think the other way around.
Team teaching helps them question the theories and facts. When the students involved it brings out the
creativity and the habit of questioning things.
7. Breaks traditional lecture boredom:
Let’s be very honest, in lectures, we are often distracted, either chatting with our friends or checking our
phones. Or maybe jotting down notes, in all the mentioned cases we are giving divided attention.
An interactive session, debates, help of visual aids and the like evokes interests among students. Team
teaching exactly does that.
8. Better bonding between student and teacher:
Humans bond when they interact, it is as simple as that. The bonding is increased when teachers often ask
questions and listen to what students have to say. People when heard and appreciated, will ultimately be
more engaged.
9. Provokes participation / interaction:
Teachers will often find students who rarely participate in any activity and are aloof, mostly students with a
shy personality will not speak much in class. But during team-teaching, a variety of ideas are put forth.
A perfectly planned lecture will provoke even the most notorious and most aloof people to be engaged.
Team teaching helps teachers deal with students of all personalities well and get better engagement
10. Imparts the lesson of team management:
When students see the way teachers work in a team, they indirectly get the lesson of team management and
the importance of working in a team. Everyone in their career will need to work in teams.
Students get to see how teachers capitalize on each of their strengths how they respect each other’s ideas and
how as a whole they put the best picture forward. Indirectly, team teaching is helping reduce the extra
lecture on team management.
11. Develops interpersonal skills and logic of students:
Students’ interaction and logic are improved drastically as they learn to question things and learn how to
communicate their ideas effectively.
While in case of a debate, students get to learn how to respect the contradicting ideas, accept them and also
tell their thoughts in return.
12. Teachers can give individual attention:
When a teacher is teaching solely, he or she cannot give attention to the students who have a problem
learning. The main focus is to make the whole group of student understanding at the same time. But we all
know that all students are different and everyone has their own learning pace.
In team teaching, if one teacher is speaking the other one can solve the queries student raises, without
disturbing the whole class.
13. Staff development:
There is no limit to learning, provided if one wishes to, team teaching allows teachers to learn and grow
themselves.
Teachers also get a chance to brush up their skills, work up to their fullest potential and along with that their
creativity, motivation, and team management skills get a solid boost too.
14. Long-term knowledge retention:
With a dynamic and interactive session students are engaged and they learn better. Knowledge retention is
much higher than the traditional learning approach
Disadvantages of Team Teaching:
1. Acceptance of change by teachers:
Let’s face it, we humans dislike change, teachers may not accept the idea of team teaching, they are often
rigid and want to stick to the traditional teaching techniques. The idea that they will have to put extra effort
and work hard makes them reluctant.
Team teaching can only be effective if teachers are willing and happy to involve in the new form of
teaching. A forced approach is bound to fail.
While traditional teaching has been an attempted and tried technique, likewise it has disadvantages of
traditional teaching, especially nowadays the innovation has improved adapting, more fun and intelligence.
2. Rigidity in teachers:
Apart from accepting the change in the form of teaching, teachers often have the rigidity to accept and adjust
with other teachers, while working in a team we have to accept others’ ideas and drop ours. Teachers should
not have an ego and should handle criticism openly.
3. Bad team management:
Internal coordination and good team tempo are extremely important, internal conflict may result in a
complete failure.
4. Personality conflict:
People with contradicting personalities must devise a way to work together effectively. A dominating person
will overpower other people, a collaborative approach will help everyone grow and devise an effective
process of team teaching.
5. Inability to complete curriculum:
While devising creative curriculum & engaging students in an interactive session, the curriculum may fall
behind.
Even though creative teaching is necessary, it is also important for completing the course syllabus. This is
one of the major challenges faced during team teaching.
6. Time for coordination and planning:
Teachers have to take out time from their busy schedules and sit together to devise the lecture flow and
activities that have to be carried out.
Many times you could find them juggling through their work and the time required for planning out the
course
7. Hard to keep track:
The sessions at times can get super interactive and teachers will forget the link. The teachers have shared
responsibility and have an individual role to play. If anyone of the teachers is absent for some reason then
the whole session will be jeopardized.
