Sddhan~, Vol. 18, Part 1, March 1993, pp. 77 104. (C: Printed in India.

Solar passive buildings for developing countries

C L GUPTA
Solar Energy Unit, Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry 605 002, India

MS received 30 October 1990

Abstract. This paper is meant to be an indicative survey of developments

in solar passive building technology relevant to developing countries. The
evolution of this area during the last fifty years is reported along with the
scientific principles and design concepts underlying these developments.
Factors to be considered for design strategies such as direct gain, isolated
gain, indirect gain and roof evaporative systems are then described. Rating
parameters for assessing the performance and benefit and cost parameters
are then outlined. Successful examples illustrating each of the design
concepts, mainly from Indian buildings constructed during the last fifteen
years, are then detailed along with their performance based on actual
monitoring, if available. Concluding remarks indicate the current and
future trends. A survey is made of papers marking significant milestones
in the development of solar passive building technology relevant to
developing countries.

Keywords. Solar passive; solar heating; solar cooling; energy conserva-

tion; renewable energy; solar architecture

I. Introduction

Amongst all the solar technologies available, solar passive buildings are perhaps the
most environmentally compatible, resource-wise and economically sustainable, and
immediately humanly available in terms of skills and methods of construction. Their
contextual relevance to industrialized countries is, however, different from that to
developing ones. For the former group, where space heating and cooling is the
accepted practice, they are primarily employed and rated for fuel substitution, whereas
in the developing countries, they only reduce the degree of discomfort and constitute
a low-energy approach for normally non-conditioned buildings. Developing countries,
being in tropical climates, preferably require cooling, whose economics cannot be so
well substantiated in the absence of any alternatively used fuel-consuming machines.
The economics can be easily ascertained, however, for heating in the cooler months
or at hilly locations of developing countries, because of the cash value of saving fuels,
and that is why passively heated buildings are finding acceptance in such regions.
Since solar passive buildings are the culmination of an evolutionary growth of
architecture, consciously during the last fifty years, we define their exact scope and

77
78 C L Gupta

trace their historical evolution during this period (§2) before outlining the basic
scientific principles and design concepts (§ 3). We then briefly discuss the design analysis
and optimisation aspects both for heating and cooling by passive means (§4) and
follow-up with rating parameters (§ 5). Some landmark buildings, mainly from India,
are cited as examples of successful design in § 6, while economic aspects are discussed
in § 7. This concise review is meant not as an exhaustive essay but as an indicative
survey to bring home the relevance of this approach for developing countries.

2. Scope and historical evolution

2.1 Scope

In the broad area of energy conscious design, we define the various phases of growth
as follows.
(i) Solar architecture uses/excludes solar radiation with the help of devices-
mechanical, such as evaporative cooling, or architectural, like passive integrated water
heaters or sun control louvers.
(ii) Energy-conserving buildings primarily use low-energy materials and reduce
possible consumption by proper choice of orientation, urban design, landscaping and
building envelope parameters.
(iii) Passive buildings, even though using some or all of the above, are primarily
those which use the temperature difference caused by the sun/wind as the driving
potential via natural processes such as convection, evaporation, radiation and
conduction to collect, store and distribute or reject energy into internal spaces. Some
of the design features are glass-walled rooms, chimneys, fenestration for natural
daylight and heat, ponds or water sprays for evaporative and radiant cooling/heating.

2.2 Historical evolution

The three streams defined in § 2.1 and the evolution of heating, ventilating and
air-conditioning (HVAC)equipment in parallel constitute the four threads which have
been used to weave the pattern of energy-conscious architecture during the last fifty
years.

2.2a Bioclimatic period (1936-65): During this period, most of the architect-
designed buildings were supported by some kind of thermal analysis with regard to
climate and materials apart from the geometry of buildings vis-a-vis solar geometry.
This was the period during which the Bauhaus movement headed by Gropius and
mechanical aesthetics propounded by Le Corbusier had their sway. In the meantime,
mass-produced modular heating, ventilating and airconditioning equipment displaced
custom-designed HVAC systems. Architecturally, bioclimatic design methodology
marked the peak of this period (Olgay & Olgay 1963).

2.2b Integrated designs - early phase (t940-70): Full size solar houses were built
as models, mainly by engineers. The architects relegated the passive design in favour
of reliable HVAC systems or active solar buildings, since fuel was inexpensive and
easily available. Analysis rather than creative synthesis was the essence of this period,
which laid the foundations for energy-conscious architecture. Notable buildings
during these periods were the following.
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 79

Bioclimatic approach

• Golconde, Pondicherry, India (1936-40) - Raymond, Nakashima and Sammers.

• India International Centre, New Delhi, India (1957) - Joseph Stein.
• St. Georges School, Liverpool, England (1961) - Morgan.

Solar active approach

• MIT Solar Houses, Cambridge, USA (1939-1958) - Anderson and Hottel.

• Lof House, Denver, USA (1958) - George Lof.
• Kapur Solar Farm, New Delhi, India (1963)- J C Kapur.

2.2c Sun fuels for preheating (1970-83): This was the era of retrofits, controls and
system design, so as to derive the maximum contribution from the sun, subject to
cost constraints. Energy consciousness 'leaped' over houses to include public buildings
like schools, market places and hospitals. Problems of legal solar access rights and
life cycle costing for economic justification came to the fore. India missed the scene,
but demonstration programs of EEC in Europe and DOE and NSF in USA practically
changed the course of building construction and architectural design practice. Operating
and maintenance problems of retrofit mechanical devices became important. Building
energy rating parameters were developed and used. A comprehensive survey of solar
houses in Europe is included in Palz & Steemers (1981).

2.2d Solar passive buildings (1970- ): This is the period when a new
solar-architectural ethic was first defined and practised. Buildings became primary
elements for collection, storage and distribution of energy within the buildings and
'solar' became a symbol of quality rather than cost reduction. Daylighting, resource
conservation, vegetation and envelope design including insulation became the keywords.
Solar communities were born and superinsulated houses and earth-sheltered buildings
(in the modern context) made their appearance. Notable buildings of this phase are
as below:
• Zome House, Albuquerque, USA (1971)- Steve Baer.
• Trombe House, Pyrenes, France (1972) - Felix Trombe and Mitchell.
• Sky-therm House, Arizona, USA (1973)- H R Hay.
• Ecohouse, Auroville, India (1976) - C L Gupta, Vikas and R Gupta.
• Balcomb House, Arizona, USA (1979) - Susan and Nichols.
• sos Children's Village, Leh, India (1980) - C L Gupta and V Lahiri.
• Sangath, Ahmedabad, India (1986) - B V Doshi.
• Vidyadhar Nagar, Jaipur, India (1980) - B V Doshi and Associates.

