Electric Machine (Indraman Tamrakar Sir)

Electric Machine-I (Course Code: EE 551 )
Delivered By: Prof. Dr. Indraman Tamrakar
Chapter –1 ( Reviews on Magnetism )
Lecture No.1
1
Chapter –1 ( Reviews on Electro Magnetism )
1.1 General
-Electric machines such as generators and transformers are major
components in a power system.
-Electric motors are most widely used in different applications such as

manufacturing industries, agriculture, electric drives, domestic electrical
equipments etc.
- Types of electric generators:
i) DC generator ii) AC generator
-Types of Electric Motors:
i) DC Motor ii) AC motor
- Transformers operates only on AC system
- Operating principle of all the electric machines are based on theories of

electro-magnetism
2
1.2 Magnetic field:
Magnetic field is space around a magnet within which the iron particles gets attracted
toward the magnet. The attracting effect is most pronounced at certain points of the
magnet known as its poles. Fig.1.1 shows a bar magnet with its nature of magnetic
field.
Magnetic lines of force (or Flux)
S N
Magnetic pole
Fig.1.1 Bar magnet and its magnetic field

Magnetic Lines of Force : These are imaginary lines along which the small iron
particles gets attracted toward the pole. Stronger magnetic field is represented by
dense number of lines meeting toward a pole.
- The magnitude of lines of force emitted by a pole is measured in Weber (wb).
- It is also known as Magnetic flux emitted by a pole.
- Magnetic pole strength is also measured in Weber.
3
Opposite pair of magnetic poles attracts each other, whereas like pair of magnetic
poles repels each other as shown in Fig.1.2.
Fig.1.2 Force of attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles

The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles is given by:
1 m1  m 2
F= = (Newton) (1.1)
4o  r d2
4
Magnetic field intensity:
Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is defined as the
force experienced by a unit north-pole placed at that point. Here, the unit
north-pole can be assumed as the reference test pole to examine magnetic
field intensity at any point.
Fig.1.3 Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field
Magnetic field intensity at point ‘A’ is given by:

1 m 1
HA =  (Newton)
4o  r d2
m
HA = (1.2)
4 o  r d 2
5
Magnetic Flux Density:
It is defined as magnetic flux per unit area.
Fig.1.4 Illustration of magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux density at the pole face is given by:

 (1.3)
B=
A
1.3 Electromagnet
A current carrying conductor produces magnetic field around it. The direction of
magnetic flux so produced can be determined by right hand screw rule.
Fig.1.5 Illustration of right hand screw rule
6
Fig.1.6 Electromagnet
7
1. 4 Work law
If a unit N-pole is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force. If
this unit N-pole is to be moved around a closed path in the magnetic field,
some work has to be done against the magnetic force developed on the unit N-
pole.
Fig.1.7 Illustration of work law
Work done in moving a unit N-pole around the circle = Force×distance=Ha × 2πr
Therefore, according to work law, Ha × 2πr = NI
N .I
OR Ha = (1.4)
2. .r
8
Application of Work Law :
Calculation of Magnetic Field Inside the core of Electro-Magnet:
S H N
A
Unit N-pole
Fig.1.8 Cross-sectional view of an electromagnet
Let L = Length of the core

I = Coil current
H = magnetic field intensity inside the coil.
Assumption : ‘H’ inside the core remains constant throughout the length and
value of ‘H’ outside the core is negligible with compare to that inside the
core.
9
L
S H N
A
Unit N-pole
Let us consider a unit N-pole placed at a point ‘A’ outside the core. If the unit N-pole is
taken around the closed path as shown in the figure in the direction opposite to that of
‘H’, then the work done against the magnetizing force ‘H’ is given by:
Work done = H × L
Therefore, according to work law, H × L = NI
N .I
OR Ha = (1.4)
L
10
1.5 Magnetic hysteresis
Fig.1.9 (a) Electromagnet (b) Magnetization curve (B-H curve)
The magnetizing force inside the core is

Molecular theory of magnetism:
Fig.1.10 (a) Un-magnetized Fig.1.10(b) Partially magnetized Fig.1.10 ( c ) Fully magnetized

(Saturated)
11
Hysteresis Loop
Fig.1.11 Hysteresis loop of an electromagnet
OC = Retaintivity = Residual Flux Density

OD = Coercovity
Energy Loss in demagnetizing the residual flux density
Area under hysteresis loop is proportional to the energy loss per cycle per unit volume
12
Mathematical Proof:
Then the magnetic flux in the core at any

instant is given by:
 = B. A
The magnetizing force at any instant is given by:
N.I H. l
H= OR I =
l N
The instantaneous value of emf induce in the coil
due to time varying magnetic flux is given by:
d d d
e=N = N (B.A) = NA ( B)
dt dt dt
The source has to expend some energy to push

the current against this emf.
Fig.1.12 Hysteresis loop of a magnetic material
13
The instantaneous power or rate of expenditure of
energy in maintaining the current “I” against the emf
induced is given by:
d Hl d
p = e.I = NA (B)  = AlH ( B )
dt N dt
Let us consider a small change in magnetic flux
density (dB) due to small change in current (dI) in
small change in time (dt) as shown in Fig.1.12. Then
energy spend in this small time is given by:
d
dW = p.dt = AlH ( B)  dt = AlH .dB
dt
Hence, the total energy spent in a cycle of
magnetization is given by:
W = Al  H.dB
Where, stands for integration over whole cycle
of magnetization .
Here, H.dB = Area of shaded part
Therefore, = Area of whole loop
W total energy spent in a cycle of magnetizat ion
Therefore,  H.dB = =
A.l Volume of iron core
14
Different grade of iron core will have different shape of hysteresis loop as shown in Fig.1.13.
Fig.1.13 Hysteresis loop of hard magnetic material and soft magnetic material
- Materials having larger hysteresis loop area are known as hard magnetic materials.
They have high retaintivity , coercivity and high energy loss
Therefore not suitable for making core of electric machine
- Materials having smaller hysteresis loop area are known as soft magnetic materials.
They have low retaintivity , coercivity and low energy loss
Therefore suitable for making core of electric machine.
15
Lecture No.2
1
1.6 Hysteresis with ac excitation
Fig.1.14 (a) Electromagnet excited by ac voltage source
Fig.1.14 (b) Waveform of exciting current and Corresponding hysteresis loop
2
The hysteresis power loss in the core is given by:
Wh =  Bm1.6 f Vol (Watts) (1.7)
Where, Bm = Peak value of magnetic flux density in the core (Wb/m2)

f = Frequency of the applied acvoltage (Hz)
Vol = Volume of iron core (m3)
ƞ = Steinmetz constant, whose value depends upon the grade of iron core.
1. 7 Magnetic circuit
The path followed by the magnetic flux is known as magnetic circuit. The path a-b-
c-d-a shown in Fig.1.15 is a magnetic circuit consisting of iron core and winding.
Fig.1.15 Magnetic circuit
3
Let I = Current through the exciting winding (Amp)
N = Number of turns in exciting winding
ϕ = Magnitude of magnetic flux (wb)
A = Cross-sectional area of the iron core (m2)
L = Mean length of the magnetic flux path (a-b-c-d-a)

Magnetic flux density in the core is given by: B=
A
N .I
And, magnetic field intensity in side the core is given by: H = L
B
For linear part of the magnetization curve: =
H
OR  = .N.I
N.I mmf
Or B = μ.H OR  = L = (ohm' s Law) (1.8)
A L Reluctance
. A
Where, N.I= mmf = magnetomotive force, which push the magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit.
L
Rel = = Reluctanc e of magnetic circuit
. A
4
5
1.7.1 Series Magnetic Circuit:
Series magnetic circuit is such circuit, where the same magnetic flux passes through the all
sections of the magnetic circuit as shown in Fig.1.17.
Fig.1.17 Series magnetic circuit
The magnetic circuit has four different sections with different length and cross-
sectional area as follow:
Section-1 : L1 = ba + ai + ih, Area = A1, Permeability = μ1

Section-2 : L2 = bc + cd + ef + fg , Area = A2 Permeability = μ2
Section-3 : L3 = gh, Area = A3 Permeability = μ3
Section-4 : Lg = de, Area = Ag=A2 Permeability = μ0
6
The Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit = sum of the reluctances of all the sections.
L L L L
L 1 2 3 g
Thereefore , Total Rel =  = + + + (1.9)
.A . A . A . A . A
1 1 2 2 3 3 0 2
N .I
Hence Magnetic Flux in circuit ,  = (1.10)
. L . A
Note that the air gap offers very high reluctance. It reduces the magnetic flux in
the circuit. It is quite similar to addition of very high resistance in series with
low resistance in case of series electric circuit.
7
1.7.2 Parallel Magnetic Circuit:
If the magnetic flux divides into two or more parallel paths, such magnetic circuit is
known as parallel magnetic circuit.
Fig.1.18(a) Parallel magnetic circuit Fig.1.18(b) Corresponding electric circuit
For electric circuit,