8. Takes time to develop:
Teachers will have to refer many books and talk to several veteran teachers for designing an effective
teaching plan.
It will also involve deep research and planning out activities that will be appealing to students. Thus it takes
lots of time and effort before even starting a session.
9. Going overboard:
While being creative and lining up too many activities, it could get way beyond the required amount.
A little simulation to students’ brains will bring the best in them, but if it gets too much they will find it too
hard to comprehend. One needs to find the right amount.
10. Resistance from students:
Since childhood, students get used to the traditional form of teaching, they like the structure and the
repetitiveness of the lectures. Most probably they have devised their ways to make it work, a sudden change
in the style of teaching will make them confused and they might resist the change.
Some Students like the basic lecture and then they do their self-study to learn in deep about it. You could
find students coming up with specific problems that they find difficult.
Teaching them everything in detail and inculcating activity, debate or different methods to teach the same
topic may make them feel that their time is getting wasted.
11. Takes time to develop:
This new teaching style is fresh to students as well as teachers. Teachers would not have perfect
coordination at the first go, they will have to do many trails for reaching the most effective format. There
can be an overlap of ideas among teachers or they could not impart whatever they thought of.
It could also happen that they overestimated or underestimated the time required to complete the planned
tasks. If one of the teachers finds it too difficult to carry out and opts out of it then the whole team will be
disrupted.
Teachers can also face resistance from the students. Too many ideas and discussions will make the
classroom chaotic. Patience from teachers as well as students is required for a successful team-teaching
12. The expectation of higher compensation:
If we compare the efforts required for teaching solely with the efforts required to teach in a team, then the
later one is undoubtedly much harder and would require deep study, time and planning.
Thus teachers may demand a higher salary. It could ultimately bring financial pressure to the educational
institute.
The meaning of Brainstorming
In context to teaching, brainstorming is a strategy or tool of teaching used by the teacher in which maximum
or all the students participate by responding or presenting views on one topic. This technique encourages
new ideas among students which would never have happened under normal circumstances.
Brainstorming can be explained in following ways:-
1. It is a process to designed to obtain the maximum number of ideas relating to a specific area of
interest.
 2. It is a technique where a group of pupil put social inhabitations and rules aside with the aim of
generating new ideas and solutions.
3. It is a technique that maximizes the ability to generate new ideas.
Brainstorming can either be traditional or advanced.
(a) Traditional brainstorming
Traditionally for Brainstorming pupil gather in a room and forward their ideas as they occur to them. They
are told to lose their inhabitations and no ideas shall be judged. Here pupil should build on ideas called out
by other people.
(b) Advanced Brainstorming
It is an extension of the traditional brainstorming and makes the whole process easier and effective. Advance
brainstorming uses new process and new techniques to reduce inhabitations, for example, creative and
lateral thinking technique.
Brain storming software
New material for simulation and recording ideas.
Brainstorming in education
In the field of education brainstorming is a large or small group of activities that encourage the student to
focus on a topic and contribute to the free flow of ideas. In this process
Teacher begins the session by posing a question, problem or by introducing a topic.
The student then expresses possible answers, relevant words, and ideas.
The contribution is accepted without criticism or judgment and is then summarized on a white board by the
teacher.
These ideas are examined, usually in an open class discussion format.
Purpose of Brainstorming
1. To focus student attention on a particular topic.
2. To generate particular ideas.
3. To teach acceptance and respect for individual differences.
4. To encourage the learner to take a risk in sharing their ideas and opinions.
5. To demonstrate to the student that their knowledge and abilities are valued and accepted.
6. To provide an opportunity for students to share ideas and expand their knowledge by building on
each other’s
Characteristic of Brainstorming
1. It is an intellectual activity.
2. Maximum or all students can participate.
3. Each student gives their personal view/ideas.
4. Each idea is neither right nor wrong.
5. It involves divergent thinking.
Brainstorming as teaching strategy
First, a small group of students is formed. They are asked to sit in a group and are provided with a particular
issue or topic.
