Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Learning Outcomes

1. Recognize the meaning of eudaimonia or happiness and its relation to ethics;

2. Differentiate the parts of the soul in relation to their respective functions;

3. Appreciate and articulate the role of virtue in crafting an ethical life;

4. Determine the role of habit in the formation of a virtuous character; and

5. Articulate the difference between philosophical knowledge and practical wisdom.

Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Introduction

People are often most remembered by their most significant character traits. These traits are the product of a consistent
display of a particular behavior. Some people are known to be courageous, some quick-witted. While some are
remembered for their diligence and work ethic. To a certain extent, a person is defined (at least in the minds of others)
by what he/she does and how he/she lives his/her life. On one hand, character traits such as thoughtfulness,
temperance, and respectfulness are often seen in a positive light. On the other hand, cowardice, laziness and
shamelessness are generally frowned upon by most.

Consistently exhibiting certain behavior in various situations gains a peculiar identity that somehow determines how
others perceive a person. For example, people associate the nickname Bertong Tigasin (Bert the “formidable”) to a
person who has consistently displayed strength and grit in character.

We build our characters through how we make choices in different situations we face in our lives. In meeting and
speaking to different people, facing various problems, and handling different day-to-day tasks, we develop a certain way
of being, a unique style of being a person. Through the constant interaction of thought and action as prompted by
various situations that call for one’s decision, a person comes to know himself/herself as a certain type of character or
personality.

In one’s journey towards self-realization and self-flourishing, there is an implied necessity to understand what he/she is
actually aiming for in his/her life. In aiming for a goal, the person must also first understand what he/she actually is and
is potentially capable of. Self-actualization is not attained through theory but by practice: character is a product of
practice.

But what does it actually mean for a human person to flourish? What does it mean for one to achieve his/her goal?
What is the goal of our existence as human beings and what does character have to do with it?
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

ARISTOTLE

The Greek philosopher Aristotle [384-322 B.C.] wrote his Nicomachean Ethics with these
questions is mind. As one of Plato’s most prolific students, he shares with his teacher the
fundamental assumption that what radically distinguishes a human person from other
forms of being is his/her possession of reason (logos). For both of these thinkers, the
ultimate purpose cannot be fully understood without understanding the place of reason in
ordering one’s life.

However, if Plato firmly believes that ignorance is solely responsible for committing
immoral acts, thinking that once one truly knows the good, one will inevitably do the good,
Aristotle believes otherwise. Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of
knowing the good but actually doing or practicing the good habitually. We
become what we are by what we do and not merely by what we know. For him, Nicomachean Ethics
we can only fully actualize our potential as human beings once we understand what
being human essentially aims to and do the necessary things to fulfil our function (ergon) in
the most excellent way possible.

Aristotle raises significant issues for the study of ethics. Important questions regarding what is good or bad for the
human person with respect to his ultimate goal of being fulfilled are raised. He elaborates the conditions upon which
self-realization becomes a practically attainable goal. His ethics is grounded in the formation of one’s character – a way
of being and living in harmony with the human person’s proper end. Just as he believes that other things have a specific
function and end, for instance, a pair of scissors, whose function and end is to cut things, Aristotle also believes that
such a purpose also exists for human beings. To fulfill this function in the most excellent way possible is to live ethically,
that is, to achieve a way of flourishing suited to us.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was born in the Greek colony of Stagira in Macedonia.
Nicomachus, his father, was a student of natural history and an eminent physician who
served under Amnytas II, King of Macedonia, father to Phillip the Great. As fate would
have it, Aristotle also served the royal family as tutor to the young Alexander the Great.
Aristotle studied in Plato’s Academy and is unanimously considered to be Plato’s greatest
student, with some scholars going as far as saying that he exceeded his mentor both in
depth and breadth of knowledge.

His philosophy was definitely not a mere extension of Plato’s but may be considered as an
attempt to “ground” his master’s teachings in the world as we know it. If Plato was
confined to the belief that the good or purpose of the human person is to be found in
another realm, which he called the world of forms, Aristotle contradicts this by saying that the proper good of the
human person is achievable in this world through the practical cultivation of virtue (arete). His Nicomachean Ethics is
just one of the many books he wrote. This book, thought to be dedicated to his son, Nicomachus, is essentially a guide
for living well, a handbook for those who seek to build and cultivate one’s character in the hope of achieving life’s
ultimate goal (telos), which he says is happiness or flourishing (eudaimonia).
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Ethics as the Art of Living Well

Eudaimonia

Aristotle assumes that any activity, practical or theoretical, aims towards some end or good. He gives the following
examples to elucidate this proposition: health for the practice of medicine, ship for shipbuilding, and victory for
generalship in war, among others. However, these ends are still provisional goals to another goal. If, for instance the
practice of medicine aims to promote and maintain health in society, can we not ask further why we want to be healthy?
Does one seek health for its own sake or does one seek it perhaps because one would like to be able to fulfil one’s duties
as a parent well because one wants to raise good children? Perhaps because one cares enough for one’s society that one
does not want to contaminate it with useless citizens in the future. But why does one value society this much? As one
can see, almost all ends are not ends in themselves but mere conduits for further or deeper end.

