Albrecht Dold Lectures on Algebraic Topology With 10 Figures Second Edition Springer-Verlag*"*-—~- Berlin Heidelberg New York 1980Foreword This is essentially a book on singular homology and cohomology with special emphasis on products and manifolds. It does not treat homotopy theory except for some basic notions, some examples, and some applica- tions of (co-)homology to homotopy. Nor does it deal with general(-ised) homology, but many formulations and arguments on singular homology are so chosen that they also apply to general homology. Because of these absences I have also omitted spectral sequences, their main applications in topology being to homotopy and general (co-)homology theory. Cech cohomology is treated in a simple ad hoc fashion for locally compact subsets of manifolds; a short systematic treatment for arbitrary spaces, emphasizing the universal property of the Cech-procedure, is contained in an appendix. ‘The book grew out of a one-year's course on algebraic topology, and it can serve as a text for such a course, For a shorter basic course, say of half a year, one might use chapters IT, TIT, IV (§§ 1-4), V (§ I-5, 7, 8), VI (3, 7, 9, 11, 12). As prerequisites the student should know the elementary parts of general topology, abelian group theory, and the language of categories—although our chapter I provides a little help with the latter two. For pedagogical reasons, I have treated integral homology only up to chapter VI; if a reader or teacher prefers to have general coefficients from the beginning he needs lo make only minor adaptions. As to the outlay of the book, there are eight chapters, I-VHI, and an appendix, A; each of these is subdivided into several sections, § 1, 2, . Definitions, propositions, remarks, formulas etc. are consecutively num= bered in each §, each number preceded by the §-number. A reference like TIL, 7.6 points to chap. IIT, § 7, no. 6 (written 7.6) — which may be a definition, a proposition, a formula, or something else. If the chapter number is omitted the reference is to the chapter at hand. References to the bibliography are given by the author’s name, e.g. Seifert-Threl- fall; or Steenrod 1951, if the bibliography lists more than one publica- tion by the same author.The exercises are meant to provide practice of the concepts in the main text as well as to point out further results and developments. An exercise or its solution may be needed for later exercises but not for the main text. Unusually demanding exercises are marked by a star, +. Thave given several courses on the subject of this book and have profited from many comments by colleagues and students. 1 am particularly indebted to W. Bos and D.B.A. Epstein for reading most of the manu- seript and for their helpful suggestions. Heidelberg, Spring 1972 ALBRECHT DOLD About the Second Edition: Few changes were made for the 2" edition, the main one being a con- siderable simplification of the proof of the Lefschetz-Hopf fixed point theorem (cf. pp 210-212). Some mistakes were corrected: V, 2.14 exerc. 2, V, 78 exere. 2 and exere. 6, proof of VII, 9.7 (p. 307, line 2 sq.), and lesser ones. Numerous misprints and the like were eliminated. Some references were added to the bibliography. Tam very grateful to all who commented on the 1* edition Heidelberg, Spring 1980 Atrrgcut DorpContents Chapter 1 Chapter IL Chapter IIL Chapter IV § § § § i 2 3 4 Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups, and Homotopy Categories and Functors Abelian Groups (Exactness, Direct Sums, Free Abelian Groups) Homotopy Homology of Complexes Complexes Connecting Homomorphism, Exact Homology Sequence Chain-Homotopy Free Complexes Singular Homology Standard Simplices and Their Linear Maps ‘The Singular Complex Singular Homology Special Cases Invariance under Homotopy Barycentrie Subdivision ‘Small Simplices. Excision Mayer-Vietoris Sequences Applications to Euclidean Space Standard Maps between Cells and Spheres Homology of Cells