I = I1 + I2 If Rbcda = Rbefa, Then I1 = I2 Or I1 = I/2
Writing KVL for loop a-b-c-d: V = I×Rab + I1× Rbcda OR V = I×Rab + 0.5I × Rbcda
V
OR I =
(R + 0.5 R )
ab bcda
Similarly, for magnetic circuit:
ϕ = ϕ1 + ϕ2 If Reluctance of path-1 = Reluctance of path-2, then ϕ1 = ϕ2 = 0.5 ϕ
Therefore, N.I =   Rel (ab) +   Rel (bcda) OR N.I =   Rel (ab) + 0.5   Rel (bcda)
1
N .I
=
(Rel + 0.5 Rel )
(ab) (bcda)
8
1.8 Electromagnetic Induction:
In 1831, English scientist Michael Faraday discovered the relationship between
magnetism and electricity. He observed the momentary induced current in a circuit,
when the magnetic flux linking with the circuit changes momentary with respect to
time. He had stated two laws known as Faraday’s Law Of Electromanetic Induction
as follows:
i) First law: “Whenever the magnetic flux-linkage in a conductor changes with respect
to time, an emf will induced on it”
ii) Second law: “The magnitude of emf induced is equal to the time rate of change of
magnetic flux-Linkage”
The magnetic flux-linkage could be changed in two different ways. Therefore, emf can be
produced in two different ways:
i) Statically induced emf
ii) Dynamically induced emf
9
1.8.1 Statically Induced emf:
No Relative motion between

conductor and magnetic flux
Fig.1.21 Illustration of statically induced emf

Let N = Number of turns in coil-B
ϕ = Magnetic flux passing through the N turns of conductive coil
Then the product N× I = Magnetic Flux-Linkage in coil-B
If the magnetic flux in the coil-B changes from ϕ1 to ϕ2 in a small time interval from t1 to t2,
then according to second law given by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
magnitude of emf induced in a turn of coil-B is given by:
 - d
e (per turn) = 2 1 =
t −t dt
2 1
If there is ‘N’ number of turns in the coil-B, then total emf induced across the coil is
given by:
d
e =N (1.11)
dt
10
The direction of statically induced emf and direction of current due to this emf can be
determined by Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law statement: “Direction of induced current in the conductor will be such that the
magnetic field set up by the induced current opposes the cause by which the current was
induced.”
Example-1: Emf due to increasing current in coil-A
Coil-A Coil-B
Flux of Coil-A
S N N S
Flux of Coil-B
x + e = emf - y
Rv
+ - R
V
Fig.1.22 Illustration of Lenz’s law (case-I )
11
Example-2: Emf due to decreasing current in coil-A
Coil-A Coil-B
Flux of Coil-A
S N S N
Flux of Coil-B
x - e = emf + y
Rv
+ - R
V
Fig.1.23 Illustration of Lenz’s law (case-II)
12
1.8.2 Dynamically Induced emf:
v = Velocity
B
N S
I R
A
Induced B= Magnetix Flux density There is relative motion between
current
conductor and magnetic flux
Fig.1.24 Illustration of dynamically induced emf
The distance moved ‘dx’ by the conductor in a small time

v interval of ‘dt’ is given by: dx = v×dt
Area swept by the conductor in a small time interval of ‘dt’
A is given by: A = L×dx = L× v×dt
Total flux swept by the conductor in a small time interval
L v
of ‘dt’ is given by: d = B  A = B  L  v  dt
dx
Hence, emf induced in the conductor is given by:
d B  L  v  dt
e = = = BLv
Fig.1.25 Detail of area dt dt
swept by the conductor Or e = BLv (1.12)
13
The direction of dynamically induced emf and current in the conductor is
determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. To use this rule, we shall use our right
hand as shown in Fig.1.26
Direction of v (thumb)
Direction of B
(fore finger)
Direction of induced
current (middle finger)
Fig.1.26. Illustration of Fleming’s right hand rule
14
(a) Conductor motion upward (b) Conductor motion downward
Fig.1.27 Direction of dynamically induced current
Fig.1.28 Dynamically induced emf with inclined direction of motion of conductor
If the direction of motion is inclined with the direction of magnetic flux density (B) as
shown in Fig.1.28, then the magnitude of emf induced is given by:
e = B.L.v.sin (1.13)
Where,  = Angle between direction of motion and direction flux density.
v. sin = Component of v in the direction perpendicular to direction of B
15
1.9 Force developed on current carrying conductor:
When electric current is passed through a conductor lying in the magnetic field, a
force will develop on the conductor.
F = force
B
N S
A
B= Magnetix Flux density
current
Fig.1.29. Force developed on current carrying conductor
The magnitude of the force so developed is given by:

F = B.I.L (Newton) (1.14)
Where,
B = Magnetic flux density ( wb/m2)
I = Current passing through the conductor (Amp)
L = Length of the conductor lying within the magnetic field (m)
16
The direction of force so developed is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. To
use this rule, we shall use our left hand as shown in Fig.1.30
Direction of F (thumb)
Direction of B
(fore finger)
Left Hand
Direction of current
(middle finger)
(a) (b)
Fig.1.31 Direction of force developed on the conductor
17
Lecture No.3
1
Chapter –1 ( Reviews on Electro Magnetism )
-If time varying current ‘i’ is passed through the
1.10 Self inductance : coil, then the magnetic flux-linkage (N×) will
change with respect to time.
- Hence, an emf will induce in the coil. (FLIMI)
- According to Lenz’s law, this induce emf will
S N
oppose the rate of increase or decrease of current ‘i’.
-Therefore, the coil has a property of opposing the
i increase or decrease of current passing through it.
Fig.1.32 Illustration of self inductance. -This property of the coil is known as self
inductance.
The magnitude of self inductance of a coil is measured by coefficient of self inductance ‘L’
and is defined as “self emf induced per unit rate of change of current through it” and
mathematically:
e di
L = (Henry) OR e = L (1.15)
di dt
dt
A coil having higher value of inductance will induce higher value of emf for an unit rate of
change of current (di/dt) and accordingly the coil will have higher capability to oppose the
increasing or decreasing the current through it. In other words, we can say that the inductance
tries to keep the magnitude of current passing through it to a fairly constant value.
2
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced is
given by:
d e =L
di
e =N (1.16) and (1.15)
dt dt
di d
Equating these two equations: L =N
dt dt
N
Linearization of above equation gives: L.i = N OR L =
i
(1.17)
Therefore, inductance also can be defined as flux-linkage per ampere of current.

N.I
Magnetic flux through the core is given by :  =
l
. A
  AN 2
Substituting the value of  in eqn (1.17) gives: L = 0 r (Henry) (1.18)
l
Where, N = Number of turns in the coil
A = Cross-sectional area of the core.
l = Length of the core
It is clear from eqn (1.18) that the inductance of a coil does not depend on amount of
current through the coil and diameter of the winding wire. It depends on:
i)Length of the core ii) Number of turns iii) Cross-sectional area
iv) Permeability of the core.
3
Let us consider an inductor having inductance of ‘L’ Henry in which the current rises uniformly
from 0 to I amp in ‘t’ second as shown in Fig.1.33.
S N
Fig.1.33 Inductive coil

Rate of change of current = di = I (By Linearizing )
dt t
di I
Then induced emf = e = L =
dt t
I 0+ I I
Applying KVL, v=e= Average current, I = =
(Average) 2 2
t
Energy supplied by the voltage source = energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor
= Voltage × I(Average) × t
LI I
OR Energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor =  t
t 2
1 2
OR E = L.I (Joule) (1.19)
2
4
1.12 Mutual inductance
Let us consider two coils (coil-1 and coil-2) which are placed very closed to each other as
shown in Fig.1.36. Here, the magnetic flux produced by one coil links with the other coil.
i1
Coil-2
Coil-1
E2
N1 N2
Fig.1.34 Illustration of mutual inductance.
- When the time varying current ‘i1’ is passed through the coil-1, it produces a time varying magnetic
flux which links with the coil-2.
- Therefore, emf will induce in the coil-2.(FLIMI)
-Hence, coil-1 has a capability to induced an emf in the nearby coil-2.
- Mutual inductance between two coils is defined as the ability of a coil to produce an emf in the near
by coil by electromagnetic induction.
- The coefficient of mutual inductance between two coils is defined as “Magnetic flux-linkage in the
second coil due to one ampere current in the first coil and vice versa”
N
Therefore , M = N 21 OR M = 12 (1.20)
i i 5
1 2
1.13 Leakage flux Useful flux
a b
Leakage flux
d c
Fig.1.35 Illustration of leakage flux.
- Leakage flux is not useful in electric machine.