Teacher, as the group leader, then ask group members to think about the problem and give their ideas. They
are advised to find as many solutions to the problem as they can find. They are instructed not to criticize
others ideas but they are free to make attentions to others ideas. Students are encouraged to put forward
suggestions without hesitation even if they seem to come up with unusual and unorthodox ideas.
Students ideas are to be listened and accepted patiently, without passing any judgment or comment of any
sort until the session is over.
Advantages
It stimulated and provides varied instructional approach.
Highly motivating.
Increase task focus.
Promotes spontaneity and creativity.
Efficient and procedure.
Involves participants in ownership of ideas.
Encourages creativity.
Q: Which new trends have been merged in educational technology. Explain?
Education technology (Ed Tech) includes many of the popular digital developments, such as the Internet of
Things (IoT) and virtual reality (VR), but it has unique applications exclusive to the task of teaching. The
education sector thus presents a significant opportunity for tech entrepreneurs looking for a promising
market.
1. Greater access to STEM materials
As technology has become increasingly central to all aspects of modern life, schools have put more focus on
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) subjects. To take advantage of this shift, companies can
develop engaging curriculum for robotics, coding, and programming.
2. Privacy for students
Cyber-security and digital privacy rank among the top concerns of all consumers, including consumers of
education. As a result, there is a large market for improving the efficacy of existing products and creating
new ones that will help manage student data and protect the privacy of these young individuals.
3. “Flipped learning”
A new approach to education is called “flipped learning,” and as the name suggests, it involves turning
traditional teaching methods upside down. In a “flipped” classroom, students take advantage of new
technologies to absorb content at home through videos and other digital content and then complete their
“homework” at school in small groups under the teacher’s supervision.
4. Virtual education
Closely related to the concept of flipped learning is the idea of remote, or “virtual,” education, which takes
place outside of a physical school building. With this method, students complete courses at home using
online content, including videos of instructors in front of an actual class. Another benefit of virtual education
is that teachers can utilize video conferencing and social media technologies, as well as a variety of subject-
matter experts to convey information and check for understanding.
5. Digital and media literacy courses
As students spend more and more time online, there is a growing need for a curriculum that teaches digital
literacy — systems to help students harness the technological tools at their disposal. This includes
developing guidelines for how to interact with others (for more than social and entertainment purposes) and
how to process information they encounter online.
6. New utility for wearable technology
Wearable technology can help keep kids safe. Not only can these devices track the locations of students at
school, but they can also monitor the whereabouts of campus visitors. These items can even facilitate
paperless transactions in the cafeteria, thus reducing waste, and quite possibly, bullying and theft.
7. Game-based curricula
Schools are more frequently adopting game-based curricula as a means for creatively engaging students in
their lessons. Many kids appreciate the challenge-reward concept of video games, and these digital platforms
can incorporate a wealth of problem-solving and social skills.
8. Improved parent-teacher connections
As schools continue to incorporate Ed Tech into the classroom, communication between teachers and
parents will flourish. Teachers will take advantage of programs that track assignments and report student
progress to all involved parties. Therefore, businesses will do well to supply new and better communication
channels.
9. Better open resources for educators
A vast array of educational resources exists for teachers looking to incorporate digital content into their
lessons. However, many of these are of low quality. Tech developers, therefore, can profit from developing
intelligent, polished, and well-researched digital materials.
10. AI and VR
Artificial intelligence (AI) has gained a lot of traction in the market recently. Tech companies can use this
technology to provide educational facilities with virtual mentors and teaching assistants, as well as improved
automated grading systems.
Virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) is a popular gaming technology that entrepreneurs can use to
enhance student learning. At some schools, students are already taking “virtual” field trips with a VR
headset. Estimates project instructional AI and VR expanding into a multibillion-dollar industry in the near
future.
11. Paperless textbooks
School districts today must decide whether print textbooks or tablets for every student are more expensive.