and Spheres Local Homology The Degree af a Map Local Degrees Homology Properties of Neighborhood Retracts in IR" 29 29 30 32 ae me 4B 47 54 34 55 Pcl 6 nChapter V Chapter VI Chapter VII §7 §8 Contents Jordan Theorem, Invariance of Domain Euclidean Neighborhood Retracts (ENRs) Cellular Decomposition and Cellular Homology Cellular Spaces CW-Spaces Examples Homology Properties of CW-Spaces The Euler-Poincaré Characteristic Description of Cellular Chain Maps and of the Cellular Boundary Homomorphism Simplicial Spaces Simplicial Homology Functors of Complexes Modutes Additive Functors Derived Functors Universal Coefficient Formula Tensor and Torsion Products Hom and Ext Singular Homology and Cohomology with General Coefficient Groups Tensorproduct and Bilinearity Tensorproduct of Complexes. Kiinneth Formula Hom of Complexes. Homotopy Classification of Chain Maps Acyclic Models The Eilenberg-Zilber Theorem. Kiinneth Formulas for Spaces Products The Scalar Product ‘The Exterior Homology Product The Interior Homology Product (Pontrjagin Product) Intersection Numbers in IR" The Fixed Point Index The Lefschetz-Hopf Fixed Point ‘Theorem The Exterior Cohomology Product ) B 79 85 85 88 95 101 104 106 M1 119 lea 123 127 132 136 140 146 150 157 161 167 174 178 186 187 189 193 197 202 207 214Contents Chapter VII Appendix §8 §9 §10 gil §12 §13 §1 §3 §4 $6 §7 gs §9 §10 §u §12 §13 The Interior Cohomology Product (Product) ~-Products in Projective Spaces. Hopf Maps and Hopf Invariant Hopf Algebras The Cohomology Slant Product The Cap-Produet (~-Produet) The Homology Slant Product, and the Pontrjagin Slant Product Manifolds Elementary Properties of Manifolds The Orientation Bundle of a Manifold Homology of Dimension 2 n in n-Manifolds Fundamental Class and Degree Limits Cech Cohomology, of Locally Compact Subsets of IR" Poincaré-Lefschetz Duality Examples, Applications Duality in 0-Manifolds Transfer Thom Class, Thom Isomorphism The Gysin Sequence. Examples Intersection of Homology Classes Kan- and Cech-Extensions of Functors Limits of Functors Polyhedrons under a Space, and Partitions of Unity Extending Funetors from Polyhedrons to more General Spaces Bibliography Subject Index XL 219 222 227 233 238 245 247 247 251 259 266 272 281 291 298 303 308 314 325 335 348 3g 352 361 368 a7Chapter | Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader of the book with quick references to the subjects of the title. The content is motivated by the needs of later chapters, and not by intrinsic considerations, The reader should have some elementary knowledge of categories and abelian groups; otherwise he might find the treatment too concise But even with very little knowledge he should probably start the reading with Chapter II, and refer to Chapter only when necessary. He may then find the reference in I too short, insufficient (some proofs are omitted), or too ad-hoc; in that case he should consult the relevant literature, samples of which are listed at the end of §1 and §2. The customary language and notation of set theory (such as U, m, €, 6, X*Y fi XY, xry, {xeX|x has property P}, ete.) are used without comment. Similarly, the reader is assumed to know the cle- mentary parts of general topology. Some basic sets and spaces are denoted by special symbols which are fixed throughout the book. For instance, IN=set of natural numbers, Z=ring of integers, Z, =ring of integers mod n, Q,R, C=field of rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers, with the usnal topology, R'SRXRX xR, C= Cx Cx C, (n factors), BB"={xeR"||x|| <1}, where ||x||?=S7., x?, St! = {xe R"|||x|| =1} =(n—1)-sphere, (0, 1]={reR|0<¢< 1} =unit interval 1. Categories and Functors 1.1 Definition. A category @ consists of (i) a class of objects, denoted by Ob(). When there is no danger of confusion we also write @ instead of Ob(@).2 [. Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy (ii) For every pair X, ¥ of objects, a set of morphisms from X to ¥, denoted by G(X, ¥) or If we(X, ¥) then X is called the domain of and ¥ the range of a; one also writes «: X > ¥, or ¥ —2+ ¥, or simply X > ¥ to denote morphisms from X to ¥. (iii) For every ordered triple of objects X, ¥; Za map from @(X, ¥)x €(¥, Z) to €(X, Z), called composition; the image of (a, fi) is denoted by fioa or fia, and is called the composite of a and f. These data have to satisly the following two axioms (iv) yo(Bea)=(p2 Box (associativity) whenever X 2> Y-£+Z—1> W. (v) There exists an identity morphism id=idy: XX, for every object X, such that acidy=a, idyoa=a whenever a: X—+¥. These identities are casily seen to be unique (id =id} © id} =id}). 1.2 Examples. (i) The category of sets, @=e¢s. The objects of this calegory are arbitrary sets (Ob(7e4s)=Cclass of all sets), morphisms are maps ([X, ¥]=set of all maps from X to ¥), and composition has the usual meaning. (ii) The category of abelian groups, 6=./9. Here, Ob(o/¥) is the class of all abelian groups, [X, ¥]=Hom(X, ¥) is the set of all homomorphisms from X to ¥, and composition has the usual meaning. (iii) The category of topological spaces, @= Fp. Here, Ob(%/) is the class of all topological spaces, [X, ¥] is the set of all continuous maps from X to ¥, and composition has the usual meaning. (iv) The homotopy category, @= #7", as defined in 1,3, has the same objects as Z/, but the morphisms are not mappings in the usual sense (v) Every quasi ordered set C can be viewed as a category @ as follows: Ob(s C.G(X, ¥)=0 for elements X,YeC such that X4¥ and Y) consists of a single element (X,Y) if ¥<¥. Conversely, if is a category such that no (X,Y) has more than one element and if Ob(@) is a set then Ob(G) is quasi-ordered by putting X < Ye @(X.Y40. y group G gives rise to a category @ with x single object ¢, e}, with @(e,e)=G, and composition defined by multi- plication. (vii) If @ is a category then the dual or opposite category 6°? is defined as follows: Ob(€°?)=Ob(@), P(X, ¥)—@(¥,X), Be aa f where = denotes composition in 6",1. Categories and Funetors 3 (viii) If, and @, are categories, then the product category 6 =%, x G is defined as follows. Ob(¢)=Ob(¢;) x Ob(6,)= class of all pairs (X;, X2) where X;¢Ob();6(X1, Xo), Ki. ¥)) = G(X, Hi) x 62(X2, Yo); (Bi, Ba) (241, 22) =(By 0%, Ba © 2). 1.3 Definition, If 4’, @ are categories then ' is called a subcategory of @ provided (i) Ob) cOdb@), (ii) 6X, YI=G(X", ¥') for all X', YeObE’), (iii) the composites of 2€'(X’, ¥)), Be@'(Y’, Z) in &’ and & coincide, (iv) the identity morphisms of X eOb(@’) in %" and & coincide. If, furthermore, @'(X’, ¥)=6(X", ¥?) for all X", ¥’eO(€) then @" is called a all subeategory. A full subcategory %' of @ is therefore completely determined by the class Ob(6"), For instance, the category of finite sets and (all maps) is a full subcategory of 4s, Non-full sub- categories of 1.2(i), (ii) or (iii) are obtained by taking for @'(X, Y) the set of all injective (or all surjective) morphisms, and Ob(¢)=Ob(6). 14 Definition. If 2: X— ¥, B: ¥-+X are morphisms (in a category 6) such that fa—id then fis called a left inverse of a, and a a right inverse of f. If x admits a left inverse fi and also a right inverse f, then B= Bula) =(F12) B=B,: in this case, x is called an equivalence, or isomorphism, and the inverse (or inverse isomorphism) B, =f; is denoted by 2-1, Two objects X, ¥ are said to be equivalent or isomorphic, in symbols X~ ¥, if an isomorphism a€%(X, Y) exists. For instance, an equivalence in %=ets is a bijective map, an equivalence in €=% is a homeomorphism, an equivalence in $=. is an isomorphism in the usual sense. 