ELECTRICAL /SOLAR ISTALLATION TECHNOLOGY

Notes By

Eng. Bernard Mwandikwa

(KIAMBU INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY)

ELECTRICAL /SOLAR ISTALLATION TECHNOLOGY SYLLABUS

Introduction to Solar Installation systems

 Solar energy and its conversion

 Terms used with solar systems
 Methods of solar energy harvesting
 layouts of the photo voltaic system

Solar (Photo Voltaic) Systems

 Parts of photo voltaic

 functions of each part of a voltaic system
 layout of photo voltaic system

Solar System Accessories

 Types of solar accessories

 Types of cable joints
 Wiring system
 Tests performed on completed installations
 Regulations governing solar installations

Maintenance and Servicing of Solar Systems

 Procedure for maintenance

 Repair and troubleshooting

Solar System Sizing

 Terminologies
 Sizing and solar system
 Daily load energy demand
 Equipment, cables and accessories sizing
 Applications of Data
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION TECHNOLOGY 1

SAFETY

 Workshop safety hazards

 Electrical safety
 First Aid

ELECTRICAL TOOLS

 Tools used in Electrical

 Care and maintenance of tools

ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY

 Electrical power sources

 Typical layout for hydro power generating plant
 Electrical power transmission and distribution systems

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

 Types of measuring Instruments

 Instruments and their quantities of measurement
 Interpretation of instruments scales
 Methods of performing electrical measurements

CONDUCTORS AND CABLE JOINTS

 Types of cables
 Sizes and ratings
 Definition of joint
 SOLAR ENERGY

Energy from the Sun is referred to as solar energy.

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun.

It is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse gases.

Solar energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as electricity and
as a source of heat.

Solar energy is considered to be a renewable energy.

Renewable energy is a term used to refer to forms of energy that are naturally obtained
from the environment and from sources that can be replenished naturally. These include
solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, hydropower, and biomass.

The term renewable energy should not be confused with alternative energy, which describes
sources of energy outside the regular forms like gasoline that are considered more
environment-friendly or less harmful.

Advantages of Renewable Energy

Advantages of using renewable sources of energy are −

 Less maintenance cost as most sources entail few or no moving parts, hence, less
mechanical damages.

 They are economical and can cut costs spent on fossil fuel.

 They emit little or no waste in the environment.

 Renewable energy sources do not deplete. Therefore, these have a better prospect for
the future.

Solar Energy in Kenya

 Among all the renewables for providing energy access, solar energy holds a big
promise.
  From 2000–10, solar photovoltaic (PV) was the fastest growing renewable power
technology worldwide.
 Rural electrification using solar PV has been emerging as a viable option for the
developing countries. PV systems not only provide reliable, clean, and environment-
friendly energy but also create employment opportunities in the vicinity of its
operation.
 The Kenyan solar energy market is one of the most advanced in Eastern Africa, and
indeed in Africa. Traced back through the 1980s, it is one of the classic examples of a
market driven largely by the private sector.
 It is estimated that the overall solar market has increased by more than 100 per cent in
Kenya within the past decade with the current size of the market now in the range of
approximately 8–10 MWp. Solar market development in Kenya has also been aided
by the global fall in the solar PV prices over the last decade.

Advantages and Limitations of Solar Energy

Renewable energy sources in general and solar energy source in particular has the potential to

provide energy services with zero or almost zero dangerous emissions. The solar energy is

abundant and no other source in renewable energy is like solar energy. Every technology has
its own advantages and disadvantages but solar energy has very many advantages and little
disadvantages. As the solar insolation and atmospheric conditions vary significantly from
place to place, efficiency of solar energy also differs accordingly.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 It is an abundant Renewable Energy

 This technology is Omnipresent and it can be captured for conversion on a daily basis.
 It is a non-polluting technology, which means that it does not release greenhouse
gases.
 It is a noiseless technology as there are no moving parts involved in energy
generation.
 This technology requires low-maintenance because of lack of moving parts.
 It can be installed on modular basis and expanded over a period of time.
  Most viable alternative for providing electricity in remote rural areas as it can be
installed where the energy demand is high and can be expanded on modular basis.