Aristotle is not simply interested in finding out the different ends or purposes for human life. He wants to find out what
our chief end is. He is interested in finding out what all our lives essentially and ultimately aim to. The chief good for the
human person must not be something one aims at for the sake of something else. It cannot be wealth, for wealth is
merely a means for possessing things such as houses or cars. Neither can it be fame nor honor for they are just
instruments for feeding one’s ego, a servant of pride.

Aristotle names the chief good for the human person as happiness or
eudaimonia. For him, happiness is the self-sufficient, final and attainable goal of
human life. It is self-sufficient because it is desired for itself and not for the sake
of something else, and it is attainable, because it is not a mere theoretical
construct but something that one actually does practically. In his own words:

“Happiness above all seems to be of this character, for we always choose it on account of itself and never on account
of something else. Yet honor, pleasure, intellect, and every virtue we choose on their own account – for even if nothing
resulted from them, we would choose each of them – but we choose them also for the sake of happiness, because we
suppose that through them, we will be happy. But nobody chooses happiness for the sake of these things, or more
generally, on account of anything else.”

Eudaimonia is sought for its own sake. All other ends, such as health, wealth and power, are sought because they are
perceived to be instrumental in one’s flourishing. Eudaimonia, as the proper end of man, is not some kind of inactive
state but is actually something that one does. For Aristotle, our chief good is not something we merely possess but
something that we continually actualize (in practice). According to him, “Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul in
accordance with virtue.” In addition, the chief good is not achieved by one grand act or one big decision, for it is
something one constantly strives for.

Happiness is a lifelong activity. One cannot be complacent in times of good fortune because happiness is more than
one’s fate – it is something we decide to do for ourselves.
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

The Soul

Happiness is not mere self-indulgence or pleasure-seeking for Aristotle. It denotes as activity that essentially corresponds
to the proper nature of the human being. At this point, it is crucial to understand how Aristotle comprehends the nature
of the human person so that the precise meaning of happiness may be explained. We must also investigate the meaning
or virtue, for it is contained in the definition of happiness.

Almost all people seek one thing: to be happy. Some people may seek it in a noble way, some in a nefarious manner,
some are still wandering and seeking for the path they must take. Aristotle believed that happiness is linked with the
human person’s soul and virtues have a role in shaping our lives towards the road to happiness. Let’s examine these
connections deeper.

THE SOUL

Aristotle postulates that happiness is an activity of the soul. For him, the soul is the part of
the human being that animates the body. Body and soul are inseparable for Aristotle, but
he emphasizes the role of the soul more than that of the body in elucidating his ethics. The
soul is composed of both rational and irrational elements.

The rational part of the soul is divided into two parts – the speculative (responsible for
knowledge) and the practical (responsible for choice and action). The speculative part is
concerned with pure thought and is essentially the base of contemplation, while the
practical intellect is in charge of action and practical determination of the proper means to attain a specific end.

The irrational part of the soul has two parts as well – the vegetative and appetitive. The vegetative part is in charge of
the nutrition and growth of the human being. This part of the soul takes care of all the involuntary functions of the body,
from breathing to digestion and the like. Aristotle says that this part of the soul is not relevant in discussing happiness or
virtue. Since this is also found in any other living being, it is not distinct to the human person. However, the according to
him shares in the rational element of the soul. It cannot itself reason, but it can be influenced by it. For example,
passions such as sexual urges and desire for wealth and recognition are quite difficult to control. It is the task of the
rational part of the soul to reign in such passionate demands that seek fulfillment oftentimes without any rational and
practical considerations of all the factors involved in its desire for satisfaction.

The desiring element of the soul, albeit irrational, can be reasoned with, so to speak. It is important to remember that
there is a part of the soul that calls for reason’s governance. Giving in to raw and unchecked appetites is oftentimes the
reason a person commits immoral acts. A person’s raw biological and psychological desires blind him/her from the
implications of the fulfillment of such desire, which is happiness. In other words, giving in to passions keeps a person
from flourishing and derails him/her from their true end as a person.
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Aristotle it is not wrong to have such desires because it is only natural to have such passions for, they are constitutive
part of having a soul. However, people who aim to be happy must be responsible for such desires and keep them in
check. Moral virtue is necessary in making sure that desire do not control the behavior.
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Virtue and Practical Wisdom

The Greek word for virtue is arete which means excellence. By excellence, the Greeks thought of how a thing fulfils its
function (ergon) in accordance with its nature. For example, if a knife cuts well, is sharp, durable and dependable for
different tasks, then it may be said that it is an excellent knife – it does what it is supposed to do in the best way
possible. It fulfils its essence as a tool for cutting and slicing. It may then be called a “virtuous knife”. To be virtuous is to
exhibit one’s capacity to fulfil one’s essence or purpose in such a way that one’s potentiality may be said to be actualized
in the most excellent way.