2.2e Current developments (1980-): New building energy products such as

phase-change material (PCM) tiles, heat selective films for windows, solar cladding
panels, thermal diodes, variable insulation cavity walls and new kinds of blinds have
been developed and are now commercially available. Computer-aided design (CAD)
programs for design including solar thermal analysis and simulation and operating
programs for building systems management are now routinely available. Attempts
have also been made at optimisation in terms of minimum overall costs or maximum
energy conservation or minimum degree of discomfort. On-site waste recycling systems
using high rate reactors for biomethanation are under field trials. On-site power
systems have been developed and are being field tested. Watson (1981), Givoni (1983),
80 C L Gupta

Cook (1983) and Balcomb (1987) have summarised these developments in their recent
presentations at the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) congresses and passive
and low-energy architecture (PLEA) meetings. Authoritative manuals and text books
are available on science and design of solar passive buildings, e.g. Lebens (1979),
Balcomb (1982), Sodha et al (1986, pp. 238-42), Cook (1990) and Prakash (1990).
Earlier texts on climatic aspects of design, e.g. Givoni (1976) and Koenisberger et al
(1975) contain highly relevant background material.

3. Basic design concepts and scientific principles

3.1 Basic design concepts

In solar passive buildings, there are no solar collector panels; parts of the building
collect, store and distribute solar energy. A schematic sketch shows their interrelation-
ships (figure 1). South-facing glass windows, greenhouses, glass cladding on walls or
skylights serve as collectors, while floors and walls provide thermal storage mass to
hold heat till it is needed for sundown hours or when the ambient starts to cool.
Properly placed vents, windows, skylights or shading glass surfaces prevent overheating
during summer or on very sunny days in cold weather. Depending upon the elements
used, we have the following for solar heating.

3.1a Direct gain system: This works with radiant inputs directly into the indoor
space, mainly absorbed by the floor mass.

3.1b Isolated gain system: This has an attached sunspace to provide a hotter
ambient and thereby reduce losses and partly convect heat through connecting doors
and windows by natural convection.

3.1c Indirect gain system: This system has a glazed masonry sun-facing wall
(southern in the northern hemisphere) with intervening space for air flow. This may
be vented to have a Trombe wall in which heat is transferred indoors by natural
convection during the day and by time-lag of conducted heat by the evening and night.

storage I
ventilation
_ infillration
f
regulation
radially,
collection
- x /
utilization
I
~ ~;:ntsmittante
distribution ,,_1

o-4l~ radiation flow

heat flow

Figure 1. Solar passive building - basic concept.

 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 81

// \\

solar green /

i storage wa~.(~) Figure 2. Schematic of solar passive

heating systems.

3.1d Roof water systems: These are used for heating and cooling in terms of 10cm
deep ponds of water on the terrace coupled to insulated mobile shades or else for
cooling alone when a water spray is coupled to water-retaining fabric attached to
the roof deck.
Details of these systems, relevant to architects, are given by Gupta et al (1990) and
the underlying physics is discussed by Heidt (1983). Schematics of heating systems
are shown in figure 2. Details of a solar Trombe wall, the most popular solar passive
element, as applied to the design of schools in"the Ladakh region are given in figure 3,

robber

nailed to frame

beading detail 1:2

M__..~sr~s grill where required

Mullion £X 35X35
25 mm flush t-----3 mm sheet glass
, ~L ~
board snarler- I ~lJIrt----shutter ex 40X65
~loll

f --bea ing EX 3SX6

cement:mud
~ frame 150X65

plaster ~ ~ ~ b e a d i n g EX 35X6
random rubble
.'" ~.....~frame EX 50X40
/toughened giass 45mm
masonry~ (or wire reinforced)
45 mm air cavity
cement" piaster,
dark cotour

PCC floor~fTTf.[.
~ - ~ ~ frame EX 50X40

J / Figure 3. Trombe wall - speci-

fications for a school (Ladakh).
82 C L Gupta

l\ Z • winter (~.
\ / / I hea~(night~

;Iosed

T r o m b e w a [ [ heclting x / / /
night- ~_

/ l-

ent closed
winter
heating(day) ombe w~ll so-,ks
uns heat,conduc-
ing it" to wall rnQss
nd setting upair
)op

Trombe walt

\I i

/ / \

feet
ising

ed
ttom

Figure 4. Trombe wall - working principle.

and its working principle is depicted in figure 4. A good overview is given by Balcomb
(1979).

3.2 Scientificprinciples

Buildings are normally treated as a grouping of rooms with the roof, walling and
floor elements of each room in parallel. One-dimensional heat flow governed by a
conduction equation in layered structures is considered, each layer having constant
thermal properties without internal heat generation. These elements can be treated
as lumped resistance-capacitance (RC) networks or as quadripoles. Boundary
conditions are usually of the third kind (radiative) with evaporative terms in case of
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 83

roof sprays and ponds, and nonlinear radiative cooling to sky for exposed horizontal
elements. Floors are assumed to have constant temperature at the depth of the water
table equal to the annual ambient dry bulb temperature of the place. Steady periodic
methods are usually employed with hourly variation. The simulation cycles vary from
one-day every month to nine-days every season. In case the effect of wind is to be
taken into account in changing the surface heat transfer coefficient on the external
facade, numerical methods with RC networks are employed rather than matrix or
admittance or response procedures, which necessitate constancy of the network. Single
rooms are treated with the wall of adjoining rooms as adiabatic partition walls or
zoning is resorted to with the corresponding complication of having to solve sets of
simultaneous equations. Either variable temperatures for non-conditioned buildings
and buildings with partial energy inputs or airconditioning loads for controlled indoor
temperatures can be determined. A comprehensive survey of the methods required
for thermal analysis of buildings (Gupta et al 1970), and, more recently, for solar
buildings (Balcomb 1987) are now available. The main attempts from 1970 to 1990
have been to computerize these methods for mainframe and, more recently, desktop
computers. A typical room thermal circuit (for the southern hemisphere) according
to Yamaguchi (1983) is shown in figure 5.
A pertinent consideration that distinguishes the analysis of solar passive buildings
from the thermal analysis of normal buildings is the definitive need to consider
internal radiative-convective exchanges as delta rather than star networks. This was
first attempted by Buchberg et al (1964) using the RC network and numerical methods,
by Gupta (1964) using quadripoles and steady periodic methods, and by Raychaudhuri
(1965) using equivalent time constant sections and transient response methods.
Recently, such techniques have been used by Subba Rao & Anderson (1982) and
Yamaguchi (1983) for solar passive buildings. This approach definitively proved that

ventilahon ~ room~41-~ ~roof

A ~ thermo-c,rculotion ~ I I i

temperature I I / /

solar radiation II -A

~s~ive ~ I I ~ 4 floor
floor ~-l--fr" I "
4 i

for southern hemisphere earth

Figure 5. Thermal circuit of a room.