15 Definition, Let @ and % be categories. A (covariant) functor T from © to Z, in symbols T: 6 +, consists of (i) a map T: Ob() + Ob(A), and (ii) maps T=Tyy: (X, Y)-» (TX, TY), for every X, YeOb(6), which preserve composition and identities, ic. such that Gii) T(Be2)=(T B)o(T9), for all morphisms X + Y*+ Z in @, (iy idpy, for all XeOb(6). A (or contravariant functor) from @ to & is, by definition, a functor from @ to the dual category 9°. Its explicit definition is as above with (ii) replaced by T: 6(X, Y)— A(T Y, TX), and (iii) replaced by T(Sex)=(T)o(T 6). Equivalently, a cofunctor from @ to @ is a4 I, Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy functor from *” to 9. A functor @, x 63 ~» Z, where 6, x ©) is a product category (1.2 (viii)) is called a functor of two variables (with values in 9). 1.6 Examples of Functors. (i) The identity fimctor ID: +6 which is given by ID(X)=X, 1D()=4, lor all objects X and morphisms «. (ii) If T: @+@ and U: G6 are functors then so is the composite UT: @ +6, defined by (UT) X—U(TX), (UT)(2)=U(T #). (iii) For any fixed DeOb(®) we have the constant functor T: 6D such that TX =D, Ta=idy for all X and 2. (iv) For any fixed Ae Ob(6) we have the morphism functors 6:6 + Fela, G4: 6 —>Sats, defined as follows. 6(X)=6(d, X), @1X)=6(X, A) for all XeOb(4), 6,(2)=é -=composition with ¢ on the left, @4(E composition with € on the right, for all €¢@(X, Y). Thus, El} EAN) > 6A(0): CY, AV>E(X, A), Pro (17) (v) If we view the groups G, H as categories, as in 1.2(vi), then functors correspond to homomorphisms G—H, and cofunctors to antihomo- morphisms. 18 Proposition. Let T: @+@ he a (co-)functor. If xe€(X, Y) is an isomorphism then so is Ta, and (T 2)! T(x") Indeed, a2~?=id > T(x) T@")=T(aa-)=Thid)=id. 1.9 Definition. Let S,T: @-+@ be functors. A natural transformation @ from S$ to T, in symbols @: S—»T, consists of a system of morphisms @yeB(SX, TX}, one for each X €Ob(@), such that ail diagrams SX Se. 5Y (1.10) x Jn TX TY (for all xe@(X, Y)) are commutative: in formulas, @y 0 (S a)=(T x) ° &. If every @y is an equivalence then @ is called a natural equivalence. In this case, 4y=z" is also a natural equivalence (just reverse the vertical ‘arrows in (1.10), and it is called the inverse natural equivalence.1. Categories and Functors 5 1.11 Examples of Natural Transformations. (i) For every functor T: €—G the identity morphisms #,=id;y: TX TX constitute a natural equivalence. (ii) If S, TU: © +@ are functors, and @: S— 7, ¥: T-+U are natural transformations then so is the composite transformation I< ®: S—>U, where (Yo y= Yo Dy. (iii) Let S=%,: @ > Yels a morphism functor as in (1.6 (iv)) where A is a fixed object of @. Let T: 6—>Yeds an arbitrary functor and let aeTA denote a fixed element in the set TA. Define 4: S—» Tas follows Of: SN=G(A,X)OTX, OLE =(T 2a, We verify that 1.10 commutes: (®} 0 (S a))(E)= FF ((S.a)(E)) = PF(a ) =T(x2)a=(Ta)(T A a=((T x) © 4) (2). Similarly for cofunctors T: » Sets; i.e, if AEOb(G) and aeTA then O%: CA(X)=C(X, AN TX, O(O=(T Ha, defines a natural trans- formation @#: @4~»T, These transformations @" are in fact the only transformations of morphism functors. More formally, 1.12 Proposi (Yoneda-Lemma). If T: €—+%eés is a functor and ©: 6,->T is a natural transformation (AeOb()) then there is a unique element a€TA such that = 0%, namely a= %,(id,) Thus, natural transformations @,—>T are completely determined by their value on idy€€,(A), and this value ®, (id,) can be arbitrarily chosen in TA. Similarly for cofunctors @ > Peds Proof, If &: ¢,— T is a natural transformation then the diagram G(A) #2 G(X) TAB TX must commute for every Ce (X)=6(A,X). In particular, y(6q( Mid) =(T O(O4(id,)). But 6, (id) =E e idy =<, hence P;(E)= (Te) a= O%(¢), where a=P,(id,). 1.13 Definition. If T: © +.