Over time, the latter usually proves a better financial investment because schools can easily upload new and
better classroom materials to the same devices, but they must spend thousands to replace outdated traditional
textbooks.
12. Big data analysis
Just as big data helps businesses obtain a better grasp of their consumer base, it can help teachers learn more
about their students. Technology-assisted learning can yield valuable information about how children learn
and in which specific areas they are struggling. For example, a student might fully understand the material
but get confused by the format of a test.
13. Social media
Educators have recently embraced the utility of social media for organizing group projects. Moreover, online
conversations and homework-related hash tags can help students build their own peer community. It can also
encourage new ways of learning.
Q: What is Computer? Explain types of computer in detail?
Computer: Definition
A computer is a machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Its principal characteristics are:
It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.
It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.
Therefore computers can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and reliably. Modern
computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery (wires, transistors, and circuits) is called
hardware; the instructions and data are called software. All general-purpose computers require the following
hardware components:
Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes
instructions organized in programs ("software") which tell the computer what to do.
Memory (fast, expensive, short-term memory): Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data,
programs, and intermediate results.
Mass storage device (slower, cheaper, long-term memory): Allows a computer to permanently retain large
amounts of data and programs between jobs. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape
drives.
Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and
instructions enter a computer.
Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has
accomplished.
In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together
efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to
another.
1. Analogue Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer
Different kinds and sizes of computer
1. Analogue Computer
Everything we hear and see is changing continuously. This variable continuous stream of data is known as
analogue data. Analog computer may be used in scientific and industrial applications such as to measure the
electric current, frequency and resistance of the capacitor, etc..
Analogue computers directly accept the data in the measuring device without first converting it into codes
and numbers.
Cases of analogue computer are temperature, pressure, telephone lines, Speedometer, immunity of capacitor,
frequency of signal and voltage, etc..
2. Digital Computer
The digital computer is the most widely used and used to process data with numbers using digits, usually
utilizing the binary number system.
A digital computer intended to do calculations and logical operations at a high rate. It takes the raw data as
digits or amounts and procedures using applications stored in its memory to make output. All modern
computers such as laptops and desktops we use at office or home are digital computers.
It works on data, such as magnitudes, letters, and symbols, which expressed in binary code–i.e., with just the
two digits 1 and 0. By counting, comparing, and manipulating those digits or their mixtures by a pair of
instructions stored in its memory, a digital computer may perform such tasks to control industrial processes
and also control the operations of machinery; examine and organize vast amounts of company data; and
mimic the behaviour of dynamic systems (e.g., international climate patterns and chemical reactions) in
scientific study.
Digital computer supplies accurate result but they’re slow compared to an analogue computer.
3. Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer which combines the aspects of a digital computer and an analogue computer. It’s quick
like an analogue computer and contains memory and precision like digital computers. It’s intended to
incorporate a functioning analogue unit that’s effective for calculations, nevertheless has a readily accessible
digital memory. In large businesses and companies, a hybrid computer may be employed to integrate logical
operations in addition to provide efficient processing of differential equations.
For instance, a gas pump includes a chip that converts the dimensions of fuel flow to volume and cost.
A hybrid computer is used in hospitals to gauge the heartbeat of this individual.
Different kinds and sizes of computer
Since the coming of the very first computer, different kinds and sizes of machines are providing various
services. Computers are often as large as inhabiting a massive building as little as a notebook or even a
microcontroller in embedded or mobile systems.
Computers can be generally classified by kind or size and power as follows, although there’s considerable
overlap.
Supercomputer
A supercomputer is the fastest computer on earth that could process a considerable number of information
very quickly. The calculating Performance of a supercomputer quantified in FLOPS (which is floating-point
operations per minute) rather than MIPS. These computers will be massive regarding the size. A most potent
supercomputer could occupy several feet to hundreds of feet. The supercomputer cost is exceptionally high,
and they can range from two lakh buck to over 100 million dollars.
Supercomputers were released in the 1960s and developed by Seymour Cray together with the Atlas at the
University of Manchester. The Cray made CDC 1604 that has been the first supercomputer on earth, and it
replenishes vacuum tubing with transistors.