84 C L Gupta

the time-lag of individual building elements is invalid for unconditioned buildings as

a whole. At that time, however, it was considered only a refinement in the analysis.
For solar passive buildings, where internal storage acts as an essential buffer between
collection and distribution, particularly for a larger radiant fraction of heat inputs,
simulation of internal temperature swings cannot be properly estimated without this
coupling. Approximate methods are being continually evolved to make these concepts
available for use in architectural practice (e.g. Balcomb 1981, 1983). Another recent
simplification has been to treat solar inputs as invariant with respect to orientation,
similar to air temperature but with varying incidental area of the building as a whole
determined by projective methods (e.g. Kim 1983, Huang 1986, pp. 122-7, and
Gupta & Raghavan, unpublished work). Optimisation methods have also been
coupled to these simulation tools to determine optimal values of insulation,
orientation, aspect ratio etc. for minimum energy consumption for thermal tempering,
e.g. by Gupta & Spencer (1970), Gupta & Ram Mohan (1981), to determine the
optimum combination for cost minimisation by Gupta & Anson (1972) and for
hybridising of direct gain and Trombe wall systems by Yamaguchi (1983) and Sodha
et al (1989, pp. 238-42). Statistical variation of daily inputs over monthly periods
have also been incorporated using the unutilizability approach for direct gain and
Trombe wall systems by Monsen et al (1981, 1982). These are now being extended
to cover the sequencing of days with help of second order statistical analyses e.g.
Gordon & Reddy (1989).

4. Design guidelines

Amongst the design guidelines available, three are for heating, one is for heating and
cooling, and one is for cooling only. Each of the systems in these categories has
specific design limitations and use. Hence, the designer has to choose the one that
satisfies the majority of criteria set for a particular building on a given site and the
availability of space as well as the fineness of thermal regulation required. The
following guidelines can be of help at the initial design stage. These are mainly
compiled by Gupta et al (1990).

4.1 Solar passive heating

4.1a Direct gain (increased fenestration i.e. glass area): building form - The building
is usually oriented along the east-west axis, with spaces needing heat located along
the south wall.

Glazing - The major glass area must be oriented towards the south and it is essential
that windows be carefully designed to eliminate the problem of glare often associated
with direct gain systems.

Material - The system generally implies a heavy building with the interior wall and
floors constructed of masonry materials.

Thermal control - Direct gain systems are characterised by daily indoor fluctuations.
To prevent overheating, shading devices are used to reduce solar gain, or excess heat
is vented out by.opening windows/vents.
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 85

Retrofitting - Retrofitting an existing building with a direct gain system is somewhat

difficult, since the building by itself is the system.
The system demands skilful and total integration of all architectural elements within
each space: windows, walls, floor, roof and interior surface finishes. A direct gain
system can usually be built for the same cost as a conventional masonry system.

4.1b Isolated gain (attached greenhouse): building f o r m - T h e greenhouse must

extend along the south face of the building adjoining the spaces to be heated.

Glazing To heat one square metre of building floor area (excluding the greenhouse)
approximately 75% of greenhouse glass area is required in normal constructions.

M a t e r i a l s - T h e major construction material in the greenhouse is double glass or

transparant plastic and there is a common wall (thermal mass masonry or water)
between greenhouse and building.

Thermal c o n t r o l - T e m p e r a t u r e in adjoining spaces is similar to temperatures in

thermal wall storage systems.

Retrofitting - Retrofitting can be carried out easily by adding a sunspace to an existing

building on its south side in the northern hemisphere. A useful feature of the system
is that it can produce fresh vegetables, apart from the capacity to heat itself and
space adjoining it.

4.1c Indirect g a i n - ( g l a z e d storage wall): This can be a vented c a v i t y - Trombe

wall - or an unvented cavity.

Building form - The depth of a space is limited to approximately 5 or 6 metres, since

this is considered the maximum distance for effective radiant heating from a solar wall.

Glazing - The south-facing glass functions only as a collecting surface and admits no
natural light into the space except through windows, which may be allowed.

M a t e r i a l s - E i t h e r water or masonry or built-in PCM modules can be used for a

thermal-mass wall. Double glazing in front of the wall is considered desirable unless
insulating shutters are applied over the glazing at night.

Thermal control- Indoor temperature fluctuations are controlled by wall thickness.

The heat output of a masonry wall can be regulated by the addition of thermo-circula-
tion vents with openable dampers or by movable insulating panels or drapes placed
over the inside face of the wall.

System efficiency - For the same area of wall and heat storage capacity, a water wall
will be slightly more effÉcient than a masonry walt.

Retrofitting - This system can be added without much difficulty to the south wall of
a building.
The system allows for a wide choice of construction materials (exclusive of the
thermal wall) and interior finishes, and offers a high degree of control over the indoor
thermal environment.
86 C L Gupta

4.2 Heating and cooling

4.2a Roof-top shallow solar pond: It acts like a panel radiant heater/cooler and is
primarily meant only for one-storey buildings with thin horizontal roofs. It is also
ineffective during monsoons and roofs need special care with regard to weather
proofing.

Building form - Since the roof itself is a collector, this system is most suitable for
heating or cooling one-storey buildings, or the top floor of a multi-storeyed structure.

Glazing - For summer cooling, the pond must be exposed to as much of the night
sky as possible.

Materials - Roof ponds are generally 10-20 cm in depth. A structural RCC grid system
or metal deck, which also acts as a finished ceiling and radiating surface, is the most
commonly used support for the pond itself.

Thermal c o n t r o l - R o o f - p o n d heating and cooling is characterised by stable indoor

temperatures and high levels of comfort due to'the large area of radiative surface.

System efficiency- Roof ponds, which are lined with plastic and have movable
insulation, range in efficiency from 30 to 45~. It should be noted that the effectiveness
of the seal made by the movable insulation will have an impact on the efficiency of
the system.

Retrofitting - The requirements of a large area of radiating surface plus structural

and modular considerations make it difficult to apply to existing structures.
Solar roof ponds are an inexpensive and effective method of providing both heating
and cooling in dry climates with clear night skies.