%e¢s is a (co-)functor, and AeOb(6) then ue TA is said to be universal (for T) if @": €, > Tis a natural equivalence. Not every (co-)functor T: © + %e¢s admits a untversal clement. It it6 1 Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy does then Tis said to be representable, and the object A resp. the pair (A,u) are said to represent the (co-)functor T. Up to equivalence the pair (4,u) is uniquely determined, as follows, 1.14 Proposition. Let T: @—>Yets be a representable functor, with universal element ueTA. If C is an object in © and ce TC then there is @ unique morphism ;y: A C such that (T})u=c (by universality of 1). If,¢ is also universal then y is an equivalence. Similarly, for cofunctors Proof. If c also universal then there T pT y)u=u, hence p B: CA with (Tp) c=u, hence id by universality of u; similarly 1.15 One can therefore use (co-)functors T: 6+ Yeés to define objects in @ (up to equivalence). This method of “definition by universal properties” is very common and very important in many branches of mathematics. As an example we consider the product of two morphism functors, say Tax be: © Geo, TX=6(B,X)XG(C.X), T2=(Gpa) x (Gea) =(10) x (x0). If Tis representable then the representing object is called the coproduct of Band C, and is denoted by BL C. The universal element ue T(BLiC)= @(B,BiC)x€(C, BUC) is a pair of morphisms uy: B—» BUC, uc: C-» BUC, called the injections (of the cofactors). By definition, for every pair of morphisms ay: B—>X, a: CX there is a unique morphism 2: BUC >X such that aup—%p, auc—4c. It is customary to write «=(7p,%¢). — Similarly, one can define the coproduct of any family of objects {B,},.4;it is denoted by Ll;.4B;, and it is characterised by the natural equivalence @(LI; B;, X)~[[,6(B,.X), for X€Ob(), Dually, the product BTC of two objects B, CeOb($) is defined (if it exists) by the natural equivalence @(X,RAC)x&(X, Rye G(X ie. BOC is that object of @ which represents the cofunctor T=" x 6 The universal element ue T(B C)=6(BNC, B) x (BNC, C) is a pair of morphisms uy: BC > B, up: BAC» C, called the projections onto the factors. If'%p: X + B, 4¢: X — C is any pair of morphisms then there is a unique morphism 9: X > BMC such that ap=ug% Ie=ucx. It is customary to write 2=(ap,4¢). — Similarly, the product [,B, of an arbitrary family of objects is defined by (if it exists) the natural equivalence 6(X, 7, Ba) [1,6 (X, By). In conerete categories such as Ye¢s, Tif, fG ete, other (ad hoc) nota- tions are in use for products [ and coproduets (J. For instance, the coproduct LJ is called “disjoint union | sum”, “direct2, Abelian Groups (Exactness, Direct Sums, Free Abelian Groups) 7. sum” in Sats, Teh. LG. and is denoted by u.@.@. Products BAC resp, [, B, are denoted by BxC resp. []; B, in these categories; further- more, Bx C=Be C in 9. MacLane, S.: Categories for the Working Mathematician, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York Springer 1971 Mrrewsi, R- Theory of categories, New York: Academic Press 1965 ScHUBERT, H.: Kategorien, 2 vols. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer 1970. 2. Abelian Groups (Exactness, Direct Sums, Free Abelian Groups) Abelian groups and their homomorphisms form a category which we denote by sf. Ifa: A— Bis a homomorphism between abelian groups, 2€.0fG(A, B), then one defines (2.1) kernel of x=ker(x)= {ae Ala(a)=0},, (2.2) image of a=im(2)=«4={beB|3aeA with a(a)=b}, ‘These are subgroups of A resp. B. The corresponding quotients are 23) coimage of a=coim(a)= A/ker(x), 24) cokernel of x=coker (x)= B/im(x). We say a is monomorphic if ker (x) = {0}, epimorphic if coker (~) 0}, ‘A monomorphism is then the same as an injective homomorphism, an cpimorphism is the same as a surjective homomorphism. And « is iso- morphic, in symbols a: AB, if and only if it is both monomorphic and epimorphic. The homomorphism theorem asserts that 25) im()= A/ker(x)=coim (a). Because of this, the coimage will play a minor role only. 2.6 Definition. A sequence A—*+B—£+C of homomorphisms is said to be exact if ker()=im(x). A longer sequence like ----»A_,-»A_) > Ag Ay Az >> is exact if any tWo consecutive arrows form an exact sequence. An exact sequence of the form (2.7) 0A MA MA" 90 is called a short exact sequence. For instance, if B is a subgroup of A then 0>B—+A—>A/B>08 I. Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy is a short exact sequence where 1= inclusion, m= projection. Conversely, if 2.7 is exact then B=im(a’)=ker(a") is a subgroup of A, and B= AB™A” by 2.5. 