- It effect is undesirable in electric machine
6
1.14 Eddy Current Loss:
Eddy
Solid core current
Laminated core
Coil
current
Fig.1.36 Eddy current in solid core Fig.1.37 Eddy current in laminated core
- The eddy current produces heat in the iron core, which is proportional to the square of the
induced eddy current.
- The power loss due to heat produced in the iron core due to eddy current is known as eddy
current loss.
- Eddy current loss can be reduced by laminated core. Eddy current loss in laminated core is given by:
We = K Bm2 f 2 t2 Vol (Watts) (1.23)
Where, Bm = Peak value of magnetic flux density in the core (Wb/m2)

f = Frequency of the applied voltage (Hz)
t = Thickness of each lamination (in mm)
Vol = Volume of iron core (m3)
K = Constant depending upon the grade of iron core
7
Some Numerical illustrations:
Illustrative Example 1
A magnetic flux of 0.5 mWb links a coil of 400 turns. If the flux is reversed in 0.2 sec,
determine the average value of the induced emf in the coil.
Solution:
Initial flux Final flux
Initial flux in the coil 1 = 0.5 mWb = 0.5×10-3 wb

Final flux in the coil 2 = - 0.5 mWb = - 0.5×10-3 wb
Magnitude of change in flux = d = | 2- 1| = | 0.5×10-3 - (- 0.5×10-3 ) | = 1×10-3 wb
−3
Average value of induced emf = e = N dφ = 1  10 = 2V
dt 0 .2
8
A coil has 750 turns. When a current of 10 Amp is passed through the coil, it produces a magnetic flux of 1.2
mWb. Calculate the self inductance of the coil. If the current in the coil is reversed in 0.01 sec, calculate the
emf induced in the coil.
Solution:
N = 750 turns, I = 10 Amp,  = 1.2 mWb = 1.2 ×10-3 Wb
N . 750  1.2  10 − 3
The self inductance is given by: L = = = 0.09 H
I 10
Initial current in the coil I1 = 10 Amp

Final current in the coil I2 = - 10 Amp
Magnitude of change in current in 0.01 sec dI = | - 10 -10 | = 20 Amp
dI 20
Emf induced e = L = 0.09  = 180V
dt 0.01
9
A magnetic core, in the form of a closed ring, has a mean length of 20 cm and cross-sectional
area of 1 sq.cm. An air gap of 1 mm is cut on the ring. The core is wound with 2000 turns of
winding. What DC current will be needed in the coil to create a flux density of 2 Wb/m2. Given
that the relative permeability of the core is 2400.
Solution: [
Here, lmean = 20 cm = 0.2 m, Air gap length Lg = 2mm = 0.002 m

Length of iron core l = lmean – Lg = 0.2 – 0.002 = 0.198 m
Cross-sectional area of the iron core A = 1 sq.cm = 1×10-4 sq.m
Number of turns in winding = 2000 turns
Relative permeability of the core μr = 2400
10
Required magnetic flux density in the core B = 2 wb/ m2
Therefore required magnetic flux in the core ϕ = B×A = 2×1×10-4 wb
l 0.198
Reluctance of iron core : Rel(core) = = = 6.5648  105
 0  rA 4  10− 7  2400  1×10- 4
Lg 0.002
Reluctance of air gap : Rel(airgap) = = = 159.15  105
 0 A 4  10− 7  1×10- 4
Total Reluctance of the magnetic circuit :

Rel(total) = 6.5648×105 + 159.15×105 = 165.684×105
N.I
Magnetic flux in the core is given by:  =
Re l (total)
  Re l(total) 2 ×10- 4  165.684  105

OR I= = = 1.656 Amp
N 2000
11
Chapter –1 ( Transformer )
Lecture No.4
1
2.1 Introduction:
- Transformer is a static machine which transfers.
- Electrical power from one circuit to another
circuit.
- The two circuits are electrically isolated from each
other, but they are linked by common magnetic
flux.
- While transferring the electrical power from one Fig.2.1 Block diagram representation of
transformer
circuit to another circuit, the voltage level of the second
circuit may be different from that of the first circuit, but
the frequency of both circuits remains same.
- Fig.2.1 represents the block diagram of a transformer.
2
2.2 Basic construction and operating principle:
Fig.2.2 Basic construction of transformer
-Basically, a transformer consists of a rectangular window shaped iron core as shown in

Fig.2.2. The horizontal part of the core is known as ‘yoke’ and the vertical part of the core is
known as ‘limb’.
-The core is made of laminated silicon steel. Two separate coils (windings) are wound on the
two separate limbs of the core. The coils are made of enamel insulated copper wire.
3
Operating principle:
Fig.2.3 Circuit representation of transformer

When one of the winding (say a-a’) is excited by ac voltage source ‘V1’, then the winding will
draw some current (say I0). If the winding is assumed to be purely inductive with zero
resistance, the current I0 lags the supply V1 by 900 as shown in Fig.2.4.
Fig.2.4.Waveforms of input voltage, no-load current and emf induced

4
The iron core gets magnetized and magnetic flux will
circulate through the iron core. The magnitude of magnetic
flux is given by:
N .i
= 1 0 (2.1)
Re l
Where, N1 = Number of turns in the coil a-a’
i0 = Instantaneous value of current through the coil a-a’
Rel = Reluctance of the core.
Sine the applied voltage v1 is alternating in nature, the current i0 also will be alternating
in nature. Hence, the magnetic flux () also will be alternating in nature and in phase
with i0 as shown in Fig.2.5.
Fig.2.5 Waveforms of input voltage and magnetic flux
5
-The magnitude of magnetic flux in the core is changing
with respect to time and it is linking with the second coil
on the another limb.
-Hence, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, emf (e2) will induce in the second coil b-b’.
- If the load is connected across the second coil, electric
current will circulate through the load thus by transferring
the electrical power from coil a-a’ to coil b-b’.
- This is the operating principle of transformer
-The coil, on which the supply voltage is applied, is known as primary winding (PW)
- The second coil, on which the emf ( e2) is induced, is known as secondary winding (SW).
- The magnitude of emf induced in the secondary winding can be evaluated as follow:
6
According to 2nd law of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the average value of
emf induced (e2) is given by:
d
E =N (2.2)
2(avg) 2 dt
Where, N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding

d = Average rate of change of magetic flux
dt
Magnetic flux changes from 0 to m in T/4 sec.
d m − 0 4.m
= 4 f m (Because, f = )
1
Hence, = =
dt T T T
4
d RMS Value
 E
2( avg)
=N
2 dt
=4N f
2
m For sine - wave, form factor = = 1.11
Average Value
 RMS value of emf induced in the secondary winding is given by:
E = 4.44 N f 
2 2 m Volt (2.3)
7
- According to the Lenz’s law the direction of e2 at every
instant opposes the direction of v1 at every instant.
- As the magnetic flux also links with the primary
winding, emf (e1) will also induced in the primary
winding.
-The direction of e1 at every instant opposes the direction
of v1 at every instant.
-The magnitude of emf induced in the primary winding is

given by:
E = 4.44 N f  (2.4)
1 1 m
Now the primary winding is under the pressure of two
voltages V1 and E1. The magnitude E1 will be little less
than the magnitude of V1. Therefore, the current I0 is given
by:
~ ~
~ V −E -Where, Z1 is the impedance of the primary winding.
I = 1 1 (2.5)
0 Z
1 - Since E1 opposes the flow of current I0, it is also
~ ~ ~
OR V −I Z =E (2.6) known as back emf.
1 0 1 1
8
At no-load condition (i.e. secondary winding open), no
current flows through the secondary winding and no voltage
drop take place in the secondary winding internal impedance.
 V2 = E2, Where V2 is the load terminal voltage at
secondary side.
As the primary current (I0) at no-load condition is very small,
the voltage drop in the internal impedance of primary
winding (I0 Z1) is very small.
 V1  E1 (Nearly equal) 4.44 N f  N V
E
2 = 2 m = 2 = 2
Dividing eqn (2.3) by eqn (2.4) gives: E 4.44 N f  N V
1 1 m 1 1
N N
V = 2 V = K.V (2.7) Where, K = 2 = Transforma tion Ratio
2 N 1 1
1 N
1
The magnitude of emf induced in the secondary winding depends upon the transformation ratio. The
following three cases may exist:
Case-I : If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1 , then V2 > V1
Such a transformer is known as step up transformer
Case-II : If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1 , then V2 < V1
Such a transformer is known as step down transformer
Case-III : If N2 = N1, i.e. K = 1 , then V2 = V1
Such a transformer is known as isolation transformer
9
2.3 Ideal Transformer :
-An ideal transformer is that which has purely inductive winding without any resistance,
without any magnetic leakage flux and which is 100% efficient without any power loss
within the transformer.
- This is just the mathematical realization and such transformer can not be constructed in real
practice. The operating principle of the transformer so far explained was based on the
assumption of ideal transformer. Now, operation of real transformer shall be described in the
following sections.
Illustrative example2.1:
The primary winding of a 50Hz transformer is supplied by 6600V and it has 520 turns. The
secondary winding has 260 turns. Calculate:
•Peak value of magnetic flux in the core
•Secondary voltage.
Solution:
The emf induced in the primary winding is give by:
E = 4.44 N f  It is nearly equal to the applied voltage to primary winding(V1).
1 1 m
 V = 4.44 N f 
1 1 m
V 6600
1
Or, Peak value of flux in the core = m = 4.44  N  f = 4.44  520  50 = 0.0572 Wb
1
N 260
Secondary Voltage V = V  2 = 6600  = 3300V
2 1 N 520
1
10
2.4 No-Load and Loaded Operation Real Transformer :
When the primary winding is supplied by AC voltage source of rated voltage and frequency,
keeping secondary winding open without load as shown in Fig.2.6, such a operation is known
as no-load operation. The current drawn by the primary winding (I0) is known as no-load
primary current.
Fig.2.6 No-load operation of transformer