Limitations of Solar Energy

 As the technology is in an evolving stage, the efficiency levels of conversion from

light to electricity is in the range of 10 to 17%, depending on the technology used.
That efficiency is still low.
 The initial investment cost of this technology is high. At present the technology is
basically surviving because of subsidy schemes available by the government

SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES

Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this abundant resource.

Solar technology can be broadly classified as:

I. Active Solar − Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Active
solar is directly consumed in activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.
II. Passive Solar − Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the sun,
selecting materials with favourable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties,
and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

CONVERSION OF SOLAR ENERGY

The solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun.

The method of obtaining electricity from sunlight is referred to as the Photovoltaic

method. This is achieved using a semiconductor material.

The other form of obtaining solar energy is through thermal technologies, which give two
forms of energy tapping methods.

 The first is solar concentration, which focuses solar energy to drive thermal
turbines.

 The second method is heating and cooling systems used in solar water heating and
air conditioning respectively.
SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES

Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and
process heat generation.

i. Water Heating

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below40
degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C can be
provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water heaters are
evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for
domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming
pools.

(Solar water heaters facing the Sun to maximize gain)

ii. Heating, Cooling and Ventilation

 Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of
this energy.
 Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the
case of solar energy.
 Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they
have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by
absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler
atmosphere at night.
  However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The
size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, day-
lighting and shading conditions.
 When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a
comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.
 A solar chimney is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft
connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air
inside is heated causing an up-draft that pulls air through the building. Performance
can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics
greenhouses.
iii. Water treatment
 Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first
recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar
distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las
Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m
 Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary
depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during
fully overcast conditions. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a
viable method for household water treatment and safe storage.
 Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily
drinking water. Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat waste
water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that
algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although
algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.
ELECTRICITY FROM SOLAR ENERGY

The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-day
activities is given below −

 Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called

photons.

 Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.

 Combination of current from several cells. This step is

necessary since a single cell has a voltage of less than 0.5 V.

 Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.

Photovoltaic Effect

The working principle of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect, i.e. the generation of
a potential difference at the junction of two different materials in response to electromagnetic
radiation.

The photovoltaic effect is closely related to the photoelectric effect, where electrons are
emitted from a material that has absorbed light with a frequency above a material-dependent
threshold frequency.

In 1905, Albert Einstein understood that this effect can be explained by assuming that the
light consists of well-defined energy quanta, called photons. The energy of such a photon is
given by

E = hν

where h is Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of the light. For his explanation of the
photoelectric effect Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

A solar cell utilizes the concept of a p-n junction in capturing the solar energy. The
following figure shows the fermi level of a semiconductor.
For a semiconductor to conduct, electrons must cross the energy gap from the valence band
to the conduction band. These electrons require some energy to dislodge and move across
the valence gap. In solar cells, photons emitted from the Sun provide the required energy to
overcome the gap.

A photon incident on the surface could be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted. If it is

reflected or transmitted, it does not help dislodge an electron and is thus wasted. Therefore, a
photon must be absorbed to provide the energy required to dislodge and move electrons
across the valence gap.

If Eph is the energy of a photon and E G is the threshold energy to cross the energy gap, then
the possible outcomes, when photon hits the surface of a semiconductor are −

 Eph < EG − In this case, the photon does not attain the threshold and will just pass
through.

 Eph = EG − The photon has the exact threshold to dislodge an electron and create a
hole electron pair.

 Eph > EG − The photon energy surpasses the threshold. This creates an electron-hole
pair, though it is a waste, since the electron moves back down the energy gap.

In most cases, absorption coefficient of the semiconductor is used to determine the

efficiency of absorbing energy from Sun. Low coefficient means poor absorption. Therefore,
how far a photon goes is a factor of both absorption coefficient (α) and wavelength of the
radiation (λ).

SOLAR CELL, MODULE AND ARRAY

Solar Cell

The basic element of a PV System is the photovoltaic (PV) cell, also called a Solar Cell. A
PV / Solar Cell is a semiconductor device that can convert solar energy into DC electricity
through the Photovoltaic Effect. An example of a PV / Solar Cell made of Mono-crystalline
Silicon is shown in Figure below.