28 Proposition, If ---*+A—2+B-*>... is an exact sequence then a is monomorphic if and only if x =0, « is epimorphic if and only if «* =0. Therefore, « is isomorphic if and only if both a =0 and a*=0. This (rather obvious) fact will be used many times, Another useful result is the following (less obvious) 2.9 Five Lemma. If Ay 9A, #9 Ag 29 Ag Ag By A B, Be Bs Bs Bs Ba Bs is a commutative diagram with exact rows, and if 91,02. 04s are iso~ morphic then So 18 03. Proof. Passing to quotients and subgroups the diagram induces the following commutative diagram with exact rows. 0 coker (a) —* A; > ker (44) > 0 (2.10) t 0 coker (fi:) je Bs Gy ker (fa) 0 This reduces the problem to a special (easier) case, Now ker(s)cker(fis ps)=ker( 23)=ker(a4)=im(a3), hence ker(p3)=ker(93 %)—ker (3 92)={0}, i.e. 3 is monomorphic. Dually, f'—3=%25 is epimorphic, hence B,=im(ps)+ker(f); but Ker (ffs)= im (2) Im (3 03) = Im(H3 4) IM (3); hence Bs =1M(P3).e. 5 is epimorphic. As an exercise, the reader might prove the S-lemma directly, without using the reduction 2.10. 2.11 Proposition and Defi m. A short cxact sequence 2.7 is said to split if one of the following equivalent conditions holds (i) & hasa left inverse f': A>’, Bra’ =id,., (ii) «” has a right inverse fp": A” > A, a” B’=2, Abelian Groups (Exactness, Direct Sums, Free Abelian Groups) 9 In fact, the equation (2.12) af f+ B" at" id, correspondence between left inverses ff of a and Moreover, ft ft" =0. establishes a one-or right inverses f of Proof. If i” is a right inverse of a” then "(id 4 —f"x")= a" —(a" fl") a" hence im(id,— f” 2")cker(a")=im(x), and we can define f' by a’ f id,—f" by 2.12; since a’ is monomorphic this defines uniquely. Moreover, if we compose this equation (or 2.12) with a’ on the right, and use a" a’ =0, we get «'(f' «')=a’, hence ft’ «’=id because a’ is mono- morphic. This proves that every right inverse 6” of «’ determines a unique left inverse ff" ofa’ such that 2.12 holds. If f' is any left inverse of a’ then (id, —a f') «=a —'(B' «’)=0, hence (id. —a' f') vanishes on im(«’)=ker(«"); since «” is epimorphic there is a unique ": A’—+A such that "a" =(id,—2 B’), ie. such that 2.12 holds. Moreover, if we compose this equation with «” on the left we find (2" B") a" =a", hence a” f!"=id because x” is epimorphic.—Finally, we compose 2.12 with f' on the left, and get f'+(f'8")a"=", hence (BB) 2" =0, hence f' f"=0. 2.13 Definition. Let {A,},4 be a family of abelian groups. Consider the set of all functions a on A such that a(A)e A, for all Ae A. Under addition of values these functions form an abelian group, called the direct product of {Aj}reas and denoted by [],<44,. The elements a,=a(A) are called the components ean The homomorphism z,: [],4,—>4, which assigns to each ae], A, its v-th component, 1, the projection onto the factor A,. The direct sum of {A,}ica is the subgroup ®,.4A, of [rea A, which consists of all functions a of finite support, i.e. ©, A,={ae] ], A,la,=0 for almost all de A} Clearly, ®, 4,=[], A, if A is finite. The homomorphism 1,: 4, >@, A, such that 7, 1,=id, 2, 1,=0 for A+», is called the inclusion of the sum- mand A,; by definition, if x¢A, then all components of 1,x vanish except the v-th. and (1, x), =4y, is called 2.14 Proposition and Definition, (i) If XeOb(Y), and {g,: XA,}, AeA, is a family of homomorphisms then there exists a unique homo- morphism o: X—+[], A, such that px={,x},c45 for all xeX. We write 9={p,}, and call these ,=7, 9 the components of g. Gi) If X €Ob(A@), and {yh ,: A,X}, AEA, isa family of homomorphisms then there exists a unique homomorphism Y: ®,A,—X such that10 |. Preliminaries on Categories, Abelian Groups and Homotopy a=Ssertbsd, (n.b. this sum is finite!) We write these y= 1, the components of . = (Wa), and call In other words, []; A, is the categorical product [1, A; in the sense of 1.15, and ®, A, is the categorical coproduct |, A,: the family of pro- jections {x,} resp. inclusions {1,} is the universal clement for the corre- sponding functors [],./@(X, A,) resp. [], @(A,, X)—Both parts of the proposition follow easily from the definitions 2.13. 