Uses of Supercomputers
Today’s supercomputers can’t just perform calculations; they process enormous amounts of information in
parallel with distributing computing jobs to tens of thousands of CPUs. Supercomputers located at work in
research centers, government agencies, and companies performing mathematical calculations in addition to
gathering, collating, categorizing, and assessing information.
Weather Forecasting
The regional weatherman bases his predictions on information provided by supercomputers run by NOAA
or the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA’s systems execute database operations,
mathematical, and statistical analysis on enormous amounts of information gathered from throughout the
country and around the globe. The processing capacity of supercomputers assists climatologists forecast, not
merely the probability of rain on your neighborhood but the paths of hurricanes as well as the likelihood of
whale strikes.
Scientific Research
Much like the weather, scientific study is contingent on the number-crunching capability of supercomputers.
By way of instance, astronomers at NASA examine data flowing from satellites on the planet, ground-based
radio and optical telescopes and probes exploring the solar system. Researchers in the European
Organization for Nuclear Research, or CERN, discovered the Higgs-Boson particle by assessing the huge
amounts of data created by the Large Hadron Collider.
Data Mining
Many supercomputers are necessary to extract data from raw information accumulated from info farms
around the floor or the cloud. By way of instance, companies can analyze data gathered in their cash
registers to help control stock or spot market tendencies. Life Insurance businesses use supercomputers to
lessen their actuarial risks. Likewise, companies that offer health insurance reduce prices and client
premiums using supercomputers to analyze the advantages of different treatment choices.
The Top Five Popular Supercomputers
• JAGUAR, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
• NEBULAE, China
• ROADRUNNER, Los Alamos National Laboratory
• KRAKEN, National Institute for Computational Sciences
• JUGENE, Juelich Supercomputing Centre, Germany
Mainframe computer
The mainframe denotes the sort of computer which runs a whole corporation. The Mainframe computers can
accommodate in large air-conditioned rooms because of its dimensions in the current world, where all of the
companies, trades, and communications are real-time.
So to do all this endeavor, a highly effective computer need on the host side, which processes the directions
and supplies the output in moments. According to the use of computers in the modern world, we could use
classifications pc in Supercomputer, Mainframe Computer, and Mini Computer and microcomputer types. A
mainframe computer is stronger than Mini and Microcomputer, but stronger than Supercomputer. A
mainframe computer used at large businesses.
The main distinction between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer stations all its
power to execute a program as quickly as possible. In contrast, a mainframe uses its capability to run many
applications simultaneously. In specific ways, mainframes are more effective than supercomputers because
they encourage more simultaneous applications. However, supercomputers can do one program faster than a
mainframe.
Popular Mainframe computers
• IBM 1400 series.
• 700/7000 series.
• System/360.
• System/370.
• IBM 308X.
Minicomputer
A minicomputer also referred to as miniature. It’s a category of little computers which has introduced to the
world from the mid-1960s. Minicomputers used by small businesses. A minicomputer is a computer that has
all of the qualities of a considerable size pc, but its size is significantly smaller compared to those. A
minicomputer can also be known as a mid-range pc. Minicomputers are primarily multi-users systems where
more than one user can operate concurrently.
Minicomputer can encourage multi-users at one time, or you’ll be able to state that minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system.
Additionally, the ability of processing of minicomputers isn’t more significant than the energy of mainframe
and supercomputers.
Different Types of Minicomputers
• Tablet PCs
• Smartphones
• Notebooks
• Touch Screen Pads
• High-End Music Plays
• Desktop Mini Computers
Microcomputer
Micro Computer is a little computer. Your private machines are equal to the microcomputer. Mainframe and
Mini Computer is the ancestor of all microcomputers. Integrated Circuit manufacturing technology reduces
the size of Mainframe and Minicomputer.
Technically, a microcomputer is a computer where the CPU (central processing unit ( the brains of the
machine) comprised of a single processor, a microprocessor, input/output apparatus, and storage (memory)
unit. These elements are essential to get the proper functioning of the microcomputer.