Solar Module/Panel

To construct a solar panel, one requires several solar cells made of doped silicon. These
cells are connected in series to add up the resultant current. This gives strips of clustered
cells called a module. For example, a 12 V Panel (Module) will have 36 cells connected in
series and a 24 V Panel (Module) will have 72 PV Cells connected in series.

A single module could be constructed into a solar panel or combined with others in cases
where a large panel is required.

Solar Array

To achieve the desired voltage and current, Modules are wired in series and parallel into what
is called a PV Array. The flexibility of the modular PV system allows designers to create
solar power systems that can meet a wide variety of electrical needs. The figure below shows
PV cell, Panel (Module) and Array.
CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel consists of several layers that sandwich the photovoltaic cells. These layers are
used to protect the fragile cells.

An illustration of the layers is given below −

The layers consist of the following parts −

  Cover Glass − This is the top cover and is transparent to allows light to enter. It
prevents the cells from mechanical damage. It is made of hard glass to prevent
against scratch.

 Non-reflective layer − Silicon can reflect most of the sunlight. Therefore, this layer
is used to counter this and ensure maximum absorption of photons. In other words, it
helps to maximize absorption.

 Contact grid − At this layer, all the contacts joining top to bottom of cells are
connected together. The contact extends to the external parts of the panel like charge
controller, combiner box and battery storage or grid system.

 P and N Silicon plates − This layer is actually a combination of two layers − the N-
doped silicon layer and P-doped silicon layer. This layer gives the solar panel its
colour.

 Back plate − This is a hard layer for supporting the crystalline photovoltaic panels.
At times, flexible synthetic fibers may be used for thin-film type panels.

Aluminium frame is used to frame the panel and to make it weatherproof. The benefits
are

 The frame provides a means of mounting the panel on surfaces such as

rooftops.
 The frame is tight enough to protect the panel against extreme weather
conditions such as storms.

The solar panel should also be under constant care to prevent dust particles from resting on
it. During the installation process, the panels should be fixed at an angle to receive
maximum light. A proportional battery should be set in place in cases of no direct usage, to
avoid waste.

Solar Cell efficiency

Efficiency refers to the ratio of power input to power output. In the case of a photovoltaic,
efficiency is the ratio of power output in terms of electricity to the solar energy incident on
the cell.
The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is
converted to electricity and is defined as:

Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE OUTPUT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

The factors that affect output of a photovoltaic cell include:

I. Type of solar PV module used

The efficiency of the different types of solar panels differ between manufacturers and
should be considered before installation.

II. Solar irradiation

As we know, the solar panels work with the amount of sunlight and not heat from the
sun. The greater the amount of light incident on the panels, the higher the efficiency of
the solar panels. The wavelength of the incident light is also a significant factor that
determines photovoltaic output.

III. Inclination/Mounting position

Positioning of a solar cell determines its output for two reasons. First, the angle
determines the level of reflection on the cell, and secondly the positioning determines the
amount of sunshine captured from 9 am to 3 pm.

The installation of the photovoltaic modules must take into account some factors to take
full advantage of solar radiation: the orientation, the inclination, the latitude of the place,
the climatic conditions. The correct consideration of these variants will help ensure that
they produce maximum energy by being exposed to the greatest intensity of solar
radiation for the longest period of time.

IV. Temperature

Solar cells perform better in cold rather than in hot climate and as things stand, panels are
rated at 25˚C which can be significantly different from the real outdoor situation. For
each degree rise in temperature above 25˚C the panel output decays by about 0.25% for
amorphous cells and about 0.4-0.5% for crystalline cells. Thus, in hot summer days panel
temperature can easily reach 70˚C or more. What it means is that the panels will put out
up to 25% less power compared to what they are rated for at 25˚C. Thus a 100W panel
will produce only 75W in May/June in most parts of India where temperatures reach 45˚C
and beyond in summer and electricity demand is high.