-At no-load, output power from secondary winding is zero.
- Therefore no power is transferred from primary winding to secondary winding.
- Only emf is induced in the secondary winding.
- The power (VA) consumed by the primary winding is utilized to supply:
i) No-load power loss (Active Power loss due to heating of iron core)
ii) Reactive Power loss to establish the magnetic flux in the core.
Note: Active power loss α Current in phase with V1
Reactive power loss α Current lagging by 900 with V1
Therefore no-load current I0 has two components as shown in the Fig.2.7.
11
Fig.2.7 Phasor diagram for no-load operation
That means the no-load current (I0) of a real transformer does not lag by 900 with V1 as
explained in the operating principal of ideal transformer. It lags by an angle ϕ0 which is less
than 900.
Iw = Component of I0 in phase with V1, Iw = I0 Cos0 = Loss component of I0
Iµ = Component of I0 which lags V1, by 900 , Iµ = I0 Sin0 = Magnetizing component of I0
The active power consumed by transformer at no-load is given by:
W0 = V1 I0 Cos0 = V1 Iw Watts (2.8)
This power will be lost within the transformer in heating the iron core. Hence, W0 is known
as no-load power loss or iron loss of the transformer. Therefore, the component Iw is
responsible for producing heat loss in the iron core. Cos0 is known as no-load power factor
of the transformer.
12
The reactive power consumed by transformer at no-load is given by:
W0 = V1 I0 Sin0 = V1 Iµ Vars (2.9 )
This reactive power is utilized to maintain magnetic flux in the core. Therefore, the component
Iµ is responsible for maintaining magnetic flux in the iron core. Here it shall be noted that only
reactive power can establish magnetic flux in magnetic circuit excited by AC voltage.
From the phasor diagram , it can be written as:
I = I2 + I2 (2.10)
0 w 
When the transformer is loaded as shown in Fig.2.8, Current (I2) will flow through the
secondary winding. Now the secondary mmf N2I2 will set up its own magnetic flux 2, whose
direction will be opposite to main flux . (as per Lenz’s law)
Fig.2.8 Loaded operation of transformer
13
-At no-load, the output volt-amp (V2I2) is equal to zero,
but input volt-amp is V1I0. This input volt-amp is lost
within the transformer.
-When the transformer is loaded, the output volt-amp of
the transformer is V2I2.
-Now in order to make power balance between primary
winding and secondary winding, some additional current
I2’ will flow in the primary winding to increase the
power in primary winding.
-This additional current in the primary winding will set
up additional magnetic flux 2’, whose magnitude is
eaqual to 2 and direction is opposite to 2. Therefore,
2’ cancils 2. and net magnetic flux in the core remains
constant and equal to main flux  irrespective of load.
-That means magnetic flux in the core remains constant
at any load conditions.
14
The additional power in the primary winding should be equal to the power in the
secondary winding.
I' V N
 V1.I2’ = V2.I2 OR 2 = 2 = 2 Or N1.I2’ = N2.I2 (Amp-turn balance )
I V N
2 1 1
According to magnetic circuit theory:
N .I N .I '
 = 2 2 And ' = 2 2
2 RELUCTANCE 2 RELUCTANCE
The reluctance for both the cases are equal.

Therefore, 2 = 2’ and they cancel each other.
15
Lecture No.5
1
2.5 Equivalent Circuit of Real Transformer:
It is seen that the net magnetic flux remains constant, it does not depend on the load current I2
and it only depends on no-load current. In order to satisfy these physical conditions of the
transformer, the equivalent circuits of the transformer without load and with load are
developed as shown in Fig.2.9 and Fig.2.10 respectively.
Fig.2.9 Equivalent circuit of transformer at no-load
Fig.2.10 Equivalent circuit of transformer with load
2
V1 = Input voltage
E1 = Emf induced across the P.W.
E2 = Emf induced across the S.W.
V2 = Load terminal voltage (< E2 )
I0 = No-load primary current (remains constant)
I2 = Load current = S.W. current (Varies with load)
I2’ = Additional current in primary P.W. due to load
on secondary side.
R1 = Resistance of P.W. Fig.2.10 Detail Equivalent circuit of transformer
X1 = Leakage reactance of P.W.
~ ~ ~
V − I ' .( R + jX ) = E
1 Since I0 is << I2 , I1 ≈ I2
R2 = Resistance of S.W. ’ ’
1 2 1 1
X2 = Leakage reactance of S.W. ~ ~ ~
R0 = Shunt branch core loss resistance Therefore V − I .( R + jX ) = E (approxima tely) (2.11)
1 1 1 1 1
X0 = Shunt branch magnetizing reactance
~ ~ ~
Iw = V1/ R0 = In phase component of I0 And V = E − I .( R + jX ) (2.12)
0 2 2 2 2 2
Iμ = V1/ R0 = 90 lagging component of I0
Iw 2 R0 = Iron loss (core loss)
Iμ 2 X0 =Reactive power consumes by transformer
to produce magnetic flux in the core
Z = ( R + jX ) = Series Impedance of primary wi nding
1 1 1
Z = ( R + jX ) = Series Impedance of secondary winding
2 2 2
3
The physical significance of leakage reactance can be explained with the help of Fig.2.12.
Fig.2.12 Magnetic flux leakage in transformer
The primary winding current produces magnetic flux in the core. Out of the total flux
produced by the primary current, major part of the flux () passes through the iron core
and links with the secondary winding. However, a small amount of flux leaks through
the air path locally and links with only the primary winding. This flux is known as
primary leakage flux and denoted by ‘l1’.
Similarly, l2 is the secondary leakage flux.
4
The emf E1 induced in the primary winding opposes
the supply voltage V1 and it is proportional to the
main flux  and does not depend on load currents. i.e
E1 remains constant.
The primary leakage flux (l1 ) will also causes a self

induced emf el1 in the primary winding. This self
induced emf opposes the supply voltage V1 causing N .
l = 1 l1 (2.11)
some voltage drop (because, there is no opposing flux 1l I
1
to cancel l1 , increases with I1 ) Similarly, I2.X2 is the reactive voltage drop in
the secondary winding due to secondary leakage
The magnitude of primary leakage flux depends upon flux, where X2 = 2πf (l2l) is the leakage
the primary current I1. Therefore, the self induced emf reactance of secondary winding and l2l is the
el1 also depends upon the primary current I1. leakage inductance of secondary winding and
can be defined as follow:
The self induced emf el1 which varies with I1 can be N .
treated as the reactive voltage drop (I1 X1), l = 2 l2 (2.12)
2l I
where X1 = 2πf (l1l) is the leakage reactance of 2
primary winding and l1l is the leakage inductance of

primary winding and can be defined as follow.
5
2.5 Transformation of Impedance :
The equivalent circuit shown in Fin.2.10
further can be simplified by transferring the
resistance and leakage reactance of the
secondary winding to the primary side as as
shown in Fig.2.13
R2 is transferred to primary side with a new Fig.2.10 Detail Equivalent circuit of transformer
value R2’ in such a way that R2’ produces same
amount of power loss in primary side as it
produces in the secondary side. R2’ is known
as equivalent of R2 referred to primary side.
Equating power loss in primary and

secondary side, it gives:
(I2’)2 R2’ = (I2)2 R2 (Assuming I1≈ I2’ ) Fig.2.13 Equivalent circuit of transformer
2 referred to primary side
I 
(I1)2 R2’ = (I2)2 '  2 
R2 OR R2 =  I  .R2
 1
I 2 N1 1
But = =  R' = 1 .R (2.16)Similarly X' =
1
.X (2.17)
I1 N 2 K 2 K2 2 2 K2 2
6
Now final equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primary side can be written as
shown in Fig.2.14. Here, Load impedance and load voltage also has been transferred to
primary side.
Fig.2.14 Final equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to primary side
R01 = R1 + R2’ = Total series resistance of the transformer referred to primary side
X01 = X1 + X2’ = Total series reactance of the transformer referred to primary side
Z = R 2 + X 2 = Total series Impedance of the transformer referred to primary side
01 01 01
Z
Z ' = L = Equivalen t of load impedance refer to primary side
L K2
V
V ' = 2 = Equivalen t of load voltage refer to primary side
2 K
7
The equivalent circuit also can be developed by transferring the resistance and leakage reactance
of the primary winding to the secondary side as shown in Fig.2.15.
R1 is transferred to secondary side with a new

value R1’ in such a way that R1’ produces
same amount of power loss in secondary side
as it produces in the primary side.
R1’ is known as equivalent of R1 referred to
secondary side.
Equating power loss in secondary and
primary side, it gives: Fig.2.15 Equivalent circuit of transformer
2 referred to secondary side
2 I 
 I' 
   
(I2)2 R1’ = (I2’)2 R1 OR R' =  2  .R =  1  R (assuming I2’  I1)
1 I  1 1
 I2 
 2  
I1 N
But = 2 =K  R' = R .K 2
I2 N1 1 1
Similarly, X ' = X .K 2 , R' = R .K 2 And X 0' = X 0.K 2

1 1 0 0
8
Now final equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to secondary side can be written as
shown in Fig.2.16. Here, input voltage V1, I0 and Iμ also has been transferred to secondary side.
Fig.2.16 Complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary side

R02 = R2 + R1’ = Total series resistance of the transformer referred to secondary side
X02 = X2 + X1’ = Total series reactance of the transformer referred to secondary side
Z = R2 + X 2 = Total series Impedance of the transformer referred to seconary side

02 02 02
V ' = K.V = Equivalen t of V refer to seconary side

1 1 1
I
I' = 0 = Equivalen t of I refer to secondary side
0 0
K
I
I ' = w = Equivalen t of I refer to secondary side
w w
K
I
' 
I = = Equivalen t of I refer to secondary side
 
K 9
A 2200V/250V, 50Hz, single phase transformer draws a current of 0.5 amp at no-load. The
no-load current lags the applied voltage by an angle of 700. Calculate:
a) Iron loss of transfer
b) R0 and X0 parameters
Solution:
The phasor diagram at no-load is shown below:
Iron loss of transformer = power consumed at no-load =V1.I0 Cos0