4.3 Solar passive cooling

4.3a R o o f spray on an absorbent fabric: This system was invented by the Central
Building Research Institute (CBRI) (see, for example Jain & Rao 1974). The roof acts
like a panel radiant cooler. It was primarily designed for one-storey buildings with
thin horizontal roofs but was later extended to normal masonry roofs and multi-storey
buildings (e.g. Jain 1989). The principle is to maximize the effective cooling efficiency
of the roof deck by making water evaporate in as close a thermal contact with it as
possible during the day, and using, in addition, radiant cooling to the sky during the
night.

Building form - No restriction except suitable weather proofing without appreciable

increase in thermal resistance or capacity.

Glazing - With unobstructed exposure to the night sky, it is ideal for hot, dry climates
with clear night skies.

Materials - Gunny bags/coir matting are used in close thermal contact with the roof.
A spray of water from sprinklers or wicks in a perforated pipe is obtained to just
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 87

wet the surface. The roof fabric is necessary to increase the specific surface of
evaporation and obtain a thin layer of water so as to need spraying only three to
four times in a full day.

Thermal c o n t r o l - A n electrical conducting sensor can operate a relay to shut a

solenoid valve or open it for gravity flow. Only a few watts of DC provided by the
photo-voltaic (PV) panel is sufficient to automate the system. Usually the water spray
is needed at the rate of 10 litres per square metre per day (24h).

Efficiency - An indoor air temperature depression of upto 8°C has been observed in
favourable climates with complete extinction of vertical temperature gradients and
asymmetric radiation from the ceiling.

Retrofitting - Commonly used for factory roofs after checking for weather proofing.
The system is very effective in terms of cooling per unit investment and needs very
low running costs.

4.3b Terrace garden with spray of water: This is a variation of the system in §4"3a
with significant increase in dead weight, thermal capacity and resistance. It is highly
effective during day and needs lesser water; one can have a terrace lawn for use.

4.3c Earth sheltered buildings: Underground construction also provides excellent

cooling potential. The temperature of the ground at some depth remains almost
stable throughout the year, and depending on latitude, stays at approximately annual
average dry-bulb-temperature (DBT). In climates with severe summer or winter
temperatures or both, underground construction provides considerably improved
'outside' design temperatures, to remove much of the demand from the heating system,
and all the demand from the cooling system. Two words of caution in underground
systems: First, humidity and moisture conditions which result from below-grade
construction may greatly influence living comfort in the already humid regions and
second, underground buildings cannot take maximum advantage of comfortable
outside temperatures, but instead have constant exposure to the cooler ground
temperature.

4.3d Induced ventilation: This solar passive cooling system makes use of sunshine
for inducing air movement to augment natural ventilation for building comfort. By
using the sun to heat air in one restricted area, with a location somewhat lower than
the adjacent non-solar-heated areas, a temperature difference is set up, causing natural
air movements, in which hot air rises. The pocket of hot air created inside at
temperatures greater than the ambient, vents to the outside, drawing replacement air
from the living spaces. The living spaces in turn draw replacement air from the coolest
outdoor air source, usually near planted north areas. Thus, a "thermal chimney" can,
by use of solar energy, cause continuous air circulation through a building to provide
solar passive cooling.

5. Rating parameters

As mentioned in § 1, the rating procedure for unconditioned buildings, when designed

as solar passive or retrofitted with solar passive features, has to be different from
88 C L Gupta

that of normally conditioned buildings. There are many methods, but those better
known and logical/simpler to use are presented below. A good critique of these is
available (see for instance, Clausing & Drolen 1979).

5.1 Degree of discomfort method

This is a method based on predicted/measured hourly internal air ( D B T ) temperatures

wherein discomfort degree hours are calculated fo~ day and night times outside the
comfort zone and normalized for time period length by dividing by total degree hours
within the comfort zone (Gupta et al 1970). No distinction is made between lesser
peaks for longer hours or higher peaks for an hour or two. Also, a linear scale is
considered even though physiological responses to environmental stimulii are
logarithmic and not linear. We define degree of discomfort as

where
D = degree of discomfort;
N = number of ordinates considered in design cycle;
tia = temperature of internal area or space (°C) - measured or computed;
t c = day-time preferred temperature for comfort (°C);
t N= upper limit for night-time comfort (°C);
AD = deviation allowed in the day = half the range of comfort zone (°C);
AN = deviation allowed in the night for comfort (°C);
+ = only positive values to be considered, negative values to be neglected.

Temperatures and comfort parameters can also be environmental temperatures or

tropical summer index (BIS 1988).

5.2 Solar load ratio method

This is an empirical method developed by the Los Alamos Science Laboratory Group
over a period of years for various kinds of solar passive buildings.. Monthly estimates
of solar heat fraction (SHF) are made, which yield an annual SHF within + 2"5~o of
the value based on hourly calculations, by correlating S H F with solar load ratio (SLR),
which is:

radiant energy (solar) absorbed by the building

SLR --
monthly heating load
where
monthly heating load = global loss coefficient of the building
× floor area x monthly degree hours,
and
S H F = a 1 × SLR; S L R < R
= a 2 -- a 3 exp(- a4"SLR); SLR> R.

These expressions do not vary with location. The values of the constants al, a2, a3,
a4 and of R, however, are different for different types of passive systems. These have
 Solar passive buildings for developin9 countries 89

been derived with reference to baseline building specifications for an internal building
temperature of 18"3°C with dumping beyond 23.9°C. A 2.7°C equivalent contribution
by internal loads is to be accounted for by the base temperature required for
calculation of degree hours in USA.

SHF x building load

System efficiency-.
mcident radiation on solar wall

5,3 Solar heat effectiveness (SHE) method

The solar load ratio method does not allow a comparison or integration of solar
passive strategies with conservation strategies, e.g. enhanced insulation, as it is
computed with respect to ambient conditions. In the case of the SHE method, the
base line reference is with respect to indoor temperatures of the unheated building
(not the ambient) and it is defined as

heat equivalent of the temperature elevation of a solar room

above that of an untreated room
SHE --
heat required by the solar room to reach comfort
temperature (say, 18.3°C)

It is a measure of the fractional discomfort removed for a given type of building and
treatment. This has been used by Gupta & Prema (1983).