Solar panels are tested under laboratory conditions, called STC (Standard Test
Conditions): at an Irradiance (light) level of 1000W/m2 with a temperature of 25˚C. But
in the real world these conditions are constantly changing so the panel output is different
from the lab conditions. So, another specifications are reported, called NOCT (Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature). It is the temperature reached by open circuit cells in a
module under the following conditions:

Irradiance (light) falling on the solar panel at 800W/m2; Air temperature of 20ºC; Wind
speed at 1m/s; and the panel is mounted with an open back (air can circulate behind
panel).

Most good quality panels available today in India have NOCT values of 47±2˚C. Lower
the NOCT the better it is expected to perform in hotter climates.

Temperature coefficient of the rated watt power, Pmax, is another important parameter.

In designing a system, the temperature of the region is usually considered for the choice
of solar panels. Your installer should position the panels in a way that there is sufficient
airflow to induce natural cooling.

Example: EMMVEE solar panels have NOCT of 48±2˚C and temperature coefficient of
rated power -0.43% per K. Moser Baer panels have NOCT of 47±2˚C and temperature
coefficient of rated power -0.43% per K for panels up to 125Wp; their higher power
panels have NOCT of 45±2˚C and temperature coefficient of rated power -0.45% per K.
 V. Shading

Ideally solar panels should be located such that there will never be shadows on them
because a shadow on even a small part of the panel can have a surprisingly large effect on
the output.

The cells within a panel are normally all wired in series and the shaded cells affect the
current flow of the whole panel. But there can be situations where it cannot be avoided,
and thus the effects of partial shading should be considered while planning.

If the affected panel is wired in series (in a string) with other panels, then the output of all
those panels will be affected by the partial shading of one panel. In such a situation, an
obvious solution is to avoid wiring panels in series if possible.

VI. Poor maintenance

Presence of dust and dirt on the solar panels generally reduces their efficiency. Regular
cleaning is recommended for all solar panels.

PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGIES

The Photovoltaic technology utilizes two technologies; crystalline form and the amorphous
silicon. The amorphous is still a new exploration and may take longer to achieve optimal
performance.

1) Crystalline cells

The crystalline silicon technology gives two types of photovoltaic cells −

 Mono-crystalline cells − Mono-crystalline solar cell is constructed from a single

crystal cylinder sliced off to produce all the wafers in the array. The wafers are
circular in shape, though at times they may be cut into other shape variations for
crystal utility purposes. It is characterized by a uniform blue color. Other features
include −

o Relatively high efficiency, among all PV technologies, available today.

o Most expensive cells because it is developed from purely same crystal.

 o The cells are rigid and have to be well positioned and mounted on a rigid
backing.

 Poly-crystalline cells − These are also known as malty-crystalline cells and are made
by casting the silicon into a square mould. The resulting cast is then cut into a
number of square wafers. The square block is made up of several crystals composed
of arrays of blue variations. This is the technology behind the glittery, gemstone-like
surface of some solar panels in the market today. Poly-crystalline cells have distinct
features including −

o Slightly less efficient compared to mono-crystalline cells.

o Cheaper than mono-crystalline.

o Less waste of material (purified silicon).

o Given solar panels of same specification, the poly-crystalline panel is slightly

wider than the mono-crystalline counterpart.

2) Amorphous Cells

Thin-Film PVs − The use of amorphous form of silicon to make photovoltaic cells is
a new technique that the experts are still researching to curb the challenges of the
crystalline forms. The characteristics of this technology include −

 They are much cheaper than both the crystalline forms.

 They are flexible. Thus, they should have a movable mounting to best utilize
this feature. However, the shape of the surface should accommodate the panel
for safety purposes.

 Less susceptible to power loss due to shedding of cells. In addition, they are
more powerful at a dimly lit environment.

 Less durable. They gradually degenerate in terms of power production

especially for the first month before gaining stability.

 Least efficient in power production and therefore covers larger space

 The new technology makes it possible for the panel to be mounted on

windowpanes and curved surfaces.
Photovoltaic Circuit Properties

An equivalent circuit of a photovoltaic cell is given below:

Current obtained, Iph = Area of cell X Intensity of light, H X response factor, ξ.

Given, Loss due to resistance by conductor = Rp

Loss due to non-ideal conductors = Rs