Or Iron loss of transformer = 2200 ×0.5 × Cos700 = 376 watts
IW = I0 Cos0 = 0.5 × Cos700 = 0.171 amp
Iμ = I0 Sin0 = 0.5 × Sin700 = 0.469 amp
V1 2200
R0 = = = 12865 Ohms
I w 0.171
V1 2200
X0 = = = 4691 Ohms
I 0.469
10
A step-up single phase transformer supplies a current of 5 amp to the load at 200V at 0.8
lagging power factor. R1 = 0.5 ohm, X1 = 1 ohm, R2 = 2 ohm, X2 = 4 ohm, R0= 400 ohms, X0
= 240 ohms, turn ratio N2/N1 = 2. Find V1, I1 and input power factor.
Solution:
The equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown below:
~ ~
Let V be the reference phasor, i.e. V = 20000
2 2
~
I2 lags V2 by 2, where 2 = Cos-1(0.8) = 36.870  I 2 = 5 − 36.87
0
~ ~ ~
E = V + I .( R + jX ) = 20000 + (5-36.870).(2+j4)
2 2 2 2 2
~
OR E = 20000 + (5 - 36.870 ) (4.47263.430 ) = 220.22.60
2
11
~' ~ N
I = I  2 = 10 − 36.87 0
2 2 N
1
~ ~ N
E = E  1 = 110.12.6 0
1 2 N
2
~ ~ ~
And V = E + I ' .( R + jX ) = 1102.60 + (10 - 36.870 ).(0.5 + j1)
1 1 2 1 1
~
V = 120.294.70
1
~
~ V1 120.294.70 ~ V1 120.294.70
I = = = 0.501 − 85.30 IW = = = 0.34.70
X0 24090 0
R0 400
~ ~ ~
I = I + I = (0.34.70 ) + (0.501 - 85.30 ) = 0.5825 - 54.530
0 W 
~ ~ ~
I = I + I ' = ( 10 - 36.870 ) + (0.5825 - 54.530 ) = 10.548 - 37.530
1 0 2
~ ~
Phase Angle between V and I =  = 4.70 - (-37.530 ) = 42.230 I~ Lags V~ by 42.230
1 1 1 1 1
Hence, input power factor = Cos(42.230) = 0.74 lagging
12
Power Losses and Efficiency of Transformer:
- The input power of the transformer is equal to V1I1Cos1
- The output power is equal to V2I2Cos2.
- The output power of a transformer is always less than the
input power, because there are some power losses within
the transformer.
-There are mainly two types of power losses in the
transformer: i) Iron loss and ii) Copper loss.
i) Iron loss: This is the power loss due to heating of iron core of the transformer. This
power loss is equal to the no-load power loss and remains constant at any load. Therefore,
iron loss is also known as constant power loss. The power loss in the iron core take place
due to eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
Eddy current loss:

When the time varying magnetic flux circulates through the iron core, according to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf will also induce in the iron core. Because
of this emf induced in the iron core, current will circulate within the iron core and it is
known as eddy current. The eddy current produces heat in the iron core, which is
proportional to the square of the induced eddy current. The power loss due to heat produced
in the iron core due to eddy current is known as eddy current loss. In order to reduce eddy
current loss, the transformer core is made of laminated core rather than solid iron core.
13
Hysteresis loss:
Since the exciting current is alternating in nature, in every cycle of exciting current, the
magnetic core undergoes through the process of magnetic reversal thus by causing hysteresis
power loss in every cycle.
In order to reduce the hysteresis loss, silicon steel is used to make the core of the transformer.
About 0.3% to 4.5 % of silicon is mixed with the steel by weight, which helps to reduce
residual flux density and accordingly hysteresis loss will reduce.
Above 5% of silicon content, the resulting alloy will be very brittle and can not be punched.
The addition of silicon with steel increases the resistivity of steel. Hence, the use of silicon
steel also helps to reduce eddy current loss
ii) Copper loss: When the transformer is loaded, current flows through primary winding as
well as secondary winding. The internal resistance of the primary winding and the secondary
winding produces heat due to current flowing through them. The power loss due to the heat
so produced is known as copper loss. The magnitude of copper loss depends upon the square
of current and can be calculate as follow:
Total copper loss = Copper in PW + Copper in SW = I12 R1 + I22 R2 ( 2.21)
OR Total copper loss = = I12 R01 = I22 R02 (watts)
14
It is clear from the eqn (2.21) that the copper loss of the transformer varies with the load
current. Hence, it is also known as variable loss.
Input power is given by: Pin = V1I1Cos1
Output power: Pout = Pin – Iron loss – Copper loss = V1I1Cos1 – Wi – I12 R01
Pout Pout
Efficiency of transform er  = pu. Or η =  100 %
Pin Pin
V1.I1 Cos1 - Wi - I12 R01
OR η= (2.22)
V1.I1 Cos1
From the eqn (2.22), it is clear that the efficiency of transformer varies with the load
current. At no-load, output power is zero and input power is V1I0Cos0 = Wi. Hence, the
efficiency is zero at no-load. When the load goes on increasing, the output power goes on
increasing and efficiency also increases accordingly.
However, there is a limit on increasing the efficiency. At a particular value of load current,
the efficiency becomes maximum. Further increased in load beyond this value will cause
decrease in efficiency.
At which particular value of load current, the efficiency will be maximum can be
determined as follow:
15
V1.I1 Cos1 - Wi - I12 R01
η= (2.22)
V1.I1 Cos1
Equation (2.22) can be re-write as :
Wi I1 R01
η = 1− − Differentiating with respect to I1, gives:
V1 .I1 Cos1 V1 . Cos1
d Wi R01 d
= 0+ − Efficiency will be maximum, when =0
dI 1 V1 .I12 Cos1 V1 . Cos1 dI1
Wi R01 Wi R01
OR When − =0 OR When =
V1.I12 Cos1 V1. Cos1 V1.I12 Cos1 V1. Cos1
OR Wi = I12 R01 Wi
OR when I1 = (2.23)
R01
Wi
Hence, efficiency will be maximum at I1 = OR when Iron loss = Copper loss
R01
Fig.2.17 Variation of efficiency with load

16
Illustrative example 2.4:
A 110V/220Vstep-up single phase transformer has R1 = 0.05 ohm, X1 = 0.1 ohm, R2 = 0.1
ohm, X2 = 0.4 ohm, R0= 400 ohms, X0 = 240 ohms. Develop the equivalent circuit of the
transformer referred to primary side. If the load resistance is 10 ohm refer to secondary side,
calculate the efficiency of the transformer.
Solution:
The equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown below:
N V
Transforma tion ratio K = 2 = 2 =2
N V
1 1
R2, X2 and RL can be transferred to the primary side as follow:
R X R
0.1 2 = 0.4 = 0.1  R' = L = 10 = 2.5 
R' = 2 = = 0.025  X' = L
2 2 2 2
K 2 22 K 2 22
K 2
R = R + R' = 0.05 + 0.025 = 0.075  And X = X + X ' = 0.1 + 0.1 = 2 

01 1 2 01 1 2
17
Hence, the equivalent circuit referred to primary side can be written as follow:
' V' 110

Now, I = 2 = = 44 Amp
2 ' 2.5
R
L
Output Pow er P = V '  I ' = 110  44 = 4840 Watts
out 2 2
Iron loss = (IW)2 × R0 = (0.275)2 × 400 = 30.25 Watts
 Input power Pin = Pout + Copper loss + Iron loss = 4840 + 145 + 30.35 = 5015.25 W
Pout 4840
Hence efficiency  =  100 =  100 = 96.5%
Pin 5015.25
18
Lecture No.6
1
2.7 Voltage Regulation of Transformer:
-If the magnitude of output voltage of a transformer remains constant from no-load to full-
load, it would be a very good transformer.
- However, a real transformer can not give such performance. There will be some voltage drop
in the series impedance of primary winding and secondary winding. Therefore, the output
voltage at full-load will be less than that at no-load.
-If a transformer has a minimum voltage drop, the transformer is said to be a good transformer
from voltage drop point of view.
-The quality of a transformer from voltage drop point of view is measured in terms of voltage
regulation.
-The voltage regulation is defined as the “change in the magnitude of output voltage from full-
load to no-load, expressed as percentage of full load voltage”.
2
Let fV2 = Full load terminal voltage V2 − f V2
Then Voltage Regulatio n = VRe g = 0
(in pu)
0V2 = Full load terminal voltage f V2
A simplified expression for Voltage Regulation can be derived as follow:
Fig.2.18 Equivalent circuit of transformer Fig.2.19 Phasor diagram of transformer referred

referred to secondary side to secondary side with inductive load
Assuming (I1  I2’, which is true because I0’ is very small with compare to I2’ )
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
V + I .R + I X =V ' At no-load, I2 = 0,  0 V2 = V1’ = OC
2 2 02 2 02 1
In the phasor diagram, I2 is the load current, which lags fV2 by 2.
AB = Voltage drop in R02 = I2R02, which is in phase with I2

BC = Voltage drop in X02 = I2X02, which leads I2 by 900.
AC = Total voltage drop = Voltage drop in Z02 = I2Z02.
Arc – CNL is a part of the circle with radius = OC and centre at O.
3
Now, the no-load voltage can be expressed as:
OC = ON  OM = OA + AD + DM = OA + AD + BL
Or OC = OA + AD + BL
Or OC - OA = AD + BL (2.25)
From the right angle triangle ADB, AD = AB Cos2 = I2R02 Cos2