5.4 A low-cost field method

This method utilises the daily maximum and minimum temperature values for indoor
and outdoor environments over a heating season to estimate the decrement ratio
and average temperature elevation of the indoor above the outdoor. For ordinary
buildings, it had been developed by Drysdale (1952) and has been used by B Stickney
(private communication) for solar passive buildings.

indoor air temperature swing

Decrement ratio 2 =
outdoor air temperature swing'
where
temperature swing = ( Tmax - Tmi.),
average temperature elevation (AT)= (indoor mean temperature
- o u t - d o o r mean temperature),
mean temperature = 0"5 (Tmax + T i , )

Day and night AT's can also be derived from differences of maxima and minima
respectively. Low to moderate values of 2 and moderate to high values of ATindicate
good performance. Solar passive buildings invariably have indoor temperature
fluctuations. Temperatures between 22 and 28°C may be considered comfortable for
human occupancy and between 10 and 35°C are allowable for plants in attached
sunspaces for tropical climates. These limits are adjustable for humidity and movement
of indoor air (using fans) by using TS! limits prescribed by the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) (1988).
90 C L Gupta

6. Case studies

A few selected case studies from India on solar passive systems are being reported
with performance data, wherever available, to illustrate various types of systems
enumerated. More complete accounts are available in Gupta (1987) and with
A Duggal (1983, unpublished).

6.1 sos Tibetan Children's Village, Choglamsar, L e h - sunspace

An attached greenhouse, with a movable internal shade for the ceiling and closable
vents for the south-facing glass wall of the common space, and double-glazed, solid
masonry wall with a vent system for two end-rooms have been retrofitted to the sos
Tibetan Children's Village dormitory in Choglamsar (Gupta & Prema 1983); the
plan and section are shown in figure 6. The climate is severe with annual heating

1/.2-~" 308 150

orient 'at{
10° wes
~ouse

~4 t( 2s~---I

I, 1~a2 "1
unit : c m
Figure 6. sos village dormitory systems.
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 91

m/s ~_

2 0k-

~/ofon clear
monthday J kWh/m2
r - - -J. . . . . . . . . . . . "L__.~ 4 8 /n:g ht
J.... ' IL---I
/ ' '--- -~ . . . . " -L -{4 =~°
monthly -- "--t
average -~0 -~
I _o
e~ !
°C

20

!0
E
ea
.5 " 20 - i
E
J °/° ~_
"
i
~0830h -- x:
I
1 ~ ~ '-1730
"~ h 0 %

mm ~ _ ~ ramfal{
.~ 12 I'~l-'~number of rainydoys i

........' , , , , , __/, ----

Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov

Figure 7. Typical climatic data required (Leh),

degree days equal to 4400 and annual sunshine hours exceeding 2900, see figure 7
for climatic data (Prakash et al 1988). In this austere and yet beautiful building amidst
snowy mountains, traditional construction materials, namely, mud, timber and glass,
had been used in the traditional style - solid adobe walls, 0'53 m thick (external) and
0'38 m thick (partitions), heatless coefficients (U) values of 1.64 and 1-76 W m- 2deg C- 1,
respectively, and a wooden roof with mud topping (U value = 2.44 W m-Zdeg C-1).
The floor was wooden decking over a crawl space, which should normally have been
used for heating in traditional Tibetan style but was not used for economic reasons.
The extended floor in greenhouse space was solid masonry and provided good thermal
storage mass of l'44MJ/mZK. Attached greenhouse and Trombe wall retrofit data
are given in table 1. Table 2 gives measured temperature data, namely the maxima
and minima for the Trombe room, greenhouse space and ambient climate. A typical
day profile is also shown in figure 8. The temperature of the greenhouse space follows
the solar Trombe wall room very closely during day but is much cooler at night in
spite of shading the ceiling from night sky cooling. This is because the vertical walls
are single-glazed and are not provided with shades and there are howling cold winds
rushing through the Indus Valley parallel to these houses. This building has changed
the building style in nearby villages almost without any conscious technology transfer
on the part of the technical team. All the 20 dormitories have been retrofitted in this
92 C L Gupta

Table 1. (a) Building specifications - (sos Tibetan children's village).

Thickness Mass U-value

Element Materials (m) (kg m - 2) ( W m - 2 K - 1)

Walls
External Sun-dried mud bricks 0"53 1053 1"64
partition Sun-dried mud bricks
North wall 0"38 755 1'76
East wall 0-53 1053 1'47
Roof Mud on wooden deck 0.20 +
0"03 477 2.44
Floor Wooden deck on ground 0-03 ÷
0"27 596 --

Element Trombe room Common room

Floor area (m z) 13-6 59-4

South facade (m z) 9-5 17.3
Glass cladding (m z) 9.5 41.3
Glass area/floor area 0"68 0"69
Frame shadow fraction 0' !6 0"08

p a t t e r n by the s o s village a n d m a n y h o u s e h o l d e r s n e a r b y have used the system in

their houses, using locally a v a i l a b l e skills a n d materials.

6.2 Hotel Tsemo-La, Leh (34°N)- Trombe wall

U n d e r an I n t e r m e d i a t e T e c h n o l o g y D e v e l o p m e n t G r o u p - T a t a E n e r g y Research
Institute (ITDG-TERI) project, a T r o m b e - w a l l heating system was designed a n d a
s e c o n d - s t o r e y r o o m built in H o t e l T s e m o - L a (previously K a r a k o r a m Hotel) incor-
p o r a t i n g this design a l o n g with cavity walls in Leh, L a d a k h , d u r i n g 1978 (34°N
at an elevation of 3500m) ( N o r b e r g 1980; S t a m b o l i s et al 1980). T h e solar r o o m has
a floor a r e a of 3 0 m 2 a n d the solar wall-to-floor a r e a r a t i o is 0"635.

Table 2. Monthly mean measured temperature - (sos Tibetan children's village).

Maximum temperature (°C) Minimum temperature (°C)

Trombe Greenhouse Trombe Greenhouse

Month Solar Control Solar Control Shade Solar Control Solar Control Shade

(1980)
September 32.2 27.0 29.6 26.2 17.4 20.0 16.6 17"6 14.5 6-3
October 29.4 20.7 25.6 -- 11.6 16'2 11.4 13.4 -- 1"2
November 21.8 13.7 20.5 -- 7.1 11.6 5.9 5"8 -- - 5"6
December 21.6 10.2 17.0 -- 2.8 6.8 2-4 4-6 -- - 9"4
(1981)
April 24.0 19"0 24-8 -- 11"6 17"0 14.0 15"0 -- - 1"6
May 25'8 23"6 25-2 22"2 16"6 21"0 19"0 19"0 17"0 3"2
June 27-8 26.8 29.4. 25.0 19"6 21'0 20.4 21"0 20"0 7"0
July 31.1 29.2 31.8 28.6 25.0 25.4 23-6 24"0 23"0 12"8
 Solar passive buildings for developin 9 countries 93

,c
~ November 1980 [
20

s olGr//qreenhouse
16
W/m 2
600
conventional

L-
-adiation
~8 m

~00
t~ o
o
o

200 .-co

-4

-8

0 4 8 12 15 20 2,
time

Figure 8. sos village - typical daily temperature profiles.

