I.
Utterances and Speech acts
Utterances
a. Definition of utterances
- An utterance is the use of any piece of language by a particular speaker on
a particular situation. It can be in the form of a sequence of sentences, a
single clause, a single phrase, or just a single word.
E.g: Toni was sweeping the floor when a hot frying pan was fallen
Toni: �Ouch�
- The term ‘utterance’ can be used in two difference senses:
• In the process sense, utterances are now known as speech acts.
• In the product sense, utterances are referred to as inscriptions, the
verbal records of utterances.
E.g: I would like to apologize for what I've done.
- In the process sense, uttering this sentence is considered as the act of
apology.
- In the product sense, the utterance “I would like to apologize for what I've
done” is the verbal record of the act of uttering this sentence.
b. Types of utterances
- 2 types: performative and constative.
Performative utterances
- A performative utterance is one that actually describes the act that
it performs, i.e. it perform some act and simultaneously describes
that act.
E.g: 1. A trash bin that says " Recycle".
It's a performative. In this case, the performative of " Recycle" is
requesting people to put their trash into the proper receptable.
2.' I promise to go', for example is performative because in
saying it the speaker does what the utterance describes. That is the
utterance both describes and is a promise.
- The type of verbs used to make performative utterances are called
performatives or performative verbs. Examples are: promise,
name, bet, agree, swear, declare, order, predict, warn, insist, declare
or refuse. The propositional content of the utterance functions as a
complement of the performative verb.
Constative utterances
- A constative utterance is one which makes an assertion, i.e it is
often the utterance of a declarative sentence, but is not performative.
- These are certain utterances that do not denote an action. They do
not contain a performative verb that would direct the other party to
perform an action.
- Constatives are a class of “fact-stating” utterances, which
“constate” something true or false. This includes reports, statements,
descriptions, assertions, predictions, etc. A simple example is “that
books are white and blue”.
Performative vs. Constative
Performativ Constativ
e e
utterance utterance
Definition Action-performing Statement-making
utterance utterance
Truth neither true nor false either true or false
valu
e
Function make part of the represent a state of
world conform affair or experience
to what is said
Speech acts
a. Definition
- Speech acts are acts that refer to the action performed by produced
utterances. People can perform an action by saying something.
Through speech acts, the speaker can convey physical action merely
through words and phrases. The conveyed utterances are paramount to the
actions performed.
- We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request,
complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. An example of speech
acts we use or hear every day: Greeting: "Hi, Eric".
II. Types of Acts
1. Locutionary act
- A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be
understood.
- To perform a locutionary act is to produce an utterance with a particular form
and a more or less determinate meaning according to the rules of a given language.
- Three sub- types of locutionary act:
• Phonic act: the act of producing an utterance in the phonic medium of
sound
• Phatic act: the act constructing a particular sentence in particular
language
• Rhetic act: the act contextualizing a sentence.
2. Illocutionary act
- An illocutionary act is any speech act that amounts to stating, questioning,
commanding, promising and so on. It is an act performed in saying something, as
contrasted with a locutionary act, the act of saying something, the locution. In
short, an illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.
- Illocutions are acts defined by social conventions, acts such as accusing,
admitting, apologizing, giving permission, greeting, leavetaking, naming, offering,
praising, promising, protesting, etc.
- The illocutionary force is the speaker's intent. In other words, the Illocutionary
force is some kind of intended message that a speaker assigns to the sentence he
utters.
- Often the same utterance can have different illocutionary force (intended
function) in different contexts. I predict that I’ll see you later
Ex: I’ll see you later
I predict that I’ll see you later
I promise you that I’ll see you later
I warn you that I’ll see you later
3. Perlocutionary act
- The perlocutionary act (or just simply the perlocution) carried out by a speaker
making an utterance is the act of causing a certain effect on the hearer and others.
In other words, a perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by
means of saying something.
Examples Ex1:
It’s so dark in this room.
Locutionary act it refers to the lighting of the room
Illocutionary act it shows a request to switch the light on
Perlocutionary act it can be inferred that the sentence is
uttered by someone while switching the
light on.
Ex2:
The box is heavy.
Locutionary act it refers to the weight of the box
Illocutionary act it shows a request to lift up the box
Perlocutionary act it can be inferred that the sentence is done
by someone while lifting up the box.
III. Felicity conditions
1. Definition of felicity conditions
- In speech act theory, felicity conditions are the conditions which must be
fullfilled for a speech act to be satisfactorily performed or realized. In other
words, in order for an utterance to achieve its illocutionary force, certain
conditions must be met.
- These conditions relate to the conversational and situational context and the
roles, abilities and beliefs of the speaker and listener.
- For example:
In a wedding ceremony a priest might say ‘I now declare you husband and
wife’.
2. Types of felicity conditions
1. Preparatory conditions: those existing prior to the utterance.
E.g: an apology requires that the speaker believes some act occurred is harmful to the
hearer.
2. Sincerity conditions: relate to speaker’s state of mind.
E.g: a valid apology requires that the speaker feels remorse for his act
c. Essential condition: utterance recognizable as instance of particular
illocutionary act
E.g: a valid apology requires that the utterance is recognizable as an apology.
d. Propositional content conditions: state of affairs predicated in utterance
E.g: a valid apology must predicate a past act of the speaker.
b. Examples
Ex1:
Can you call the client ? (your boss
requests you)
Preparatory conditions Your boss believes you able to call the
client.
Sincerity conditions Your boss wants you to call the client.
Essential conditions Your boss attempts to get you to call the
client.
Propositional content conditions You call the client.
Ex2:
I promise I'll come tonight.
Preparatory conditions - S believes that H wants him/her to come
tonight.
- S is able to come tonight.
- S has not already come.
Sincerity conditions The speaker is willing to come tonight.
Essential conditions The speaker makes the hearer believe that
he/she must come tonight.
Propositional content conditions The hearer comes tonight.
Ex3:
Thanks for your attention!
Preparatory conditions - The hearer's attention benefits the
speaker.
- The speaker believes the hearer's attention
is helpful.
Sincerity conditions The speaker feels appreciated for the
hearer's attention.
Essential conditions The hearer recognizes the speaker's
appreciation.
Propositional content conditions The hearer did pay attention to the speaker.