And from the right angle triangle BLC, BL = BC Sin2 = I2X02 Sin2
 From (2.25) OC - OA = I2R02 Cos2 + I2X02 Sin2

Or 0 V2 - fV2 = I2R02 Cos2 + I2X02 Sin2
V2 − f V2 I 2 R 02 Cos2 + I 2 X 02 Sin 2
 Voltage Regulatio n VRe g = 0
=
f V2 f V2
OR VRe g = (R pu ) Cos2 + (X pu )Sin 2 (2.6)
I 2 R 02
Where, R pu = = Per Unit resistance of transform er
V
f 2
I 2 X02
And X pu = = Per Unit reactance of transform er
V
f 2
Then Zpu = (R pu )2 + (X pu ) 2 = Per unit Impedance of the transform er
4
If the load power factor is leading, then the phasor diagram will be as shown in Fig.2.20.
Here, | 0V2 | = OC  OM = OA + AK – KM = OA + AK – BD
Or | 0V2 | = |fV2 | + I2R02. Cos2 - I2X02. Sin2
Or | 0V2 | - |fV2 | = I2R02. Cos2 - I2X02. Sin2
I 2 R 02 Cos2 − I 2 X 02 Sin 2
OR VRe g =
f V2
OR VRe g = (R pu ) Cos2 − (X pu )Sin 2 (2.27)

Fig.2.20 Phasor diagram of transformer referred
to secondary side with capacitive load
2.8 Capacity of a transformer :
Capacity of a transformer is defined as the maximum output in volt-amp that a transformer
can deliver to the load continuously without producing excessive heating and without
exceeding the specified voltage regulation. It depends upon the cross-sectional area of the
windings and physical dimension of the iron core. The winding with higher cross-sectional
area will have less resistance and higher current carrying capacity and accordingly it can
deliver more power to the load.
The capacity of a transformer is measured in Volt-Amp (VA) or KVA
If S is the capacity of a transformer as marked on its name plate,
Then S = V2 I2(FL) Volt-amp
Where, I2(FL) = Maximum current that the secondary winding can carry continuously without excessive
heating and without exceeding the specified voltage regulation.
5
If the load is purely resistive with unity power factor, then maximum power (in kW) that the transformer
can deliver to the load is P2 = V2 I2FL× Cos2 = 200 ×50×1 = 10 kW.
On the other hand, if the load is inductive with a power factor of 0.8 lag, then maximum power (in kW)
that the transformer can deliver to the load is P2 = V2 I2FL× Cos2 = 200 ×50×0.8 = 8 kW. If the capacity of
transformer is expressed in kW instead of kVA, the user will get confused. Hence, the capacity is expressed
in volt-amp rather than in kW.
A 40 kVA, 6600V/250V single phase transformer has R1 =8 ohm, X1 = 15 ohm, R2 = 0.02 ohm, X2 =
0.05 ohm. Calulate the voltage regulation at full load (a) with 0.8 lagging power factor and (b) with 0.8
leading power factor.
Solution:
I 2 R 02 Cos2 + I 2 X02 Sin 2
VRe g =
fV2
N V
Transforma tion ratio K = 2 = 2 = 0.0378
N V
1 1
R1 and X1 can be transferred to the secondary side as follow:
R ' = K 2  R = (0.0378) 2  8 = 0.0114  X ' = K 2  X = (0.0378) 2 15 = 0.0214 
1 1 1 1
Then, total series resistance and reactance of the transformer refer to secondary side is given by:
R02 = R2 + R1’ = 0.02 + 0.0114 = 0.0314 

X02 = X2 + X1’ = 0.05 + 0.0214 = 0.0714
6
Case-a: Fully loaded with 0.8 lagging power factor
Capacity (S) 40,000

Full load current I = = = 160 Amp
2 V 250
2
Here, Cos2 = 0.8 and 2= Cos-1(0.8) = 36.860 Sin2 = 0.6
I 2 R 02 Cos2 + I 2 X 02 Sin 2 160  0.0314  0.8 + 160  0.0714  0.6
VRe g = =
f V2 250
OR Vreg = 0.0436 Or 4.36 %
Case-b: Fully loaded with 0.8 leading power factor

I 2 R 02 Cos2 − I 2 X 02 Sin 2 160  0.0314  0.8 − 160  0.0714  0.6
VRe g = = = - 0.011pu = - 1.1%
f V2 250
2.9 Testing of Transformer :

In order to evaluate the performance such as efficiency and voltage regulation of a transformer, it is
not practical to test the transformer by direct load due to following problems:
• Large amount of energy has to be wasted in such a test
• It is not feasible to have a load large enough for direct loading in the lab.
Therefore, the performance of a transformer shall be computed from the knowledge of equivalent
circuit parameters. The equivalent circuit parameters can be calculated from the simple transformer
tests.
7
2.9.1 Polarity Test :
First of all, let us try to understand the meaning of polarity of a transformer. Let us consider two single phase
transformers as shown in Fig.2.21 The direction of secondary winding in the second transformer is opposite
to that of the secondary winding of the first transformer. Since, the emf induced in the secondary winding of
a transformer is alternating in nature, the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ becomes positive and negative alternately.
Fig.2.21 Polarity marking of transformer windings
8
The two terminals ‘a’ and ‘c’ are said to be have same polarity, if they acquire simultaneously
positive or negative polarity because of emf induced on them. In case of transformer-1, the
terminals ‘a’ and ‘c’ becomes positive simultaneously. Hence, terminals ‘a’ and ‘c’ are said to
have same polarity. Where as incase of transformer-2, terminals ‘c’ becomes negative while
terminal ‘a’ is positive. Hence, terminals ‘a’ and ‘c’ are said to have different polarity. Where
as, terminals ‘a’ and ‘d’ are said to have same polarity. These polarities are marked by dot
representation in Fig.2.21.
When there is a doubt on the winding polarity, it can be checked by a simple test called as
polarity test. In this test, two windings are connected in series across a voltmeter and one of
the winding is excited by a suitable voltage source as shown in Fig.2.22.
Fig.2.22 Polarity testing of transformer winding
If the polarities of windings are as shown in the Fig.2.22, the voltmeter will read V=E1-E2. If
the voltmeter reads E1+ E2, then it can be concluded that polarity of terminals ‘a’ and ‘c’ are
not same.
9
2.9.2 No-load Test (OR Open Circuit Test )
The purpose of this test is to evaluate the shunt branch parameters of the equivalent circuit, iron
loss of the transformer, no-load current and no-load power factor. In this test, the high voltage
winding is kept o pen and the low voltage winding is supplied by rated voltage as shown in
Fig.2.23.
Fig.2.23 shows the case for step up transformer
Let V1 = Voltmeter reading
I0 = Ammeter reading
W0 = wattmeter reading
As the no-load current is very small with compare to full
load current and the series resistance R1 and X1 are also Fig.2.23 Circuit diagram for open circuit test of transformer
very small, copper loss at no-load can be neglected.
Hence, the wattmeter reading is equal to the no-load
power loss or iron loss of the transformer. The equivalent
circuit at no-load is shown in Fig.2.24.
The wattmeter reading is equal to the power consumed by
the transformer at no-load and it is given by:
W0= V1 I0 Cos0, Where, Cos0 = no-load power factor.
Now the no-load power factor can be calculated as: Fig.2.24 Equivalent circuit of transformer refer to
primary side at no-load
W0 W 
Cos0 = and 0 = Cos-1  0  (2.27)
V1 I 0  V1 I 0 
10
As per equivalent circuit, the no-load current I0 flows through the
Shunt branch. No current flows through R01 and X01 series branch
as the load side is open.
The phasor diagram for no-load condition is shown below:
Then Iw and I can be calculate as:

Iw = I0 Cos0 and I = I0 Sin0
Then the shunt branch parameters can be calculated as:

V V
R0 = 1 (2.28) and X 0 = 1 (2.29) Fig.2.25 Phasor diagram for no-load condition
Iw I
If no-load test is to be carried out on step down transformer, then

the connection diagram will be as shown in Fig.2.26 and the
equivalent circuit will be as shown in Fig.2.27 which is refer to
secondary side. The procedure will almost same as follow:
W0= V2 I0’ Cos0, Where, Cos0 = no-load power factor.
Fig.2.26 Circuit diagram for open circuit test of step down
W0  W  transformer
Cos0 = and 0 = Cos-1  0 
V2 I 0'  V2 I 0 ' 
Iw’ = I0’Cos0 and Iμ’ = I0’ in0
V2 V2
Then R0 ' = and X 0 ' =
I w' I '
Fig.2.27
11
2.9.3 Short Circuit Test :
The purpose of this test is to evaluate the series resistance and reactance of the transformer and copper loss at
full load.
In this test, the low voltage side is short circuited by a thick wire and the high voltage side is supplied by
reduced low voltage of such a value, which is just sufficient to circulate full load currents at primary and
secondary windings.
Fig.2.28 shows the circuit diagram for short circuit test of a step down transformer.
Vsc shall increase gradually from zero until the ammeter

reads the full load primary current. The magnitude of Vscwill
be about 5% of the normal rated voltage.
Since the magnitude of applied voltage during the short
circuit test is very small and values of R0 and X0 are very
high, the magnitude of I0 and magnetic flux in the core will
be very small with compare to that in case of normal
operation and the iron core will not be saturated. Fig.2.28 Circuit diagram for short circuit test of
a step down transformer.
Therefore, the eddy current loss and hysteresis loss during
short circuit test will be very small with compare to copper
loss in the series resistance.
Hence, the wattmeter reading during short circuit test will be
equal to the copper loss at full load and it can be assumed
that the current Isc drawn by the transformer will not flow
through the shunt branch of the equivalent circuit, it flows
through the series resistance and reactance path. Hence, the Fig.2.29 Circuit diagram for short circuit test
equivalent circuit during the short circuit test can be
simplified as shown in Fig.2.29.
12
Since no current flows through the shunt branch, the
shunt branch can be neglected and the equivalent
circuit can be simplified as shown in Fig.2.30.
Let Vsc = Voltmeter reading