Since only mud, timber and glass were available at the site - the latter for making
sun r o o m s k n o w n as Shalkhangs- only these were used in the construction. Cavity
walls of 37-5cm thickness using two 15cm thick layers of dried adobe blocks with
polythene bags filled with straw as cavity insulation (wall R = 0.858°Cm- 2 W - 1) and
a w o o d e n deck roof, with m u d insulation on the top (with a slight slope) and
straw-filled purlin space with wood-veneer lining below acting as the ceiling
(R = 1.648), were the main building elements. The south wall with two slit windows
was double glazed and vented to act as the T r o m b e wall. This r o o m has been
monitored by using mercury in glass thermometers with an accuracy of 0.5°C installed
in mid air at 1-2 m from the g r o u n d both in the solar r o o m and in a conventional
one, vide G u p t a (1980, unpublished) and G u p t a & R a m M o h a n (1981). D a t a were

Table 3. Thermal preformance data for solar room, Leh. (Hotel

Tsemo-La).

Maximum temperature (°C) Minimum temperature (°C)

(Shade DBT) (Shade DBT)
Month Solar Ordinary Ambient Solar Ordinary Ambient

December 17.0 5-2 0.4 9'5 1.2 - 8.25

January 10.0 4.0 - 3"0 4.0 - 4.0 - 14.0
February 13.7 6.2 - 1.2 7.0 0"0 - 12.4
March I5"0 10-0 4.7 9'0 3"5 - 3'5
April 19"2 18"5 15.8 13'7 11'5 2'0
May 21.5 19'8 15-5 15.9 11-3 4.5

Solar room = glazed masonry wall, vented Trombe

94 C L Gupta

recorded for a full heating season at three hourly intervals. Typical monthly means
recorded are given in table 3. Steady upward differentials of 8°C and above have
been observed in the solar room under ambient conditions during the coldest months
when the sun is at low elevation and the Trombe wall is most effective• Assuming
room heaters burning wood to have an efficiency of 24~o, the equivalent wood saving
is 5.7 tons of firewood/heating season. Similarly, for kerosene oil/wood bukhari, the
net saving is 992 litres of kerosene oil for one heating season per family. This is
assuming that only a single room is heated in normal hours and 18-3°C is considered
comfortable for local residents.

6.3 Sky-therm studies for coolin9 in Bangalore - roof pond

Prasad et al (1979) developed a simvlation model and an experimental building to

validate it for the Sky-therm system with a view to employing the technique for
tempering the climate of storage rooms for sericulture, which have to be kept at a
temperature of (25 _+ 3)°C throughout the year. These experimental studies were done
in Bangalore, as sericulture is a major cottage industry in the surrounding area.
The low cost building used for this purpose had walls made of plastered and
stabilised mnd blocks (machine-pressed) 30 cm thick and a ferrocement roof 3.75 cm
thick. Because of large glazed areas on south and west walls (18~o of floor area) and
permanent ventilation resulting in one air change per hour at velocities of 5 km/h
(even when fully closed), the building was not really suited for the cooling part of the
Sky-therm system.
However, it could be the norm in improved low cost housing and hence may be
considered as realistic.
Ten-centimetre thick water bags on the roof, which allowed for radiative as well
as for evaporative cooling when open, decreased the indoor air temperatures by
3-4°C during the hottest month of April, when shaded by wooden boards during

*C
34

32

3O - 3 k

28 - 2

26
Figure 9. Roof pond system tem-
--
\ \" ~ /
2/
/
/ \ .S0tO,r .. \ 8
~/irradiation
perature profiles- Bangalore (1 - Con-
crete building, 10cm thick walls,
10cm thick roof; 2 - concrete roof,
shaded; 3-brick building, 30cm
22 thick mud-brick walls, 3.75 cm thick
ferro-rool', shaded; 4 - water (10cm
20 1 /" I 1 1 x~ I ; depth) on top of the brick building,
0 04 0B 12 16 20 24 h movable insulating cover over the
time roof opened after 7 p.m.)
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 95

the day, even though shading permitted some air leakages. Measured profiles of daily
temperatures are shown in figure 9. Also shown in figure 9 are simulated results for
a prefabricated concrete building using 10 cm thick elements for walls and roofs, with
and without shading. The cooling achieved, as well as the reduced temperature swing,
is striking.

6.4 Building fabric evaporative cooling, Roorkee - roof fabric system

This concept, due to S P Jain of CBR:, Roorkee (Jain & Rao 1974), and initially
considered suitable for thin roofs, converted such roofs from net donors with 40 to
50°Jo of sensible heat gains to effective heat sinks. The technique has been subsequently
applied to residential and office buildings in hot, dry climates for reduction in
temperatures of non-At buildings and for load reduction in AC buildings to the
extent of 30~'o (Jain 1989). Figure 10 shows the Modipuram Factory folded plate roof
being covered with jute coir matting for the purpose (600 m 2 covered area).
A cheap water-retaining fabric has been used so that wetting is needed only thrice
during 24 hours for 10 minutes to 30 minutes each time; the average consumption
of water being 10 l/m-" per day during summer. An additional advantage of complete
elimination of temperature gradient and overhead stratified hot air is also realised
as ceiling peak temperatures drop by 15::'C and more. Measured temperatures for
treated as well as untreated rooms are given in table 4 for various types of buildings
(Jain 1989). This system is also being installed at Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sultanpur
(Jain 1990, personal communication).

6.5 Residential building (S M Jauhri. New Delhi, 1976)- terrace garden cooling

Terrace gardens are often thought of as an efficient passive energy technique for
cool living areas below. The coolth from the transpiration of plants is thought to
descend down into the rooms. However, the coolth comes from the water in the

Figure 10. Roof fabric system at Modipuram layingof coir matting.

96 C L Gupta

Table 4. Roof fabric cooling.

Effect of the cooling process on low-cost/modern buildings on similar hot summer days.
Average ambient maximum and minimum temperatures: 42.0 and 22.0°C, respectively.