Micro-computers especially created for general usages like entertainment, education, and work purposes.
Well, known Method of a ‘ Microcomputers.
Types of Micro Computer
• Desktop computers
• laptops
• personal digital assistant (PDA)
• tablets
• telephones
Q: What is meant by main memory also write the difference between RAM and ROM?
Definition of RAM
RAM is a Random access memory; it means the CPU can directly access any address location of RAM
memory.  RAM is a quickly accessible memory of the computer. It stores the data temporarily.
RAM is a volatile memory. RAM stores the data till the power is switched on. Once the power of the CPU
is switched off the whole data in RAM gets erased. The data which has to be currently processed must be
in RAM.  The storage capacity of the RAM ranges from 64 MB to 4 GB.
RAM is the fastest and costliest memory of the computer. It is a read-write memory of the computer. The
processor can read the instructions from RAM and write the result to the RAM. The data in RAM can be
modified.
There are two kinds of RAM, Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
Static RAM is one which requires the constant flow of the power to retain the data inside it. It is faster and
more expensive than DRAM. It is used as a cache memory for the computer.
Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed to retain the data it holds. It is slower and cheaper than static RAM.
Definition of ROM
ROM is a Read Only Memory.  The data in ROM can only be read by CPU but, it can not be modified. The
CPU can not directly access the ROM memory, the data has to be first transferred to the RAM, and then the
CPU can access that data from the RAM.
ROM stores the instruction that computer requires during Bootstraping (a process of booting up of the
computer). The content in ROM can not be modified. ROM is a non-volatile memory, the data inside the
ROM retains even if the power of the CPU is switched off.
The capacity of ROM is comparatively smaller than RAM, it slower and cheaper than RAM. There many
kinds of ROM that are as follow:
PROM: Programmable ROM, it can be modified only once by the user.
EPROM: Erasable and Programmable ROM, the content of this ROM can be erased using ultraviolet rays
and the ROm can be reprogrammed.
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM, it can be erased electrically and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times.
Key Differences Between RAM and ROM Memory
1. The key difference between RAM and ROM is that RAM is basically a read-write memory whereas,
ROM is a read only memory.
2. RAM temporarily stores the data that have to be processed by CPU currently. On the other hands,
ROM stores the instructions that are required during Bootstrap.
3. RAM is a volatile memory. However, ROM is a nonvolatile memory.
4. RAM stands for Random Access Memory whereas, ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
5. On the one hand, where the data in RAM can be modified easily, the data in ROM can be hardly or
never be modified.
6. The RAM can range from 64 MB to 4 GB whereas, the ROM is always comparatively smaller than
RAM.
7. RAM is costlier than ROM.
8. RAM can be classified into static and Dynamic RAM. On the other hands, ROM can be classified
into PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.
Basis for
RAM ROM
Comparison
Basic It is a read-write memory. It is read only memory.
Used to store the data that has to be currently It stores the instructions required during
Use
processed by CPU temporarily. bootstrap of the computer.
Volatility It is a volatile memory. It is a nonvolatile memory.
Stands for Random Access Memory. Read Only Memory.
Modification Data in RAM can be modified. Data in ROM can not be modified.
ROM is comparatively smaller than
Capacity RAM sizes from 64 MB to 4GB.
RAM.
 Basis for
RAM ROM
Comparison
ROM is comparatively cheaper than
Cost RAM is a costlier memory.
RAM.
Types of RAM are static RAM and dynamic Types of ROM are PROM, EPROM,
Type
RAM. EEPROM.
Main memory refers to physical memory that is internal to the computer. The word main is used to
distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as disk drives. Other terms used to mean main
memory include RAM and primary storage.
The computer can manipulate only data that is in main memory. Therefore, every program you execute and
every file you access must be copied from a storage device into main memory. The amount of main memory
on a computer is crucial because it determines how many programs can be executed at one time and how
much data can be readily available to a program.