Isc = Ammeter reading
Wsc = wattmeter reading
Fig.2.30 Simplified equivalent circuit
Since wattmeter reads the total copper loss of the transformer for short circuit test
at full load, it can be written as:
Wsc
Wsc = Isc2 R01 Hence, R01 can be calculated as: R01 = 2 (2.30)
I sc
Vsc
The equivalent series impedance Z01 can be calculated as: Z 01 = (2.31)
I sc
Then X 01 = Z01
2
− R012 (2.32)
13
A 200 kVA, 2000V/440V, 50Hz single phase transformer gave the following test results:
No-load test (with HV side open) : 440V 1500 W 8A
Short circuit test ( LV side S/C) : 30V 2000 W 300 A
a) Calculate the equivalent circuit parameter referred to primary side
b) Calculate efficiency at full load with 0.8 lagging power factor
Solution:
From the no-load test data:
W0=V2 I0 Cos0= Iron loss, Where Cos0 = no-load power factor.
W0 1500
Cos0 = = 0.426 and 0 = Cos (0.426) = 64.78 Circuit diagram for no-load test
-1 0
=
V2 I 0 440  8
Iw’= I0’Cos0 = 8×0.426 =3.408 Amp
and I’ = I0’ Sin0 = 8×Sin(64.780) = 7.23 Amp
V2 440 V2 440
Then R0' = = = 129.1  and X '
0 = = = 60.85 
I w' 3.408 I ' 7.23
` Equivalent Circuit for no-load test
N
V
Transforma tion ratio K = 2 = 2 = 0.22
N V
1 1
R0' and X 0' can be transferr ed to primary side as follow :
R0' 129.1 X 0' 60.85

R0 = = = 2667.35  And X 0 = = = 1257.23 
2 2 K 2 (0.22) 2
K (0.22) Phasor diagram
14
Short circuit test :
Circuit diagram for short circuit test : Equivalent circuit for short circuit test :
Since wattmeter reads the total copper loss of the transformer at full load,
Wsc = Isc2 R01 Wsc 2000
Or R01 = 2
= = 0.022 
I sc (300) 2
Vsc 30
Z 01 = = = 0.1  Then X 01 = Z01
2
− R01
2
= (0.1) 2 - (0.022) 2 = 0.0975 
I sc 300
Hence, the equivalent circuit of the transformer refer to primary side is as follow:
15
Efficiency at full load with load pf = 0.8 lagging:
Output power at full load, Pout = 200 kVA × 0.8 (power factor) = 160 kW
Input power, Pin = Pout + copper loss at full load + iron loss
= 160kW + 2000 Watts + 1500 Watts = 163.5 kW
Pout 160
Hence , efficiency =  100 =  100 = 97.86%
Pin 163.5
2.10 Auto transformer:
Auto transformer is a transformer with only one

winding. A part of this winding is common to both
primary and secondary sides. Such a transformer is
particularly economical, when the transformation
ratio is very close to unity.
Fig.2.27 shows a single-phase auto transformer

having N1 turns across A-C. The input voltage V1 is
applied across the N1 turns and the output voltage is Fig.2.31 Auto transformer
tapped between B and C. N2 is the number of turns
in the section B-C.
16
Let I2 = Current drawn by the load
I1 = Current in primary side
Then the current through the section B-C is equal to (I1-I2)
Here, |I1| < |I2|, Therefore | I1-I2| will be negative.
| I1-I2| is going to be used to calculate weight of copper
winding used in the section B-C. Weight could not be
negative. Hence, the direction of (I1-I2) is made reverse in
Fig.2.32 to get positive value of (I2-I1).
Let us try to compare the weight of copper used in the auto-
transformer winding with the two winding transformer for
performing the same operation. Fig.2.32 Auto transformer
Weight of copper used in a winding Length of winding× Cross-sectional area of winding
Or Wt. of Cu  No of turns × Current ( because Area of conductor  current)
 Wt. of Cu used in section AB  (N1- N2) ×I1
And Wt. of Cu used in section DC  N2×(I2-I1)
Hence, Total weight of copper used in auto transformer
Wauto  (N1- N2) ×I1 + N2×(I2-I1)
If a two winding transformer were used to perform the same
duty as shown in Fig.2.33, then weight of copper used in
Fig.2.33 Two winding transformer
two winding transformer is given by:
17
W auto (N 1 - N 2 )I1 + N 2 ( I 2 - I1 ) N1I1 - N 2 I1 + N 2 I 2 - N 2 I1
 = =
Wtw ( N1I12 + N 2 I 2 ) ( N1I12 + N 2 I 2 )
2N 2
W auto N1I1 + N 2 I 2 - 2.N 2 I1 2.N 2 I1 W auto
= 1-
N1
Or = = 1- Or
N .I
Wtw ( N1I12 + N 2 I 2 ) ( N1I12 + N 2 I 2 ) Wtw 1+ 2 2
N1.I1
N2 I 1 W auto 2.K
( But = K and 2 = )  =1- = (1 − K )
N1 I1 K Wtw 2
Or Wauto = (1 – K) × Wtw (2.33)
V2 200
Case-I : If V1 = 220 V and V2 = 200V i.e. K= = = 0.909  1
V1 220
Then, Wauto = (1 – 0.909) × Wtw = 0.091 × Wtw
That means, weight of copper used in auto transformer is only 9.1 % of weight of copper used in the two
winding transformer. There is significant save in weight of copper.
V2 6
Case-II : If V1 = 220 V and V2 = 6 V ( i.e. K = = = 0.0272 not  1 )
V1 220
Then, Wauto = (1 – 0.0272) × Wtw = 0.9727 × Wtw
That means, weight of copper used in auto transformer is only 97.27% of weight of copper used in the two
winding transformer. (No significant saving)
Hence, the saving in weight of copper used in the auto-transformer is only significant when the
transformation ratio is nearly equal to unity.
18
Lecture No.7
1
2.11 Instrument Transformers
Instrument transformers are special purpose transformer designed with highly accurate transformation ratio
so it can be used in instrumentation and protection relay scheme. There are two types of instrument
transformers:
i) Current transformer (CT)
ii) Potential transformer (PT)
2.11.1 Current Transformer (CT)

It is a transformer designed to sense high current through primary winding and steps down the current to
lower value with a accurate known ratio. Fig.2.29 shows the connection of a CT to measure higher value of
load current with the help of low range ammeter.
The primary winding of CT is connected in series with the

current to be measured rather than connecting across the
supply voltage V1, so that the primary winding senses the
load current. As the primary winding of CT has to carry
high current and voltage drop across it is very small, it is
made of thick wire with few turns. Whereas, the secondary Fig.2.29 Connection of current transformer
winding of CT has to carry low value of current and
voltage drop across it is comparatively higher than that
across the primary winding, the secondary winding is made
of thin wire with many numbers of turns.
In some cases, the main primary line acts as the single turn
of CT primary winding and the ring type core will have Fig.2.30 Ring type CT
only the secondary winding as shown in Fig.2.30.
2
Let I1 = High current through the primary winding of CT
I2 = Secondary current through the ammeter
N1 = Numbers of turns in the primary winding of CT
N2 = Numbers of turns in the secondary winding of CT
Then, transformation ratio is given by:
N2 I
K= = 1 Or I1 = K. I2 (2.34)
N1 I2
Hence, by measuring I2 by low range ammeter, I1 can be estimated by using eqn (2.34). The primary
winding of normal two winding transformer is exited by a constant voltage source V1 and the no-load
current I0 remains constant and accordingly the magnetic flux in the core remains constant from no-load
to full load. Whereas incase of CT, the primary winding is excited by load current, which varies with the
system load. When the system load current I1 increases, the magnetic flux produced by the primary
winding of CT increases and at the same time, secondary current I2 also increases. Therefore, magnetic
flux produced by secondary winding also increases, which cancels the magnetic flux due to increase in
I1. Hence, the net magnetic flux in the core remains constant.
However, if the ammeter is removed with primary winding of CT excited, I2 will be zero and secondary
winding of CT can not produced opposing magnetic flux to cancel increased magnetic flux due to I1. In
such a case, the net magnetic flux will be very high thus by resulting high iron loss and high induced emf
in the primary and secondary windings of CT. The high emf induced in the windings will damage the
insulation of the winding and high iron loss will over heat the windings. Hence, the secondary winding
of CT never shall keep open with primary winding excited. If the ammeter is to be removed for repair
and maintenance purpose, the secondary winding shall be short circuited by a thick wire.
3
2.11.2 Potential Transformer (PT)
The basic construction and operating principle of potential

transformer (PT) is similar to that of a normal two winding
transformer. But PT is designed and manufactured with
highly accurate transformation ratio so that it is suitable for
measurement purpose. PT is used to measure high voltage
with help of low range voltmeter as shown in Fig.2.31.
N V
Transforma tion ratio K = 2 = 2
N V Fig.2.31 Connection diagram of PT
1 1
It will be known value for a potential transformer
Here, V1 is the system voltage of high voltage circuit whose value is to be measured.
If V2 is the reading of low range voltmeter connected across the secondary winding of PT,
then the value of V1 can be estimated as:
V
V = 2 (2.35)
1 K
4
2.12 Three Phase Transformer
Large scale generation of electric power is usually three phase for the sake of better
efficiency and economy.
If the generated power is to be transmitted to a load center through a long route, the
transmission is done at higher voltage in order to reduce the power loss and voltage drop in
the line. Therefore, three-phase step up transformer is necessary at sending end of the line. At
the receiving end of the line, the voltage is again step down to a lower value suitable for
consumers. Therefore, three-phase step down transformer is required at the receiving end of
the line.
In the earlier days, three units of single phase transformers were used to step up or step down
the three-phase voltage. Later on, three-phase transformer was introduced to overcome the
disadvantages of using single phase transformer for three phase system.
2.12.1 Three units of single transformers used for three-phase system :