Approximate maximum
indoor air temperature Drop in
°C at living level indoor air
temperature
Building Specifications Untreated Treated (°c)
Conventional Walls: 23"0cm thick solid brick 40"0 32"0 8.0
Roof: 11.4cm RCC
plus 10-2cm lime concentrate
Low-cost/ Small annex of soil engineering 41.5 32.0 9'5
modern division of CBRI with low
height (2.6 m) larger glazed
windows facing west
exposure
Low-cost/ CBRI light-weight fully exposed 42.0 32.0 10"0
modern hut with walls 15.0cm thick,
roofs 13.0cm thick treated
with tarfelt and low ceiling-
height (2.7 m).
Low-cost/ A modern office complex with 42.0 32"0 10'0
modern rooms having fully glazed
fronts, floor areas
(2.4 x 2.1 m), low ceiling-
height (2.6 m) and 10 cm RCC
roof treated with tarfelt, at
Chandigarh
Low-cost/ CBRIextension centre at Bhopal 41.0 32.0 9.0
modern having roof of 5.0 cm precast
roofing units, walls mostly
exposed
Low-cost/ Prototype having galvanised- 42.5 32.0 10'5
modern iron sheet-roof
Low-cost/ Prototype having Trafford 42.5 32.0 10'5
modern asbestos-cement sheet-roof

soaked gravel and mud layer, which on evaporation takes away heat from the room
below and hence succeeds in cooling it. Hence the plants have little role to play in
the cooling of the rooms except for increasing the specific surface area of evaporation.
This system is a part of the architect's vocabulary and has recently been used by
V K Gupta (personal communication).
As compared to roof fabric cooling, the roof deck becomes thicker and there is
time-lag in cooling because of conductive heat transfer, rather than convective, as in
ponds, or direct contact, as in case of roof fabric systems. The system works best
during summers, is ineffective in monsoons and provides additional insulation in
winter, if not irrigated.

6.6 Office buildin9 - Muthukumar, N e w Delhi (I989-90) - earth air tunnel

It is an office building and forms part of the Indian Institute of Technology-German

project. A specially designed earth air tunnel for cooling the rooms (especially the
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 97

computer room) by sucking in air via blowers and carrying it through a 15cm
stoneware pipe, 3.25 m below the ground, has been planned and constructed at the
Delhi campus of the Indian Institute of Technology.
No conventional airconditioning for the summer months or fuel-based heating
of the building is planned for winters. The whole building is an energy-conscious
design right from the planning stage and incorporates many low-energy features such
as mud construction, skylights on Nubian vaults, domes for daylighting and hot
air venting, and proper orientation (Duggal 1986, unpublished). Figure 11 shows, the
plan and a section of the building.
The building is being monitored for one year since May 1990 to check on the
results of computer simulations already made. Another earth air tunnel system has
been incorporated recently into the construction of the lndira Gandhi National Centre
of Art exhibition building, designed by Development Alternatives (S Prakash 1990,
personal communication).

6.7 Farmhouse (N Manchanda, New Delhi)- induced ventilation

This farmhouse design uses a wind tower over the foyer to effect induced ventilation
(figure 12) and is yet to be built. It also has a vented 2 m high dome over the sunspace

+ 3000 ~ . " z,, ~/_.___~_X~ ~ ~ computer

room
L
--"~ + ~ i ': hall ~ ~ Pn ~ office

i k\ o,,,. /j
/
position of earth-air tunnel

air
earth

~unne office ~_
Figure 11. Earth tunnel air-cooled office- plan and section.
98 C L Gupta

i mGst'er ~ toilet
room
bed ed room

2 i
Z
~'~ foyer d3
living room
~ ntry
=0

~_ a- dining kitchen

\ \ J ~

~
" covered west deck

. u i~ ii LI L]

1
u g
i
I
I
i ~ ii i

i , foyer .
living room
Figure 12. Tower over foyer of a farm house - induced ventilation.

to induce slight air movements during sun-up hours giving a pleasant and comfortable
feeling.
Further, the roof dome has been painted white to reflect the sun's rays and cavity
walls have been used to achieve reduction in heat transfer. Deep overhangs have
been designed on west- and south-facing surfaces to prevent overheating during
summer without excluding the sun during winter.

6.8 Navodaya Project, Sultanpur (CBRI, 1989)- passive convective loop

This Navodaya School building, under construction at Sultanpur, UP, is proposed

to be retrofitted with convective loop vertical heaters for its class rooms (C L Gupta,
S Roy, V Geeta 1988, unpublished). These will heat the indoor air in winters during
sun-up hours, which coincides with school working hours. A thermosyphon convective
loop, whose system has been built into the vertical louver space, figure 13, heats the
air and circulates it. The working of the heater is explained in figure 14. Room
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 99

cross section of l ~ . - - --- "\.

p(me-~showin------g-- -~1~.. ' - - ~ " - ~ iN"~$
i------ng
he at o------~
Io ~ " ~ - ~ - - ~ " "~-----'-J '
welding hatch 30x20 openoblein summer I ~ ~
frame work for metal lid // I I _ I outerwol[
/ t -4 -., \ , wiodow--M !
~\\" / !
! ~--"
¢
\" ,
___s
1

i.'\\\l! _ iI\\ \ I frames thermo-i !

" ' ~ . . . . . . . . . . -_-_-~-_-.;1~.~-.%.-~1 cole nsulation ell ] ~ .... •
mat'(it lid screwed to battens . ~_~ t~n ~ ~~ m.e~(ll ii.o.
insulated with thermocole 2.5 thick w a r m air ~ ~ w t t n norcn
plan at silt Level vent-~_~~ ~ !,
II P
i [
,. b a t t e n glued to thermocole
2'ngt~ I cotdair " ,*"~// I rl 'r.
c°llect°rbc~

g l a z e d coltector box thermo~coe for t h e r m o c o l e ~ I II / / /

plan below metal plate thermal i s o l a - divider ~ I A ~ I II / / /
tion l--'~f//Ali ] Ad~77"b~aJr
scale 1:20 ! .l¢//AII V I I/// channel

I c,eo,
I [/~1 ~ ~i ~ / ~c(~ed to

warm " I
o ) =out\oI,U
I g l i / "-~ II toop heater

I/~5,85 , ,85 , ,85 , .85 85 77-S ~. Ill

plan at typical class room LH:loop heater section AA shows heaterarrangement

location
Figure 13. Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sultanpur-convective loop.

temperature is expected to rise by 7 to 8°C above the ambient for working hours
during winter, making it pleasant and comfortable.

7. Benefits and costs

Before assessing the conventional economics of solar passive buildings, it is pertinent

to note some features of significance, particularly for developing countries, which are
100 C L Gupta

\ \ /
i

war m
air out~ql
venfs . - . hatch openoble
~__.~nsummer
metGl Lid J

indicatina DosJtion of

cord air in

collector box

thermocote divider

air channel lOcm

J
Figure 14. Working principle of a convective loop air heater.

supply-constrained with respect to financial and conventional fuel inputs. These are
as follows.

7.1 Significant non-fiscal benefits

7.1a Capability for progressive retrofit: Passive measures can be progressively

retrofitted to existing buildings as skills, need, time and resources permit. The right
balance of manual effort and automation can be designed for operating the system.
Also the right mix of fresh air and recirculation, daylighting and artificial lighting,
temperature swings on daily/seasonal basis can be prescribed and designed for.