245 Definition, Let (A,}4c4 and A denote abelian groups, A family of homomorphisms {p,: A>A,} 404 TSP. fiz: Aa A} ea is called a direct product representation resp. direct sum representation if {p,}: A>] [Ax resp. {i}: ©; A,— is an isomorphism. 2.16 Proposition, [f A is finite and if {p,: A>A,) resp. {i,: Ai A} Ae A, are families of homomorphisms such that (217) pyiz=idy,, paiy=0 for we2, Yaispa=idy, then {p,} is a direct product representation and {i,} is a direct sum representation. Conversely, if p={p): A->Ag}iea iS a direct product representation then there is a unique family {i,: A,->A} which satisfies 2.17; similarly, for direct sum representations. In particular (cf. 2.11), a short exact sequence 0—+A’ 0 splits if and only if 2’ (resp. 2”) is one component of a direct sum (resp. product) representation A’o A"= A. Proof. We first have to show that i={i,}: @,A,>4 and p={p,} AT], 4; are isomorphic. But © ,=[], because A is finite, (ip) a=itp,a} =(Yaispala=a, and (Laat) dude hence p, i are reciprocal isomorphisms. For the converse, we can assume A=[],A,=@, Ay, and p,=n, (because p: AX], Az, 2,p=p,). The first two equations 2.17 then show that i,=1, (as defined in 2.13) so that only Y,1,2,=id remains to be checked; this is easy, and left to the readet.—Similarly for direct sum representations. {plated aa) 2.18 If A is an abelian group, and Ay, ACA are subgroups then we say A is the direct sum of A, and A, if the inclusion homomorphisms2. Abelian Groups (Exactness, Direct Sums, Free Abelian Groups) ul form a direct sum representation (i,,i3): 4y@ Az%A. One easily proves that this is the case if and only if (i) Ay Ag generates A, and (ii) AyryAy = {0} A subgroup A; A" +0 isa short exact sequence then im(x) is a direct summand of A if and only if the sequence splits (cf. remark after 2.16). Applying this to 0+4,—1+44/A, 30 we see that the subgroup A, cA is a direct summand if and only if the inclusion map i has a left inverse r: AA, ri=id If {Ay} ea is any family of subgroups of A such that the inclusion homo- morphisms constitute a direct sum representation, {i,}: @se1 4a then we also say that A is the direct sum of {A,). 2.19 Definition. If A is an abelian group and aed we define i,: ZA, ign=n-a, for all integers neZ; thus i, is the unique homomorphism Z->A such that 11a. A subset B of A is said to be a base of A if the family {ig}yep is a direct sum representation, {i}: Oren Z=A. Every element xe then has a unique representation as a finite linear combina- tion of base elements with integral coefficients x=Y pep Xp-b, XEL, almost all x,=0. Not every abelian group has a base; if it does it is said to be free. Thus, an abelian group is free if and only if it is isomorphic toa direct sum of groups Z. From 2.141 we get 2.20 Proposition (Universal property of a base). If B is a base of A, if X is an arbitrary abelian group and {xyeX}ycp an arbitrary fumily of elements then there is a unique homomorphism é ‘for all be B. Le. the homomorphisms of a free group are determined by their values on 4 base, and these values can be chosen arbitrarily. 2.21 Definition, For every set A we can form the direct sum ®,.4Z. This group is called the free abelian group gencrated by A; it is often denoted by ZA. Its elements are functions a: A—+Z which vanish almost everywhere, If we identify 2€A with the function AZ such that 21 >t, ve+O for v+4, then A becomes a subset of ZA, and this subset A is a base of ZA. Thus, every ae ZA has a unique expression a=Yy.44,°4, 4,€Z, almost all a, =0; the group ZA consists of al finite linear combina- tions of elements 4¢ A with integral coefficients. 2.22 Every abelian group A is isomorphic to a quotient of a free abelian group. Indeed, if A is any subset of A which generates 4 then (by 2.20) there is a (unique) homomorphism : ZA» A such that &(i)=4