In the case of human beings, Aristotle says that there are two kinds of virtues – moral and intellectual. Moral virtue has
to do with excellence in performance of decisions relating to moral and practical activity, while intellectual virtues have
to do with one’s capacity to harness reason’s contemplative capacity for arriving at knowledge. Intellectual virtue owes
its existence and development to teaching, while moral virtue arises from habitual practice (ethos).

Aristotle emphasizes the role of practice and habit in the formation of moral virtue. No person is born morally virtuous.
However, all persons have the latent potentiality to be so, if only they habitually do excellent deeds. It is only in practice
that we come to know that we truly know how to do something. We become morally virtuous by doing morally virtuous
acts. We become just by doing just acts. We become temperate by doing temperate acts. We become courageous in
doing courageous acts. He defined virtue as follows:

“Virtue, therefore, is a characteristic marked by choice, defined by reason and as the prudent person would define it."

For Aristotle, virtue is a state of one’s character that is the result of choice. This choice is governed by prudence or
practical wisdom (phronesis). Phronesis is the human person’s instrument in dealing with moral choices. It is a kind of
knowledge that deals with practical matters and not just with ideas or concepts. It is the intellectual virtue responsible
for bringing the human person closer to his/her chief good in the realm of morality. In other words, practical wisdom
aids one in being happy. Practical wisdom guides the human person in choosing the mean between the extremes of
excess and deficiency.
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

The Principal Virtues and Vices

Excess (vice) Mean (virtue) Deficiency (vice)

Rashness Courage Cowardice
Self-indulgence Moderation Insensibility
Prodigality Liberality Meanness
Vulgarity Magnificence Paltriness
Vanity Proper Pride Smallness of Soul
Ambitiousness Proper Ambition Lack of Ambition
Irascibility Good Temper Lack of Spirit
Boastfulness Truthfulness Self-depreciation
Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness
Obsequiousness Friendliness Surliness
Bashfulness Modesty Shamelessness
Envy Proper Indignation Malice

A truly virtuous action is performed by someone who is not simply compelled to do so. A person does a virtuous act and
chooses to act in such a way for the sake of being virtuous. This choice comes from a certain firmness of character that is
not easily swayed by one’s passions or influenced by certain factors in a given situation. A virtuous person is someone
who has been so used to acting virtuously that it becomes tremendously difficult for anything or anyone to convince
him/her to act otherwise. To a certain degree, vices are no longer an option for a truly virtuous person. Such person
actively keeps themselves disposed towards the mean by way of habituation (ethos). Only a virtuous person can perform
truly virtuous actions because he/she is initially predisposed towards virtue.

It should be noted that certain actions admit no middle-point or mesotes. Some actions are simply bad, and so there is
no “virtuous” way of performing them. Acts like adultery, theft, and murder are bad in themselves and cannot be
deemed virtuous in any situation. There is no right way to committing adultery, with the right person, at the right time.
Adultery is simply wrong. The mean only applies to actions and dispositions that are not bad in and of themselves.
Module 2 Virtue Ethics: Aristotle

Contemplation and Philosophical Knowledge

For Aristotle, the main functions of the intellectual virtues, namely, phronesis (practical wisdom) and sophia, are to aid
human persons in matters concerning moral choice and the attainment of knowledge of first principles or eternal truths,
respectively. If practical wisdom serves as a guide for action in everyday life, the act of contemplation is a pursuit of
philosophical wisdom. Aristotle subordinates practical wisdom to contemplation because he believes that it is the kind
of activity most proper to human persons considering the fact that reason is human’s most defining attribute.

Philosophizing, according to him, is the most pleasant of virtuous activities because it does not rely on anything else for
its fulfilment other than the desire to it. It is the most self-sufficient act. Practical virtues such as courage and
temperance need specific conditions to be attained, while philosophy is something a person can do by himself/herself
anytime. For him, contemplation is an act that can be loved for its own sake because it has no other aim than to reveal
the most fundamental truths of existence.

Conclusion

Ethics is a matter of living well through the habitual practice of virtue which essentially translates into having a virtuous
or excellent character. Happiness, being the chief good of the human person, is attainable through the proper exercise
of reason, both morally and intellectually. Eudaimonia is an activity of the soul that purposively attempts to choose the
mean between two extremes in the realm of morality. As the saying goes, “You can’t put a good man down.” This seems
to resonate with Aristotelian ethics. For him, a good man, a person who has cultivated the proper virtues and has
imbibed these in his/her thoughts and deeds, will always flourish.

A person of virtuous character always finds a way to stay intact even in dire times. That person does not compromise
the dictates of reason in exchange for immediate fulfilment of his/her passions. Aristotle teaches us that character is the
most essential component of ethics. A virtuous character is the result of the proper combination of practical wisdom
(phronesis) and habituation (ethos) in the pursuit of the mean (mesotes). Being ethical is all about being excellent in
fulfilling one’s essence as a rational being that has cultivated an excellent character and is therefore capable of making
the most prudent decisions in all circumstances.

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Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38