7.1b Social suitability for non-conditioned building users: Passive buildings do not
need auxiliary back-up if well designed because of large thermal time constant of
buildings having good insulation and large mass. They are natural extensions of good
bioclimatic design and energy conserving buildings, employing good insulation and
controlled infiltration.
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries lO1

7.1c Responsiveness to variable climates: Passive buildings for heating tend to

collect even very low levels of solar radiation; in those for cooling, small depressions
of night sky temperatures below the ambient also boost the radiant cooling of the
roof deck.

7.1d Low energy constructions: Most of the materials and skills employed are
from the construction industry and hardly any metal/welding etc. is used as for solar
active systems. Parasitic operating energy costs are almost nil in the absence of
moving parts, thereby also cutting maintenance costs and reducing down-time. Mud
as a building material, wherever normally employed, is quite suitable for passive-
retrofit or as basic material for new constructions.

7.1e Thermal comfort and aesthetics: Apart from attenuating indoor temperature
swings and increasing AT with respect to outdoors, radiant panel heating and cooling
are far more comfortable as compared to convective systems. Naturally convecting
currents hardly produce drafts and radiant panels around body temperature do not
adversely affect the environmental temperatures. Only in the case of direct systems,
drapes and movable insulation have to be considered to avoid large hot/cold surfaces
and to reduce glare. Passive solar buildings can have dramatic facades but are not
more or less appealing than other architect-designed buildings.

7.1f Energy autonomy and reliability: A well-designed passive building is rarely

'down' as all movements have nature induced driving potentials. These are energy
autonomous and are usually immune to power-cuts, which are commonplace these
days. However, as in the case of ordinary good buildings, they need sensitive and
conscious handling to be at their best.

7.2 Fiscal costs

Incremental costs of retrofit installations or ab initio designed passive buildings, vary

with baseline building costs and logistics of the location, apart from the type of system
employed. Even though not too many well-documented passive buildings have been
made in India so far, the following costs as percentage fractions of baseline costs can
be taken to be fairly reliable economic indicators.

7.2a Heating systems: (i) Direct gain system - Unit area costs of simple single-
glazed windows are usually twice the 22-5 cm brick wall costs, thrice the 45 cm thick
mud wall costs and 1.6 times the 15 cm thick concrete wall costs. Sodha et al (1989)
have tried to optimize the area of direct systems and thermal storage walls for cold
climates for maximum savings in annual energy costs. Window areas for direct systems
work out to be 24~o for mud walls and 37~ for concrete walls at above costs, both
values being percentages of south wall areas.

(ii) Isolated gain (attached sunspaces)-Single-glazed greenhouses have been

attached to mud houses in the Ladakh region. They cost (at 1981 prices) Rs 260/m 2
of floor area, about 43~o of the cost of mud buildings as traditionally made. The
glass costs alone were 40~o of the greenhouse costs because of the difficult logistics
of the cold hilly areas. In colder regions on the plains, assuming cladding costs to
be the same (with lesser material but higher labour costs), these will amount to about
102 C L Gupta

20~o of building costs for the usual brick building with an RCC roof and mosaic
flooring (A class finish as per CPWD norms) with south-facing glass areas no more
than 66~o of the floor area.

(iii) Indirect gain (glazed masonry walls) - For double-glazed systems, retrofit costs
are nearly twice the cost of single-glazed greenhouse cladding. As such, the incremental
costs are really the same as the building costs for mud buildings and nearly 40~ of
that for brick/concrete buildings, with glazed areas being 66~o of floor areas for less.
Actual figures for Leh in the Ladakh region (3500m above sea level and at 1979
prices) for a room of 22.5 m 2 floor area, newly designed and constructed: solar-system
costs - Rs 9,000 (Norberg 1980); with wall/floor areas being 63~o and glass being 30~o
of the system cost.

7.2b Heating and cooling systems: (i) Roof pond with variable shading- This
system has been tried on an experimental building with a ferrocement roof in Bangalore
(Prasad et al 1979) and on a poultry shed with a specially designed 7.5 cm thick RCC
grid roof in New Delhi (Gupta & Jauhri 1978). The incremental costs for additional
water proofing, variable shading and water delivery and disposal system amounted
to 25~o of improved poultry building cost with an RCC grid roof. This type of poultry
building costs 20~o more than traditional poultry buildings with AC sheet roofing
(which cost Rs 180/- per m2 in New Delhi at 1977 prices) but has twice the life.
Current cost fractions could be reasonably considered to be of the same order.

7.2c Cooling systems: (i) Roof spray with coir matting - This system (Jain & Rao
1974; Jain 1989) has been tried on many types of buildings, e.g. office, residential,
school, hotel and factory buildings. The costs vary considerably depending on whether
one uses discarded empty cement bags (of jute) with garden hoses for manual spray
or a fully automated spray using specially designed open-weave coir-matting. Design
capital costs can be considered at 5~o for office buildings and 10~o for factory buildings
per unit floor area. For the best systems, resultant savings of 60~ in capital costs of
AC plants and of 30~o in running costs of AC plants have been reported. Running
costs of this system are costs of water at 10 litre/day/m 2 of roof area and 2 to 3 kWh
of electric consumption per 100 m 2 of roof/month, which is minimal and could even
be supplied by solar photovoltaic panels.

7.3 Unit energy costs

Unit energy costs vary with baseline building costs, climate of location, season/year
round use and purpose and type of system employed. Calculations have been done
for the hot dry climate in northern India, assuming that the system's life, interest rates
and inflation rates are such that 10~ capital recovery factor can be ensured. On this
basis, unit energy costs (1988) for seasonal use vary between Rs (0.27, 0.37) per kWh
of thermal energy. Capital costs for installation vary between Rs (6667, 23000) per
kW installed (C L Gupta, S Roy & V Geeta 1988, unpublished). These are estimated
costs and are not based on actual monitoring.

8. Concluding remarks

(1) Solar passive buildings have now become a part of design vocabulary in the
building field all the world over. It is bound to spill over to developing countries
 Solar passive buildings for developing countries 103

initially for 'paying' uses such as recreation homes and tourist resorts in cold hilly
regions, and later for energy saving in offices and for reducing thermal stress in
hospitals, factories and houses.
(2) Current trends internationally are towards hybrid systems, e.g. integration of
energy conservation and solar passive features (Balcomb 1987).
(3) Current trends in India are towards integrating solar passive features with on-site
power and waste recycling systems for design of campus communities, as evidenced
by a large number of training courses offered and design competitions being organised
e.g. GEDA (1990).

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