Three units of single phase transformers can be interconnected to step up or step down the three phase
voltage as shown in Fig.2.32.
5
Polarity of the each transformer has to be
taken care while connecting three units of
single phase transformers to step up or step
down the three-phase voltage.
The starting end of primary of Tr-1 shall be

connected to R1 of primary supply voltage,
the starting end of primary of Tr-2 shall be
connected to Y1 of primary supply voltage
and the starting end of primary of Tr-3 shall
be connected to B1 of primary supply
voltage.
The finishing ends of Tr-1, Tr-2 and Tr-3

shall be connected together to neutral of
primary supply. Similar connections shall be Fig.2.32 Three units of single phase transformers
made to get three phase output voltage. used for three phase system
6
Disadvantages of this system are:
• This system is more expensive than a single unit of three phase transformer
of equivalent capacity.
• This system is less efficient than a single unit of three phase transformer of
equivalent capacity.
• This system is occupies more space than a single unit of three phase transformer
of equivalent capacity.
Some advantages of this system are:

•Where single unit of three phase transformer is very large for transportation to the
site in the hilly region, three units of single phase transformer would be easier for
transportation.
•If it is required to have a stand by unit for better reliability of supply continuity
during the maintenance period, only one unit of single phase transformer can be
installed as a spare unit. Whereas in case of three phase transformer, the whole three
phase unit has to be installed as spare unit. Hence, the investment on spare will be
less in this system.
7
2.12.2 Evolution of Three Phase Transformers :
Let us consider three units of single phase transformers used for three phase system as shown in
Fig.2.33. Here, the iron core of three units are kept close together and only primary windings are shown
for simplicity.
Let R, Y and B be the instantaneous values of

magnetic flux produced in the core by R, Y and B
phase windings respectively. These flux can be
described mathematically as follow:
R = m Sint
Y = m Sin(t-1200) (2.36)
B = m Sin(t-240 ) = m Sin(t+1200)
0
The total flux through the common central part core

is the phasor sum of R, Y and B and is given by: Fig.2.33 Three units of single transformers
used as three phase transformer
T = m Sint + m Sin(t-1200) + m Sin(t+1200)
or T = m Sint + m [Sint.Cos1200 - Cost. sin1200+ Sint.Cos1200 + Cost. sin1200 )
or T = m Sint + 2 m Sint.Cos1200 = m Sint + 2 m Sint.(-0.5) = 0
Therefore, no magnetic flux will pass through the common central part core. Hence, the core for three
phase transformer can be made by removing the common central part core as shown in Fig.2.34. The
volume of iron core in this type of core is only about 67 % of the volume of iron core used in three units of
single phase transformer and accordingly the iron loss of the transformer will be less.
8
Fig.2.34 Cross-sectional view of three phase transformer core and windings
R = m Sint
Y = m Sin(t-1200)
B = m Sin(t-2400) = m Sin(t+1200)
At t = 900, R = m , Y = m Sin(900-1200) = -0.5 m , and B = m Sin(900-2400) = -0.5 m
Therefore, magnetic flux in the central core will be ϕR = ϕm up-ward and magnetic flux in the other
two side core will be ϕY =0 .5ϕm and ϕB =0 .5ϕm downward. In this way total flux through the
central core gets return paths through other two side core.
9
2.12.23 Three Phase Transformer Connections :
A three phase transformer has three sets of winding in primary side and another three sets of windings in
secondary side. These six sets of winding can be connected to give various configurations of three phase
transformer connections.
i) Star / Star (Y / Y ) connection:
In star connections of three phase

windings, finishing ends of all the
phase coils are connected together to
form a Neutral point.
In this Y-Y connection, both primary

windings and secondary windings are
star connected as shown in Fig.2.35(a)
In this connection, a phase coil is under
the pressure of 1 / 3 times of system
line voltage, but line current and
phase current is same. The insulation
a phase winding has to be designed to
withstand the voltage across the
winding. Since the voltage across the
phase winding is only 1 / 3 times of
system line voltage, star connection is
economical for high system voltage. Fig.2.35. Star /Star Connection of three phase transformer
10
The cross-sectional area of the winding depends upon the phase current. Hence, a Star /
Star connection is most economical for low capacity high voltage transformer.
If the primary R-phase phasor and secondary R-phase phasor are compared with the
longer arm and shorter arm of a clock, the above phasor diagram corrdponds to zero hour
in the clock. Hence, this connection is named as Y-y0 phasor group.
11
ii) Delta / Delta (∆ / ∆ ) connection:
This is the connection with Delta (∆)

connection on primary side and secondary
side as shown in Fig.2.38. In delta
connection, the finishing end of a phase
coil is connected to the starting end of the
second phase coil and so on forming a
closed delta path.
In this connection, a phase coil is under the

pressure of full supply line voltage, but
phase current is 1 / 3 Times of the line
current. Hence, Delta / Delta connection is
most economical for large capacity low
voltage transformer. There is no phase
displacement between respective phasors
of primary and secondary phase voltages.
Hence, this connection is named as Dd0
phasor group.
Fig.2.37. Delta/Delta Connection of three phase transformer
12
iii) Star / Delta (Y / ∆ ) connection:
Since Star connection is suitable for

High Voltage and Low Current and
Delta winding is suitable for Low
Voltage and High Current, Star/ Delta
connection is most suitable for
stepping down the voltage at the
receiving end of a transmission line.
There is a phase shift of -300 between

the primary and secondary phase
voltages as shown in Fig.2.38(c),
which corresponds to one O clock in
the watch. Hence, this connection is
named as Yd1 phasor group.
Fig.2.38. Star / Delta Connection of three phase transformer
13
iv) Delta / Star (∆ / Y ) connection:
Since Star connection is suitable for

High Voltage and Low Current and
Delta winding is suitable for Low
Voltage and High Current, Delta/Star
connection is most suitable for
stepping up the voltage at the sending
end of a transmission line.
This connection is also suitable for
distribution transformer at the
consumer end, where 3 phase 4-wire
system with earthed neutral is
necessary to supply single phase as
well as three phase loads. (i.e.: 11kV
/400 V distribution transformer.
There is a phase shift of +300 between
the primary and secondary phase
voltages as shown in Fig.2.39 (c).
Hence, this connection is named as Fig.2.39. Delta/Star Connection of three phase transformer
Dy11 phasor group.
14
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 11kV/400V Delta/Star transformer has balanced star-connected load of 90 kW at 0.8
lagging power factor. Calculate: secondary line current, primary phase current and primary line current
in the following two cases:
Case-I : Transformer is ideal without any power loss
Case-II : Efficiency = 96%
Solution:
Given: VL1 = VP1 =11 kV, VL2 = 400V,

Load = 90 kW, Load pf = 0.8 lagging
V 400
V = L2 = = 230.9 V
P2 3 3
Case-I : Transformer is ideal without any power loss:
90,000
Output power = 3.VL2 . I L2 .Cos2 Or I L2 = = 162.38 Amp = Secondary line current = I P2
3  400  0.8
Since, there is no power loss, Input power = output power
 Input Powe r = 3.VL1. I L1.Cos1 = 90,000watts

90,000
Assuming input power Cos1 = 0.8 lagging I L1 = = 5.9 Amp
3  11000  0.8
I L1
Then, I P1 = = 3.406 Amp
3
This problem also can be solved by following alternative method:
15
Alternative method:
VP1×IP1 = VP2×IP2 (per phase power balance )
VP2  I P2 230.9  162.38
OR I P1 = = = 3.406 Amp
V P1 11000
Then, I L1 = 3  I P1 = 5.9 Amp
Case-II : Efficiency = 96% :

Output power
Efficiency = = 0.96
Input Powe r
Output power
OR, Input power = = 93750 watts
0.96
Secondary line current is same as case-I: IL2 = IP2 = 162.38 A
Input power = 3.VL1. I L1.Cos1 = 93750 watts
93,750
 I L1 = = 6.15 Amp
3  1100  0.8
I L1
Then, I P1 = = 3.55 Amp
3
16
Lecture No.8
1
2.13 Parallel Operation of Transformers
If the capacity of a transformer is not enough to supply the power demanded by the load,
then a second transformer can be connected in parallel to fulfill the power demanded by the
load. However, some conditions has to be satisfied for connecting them in parallel. Before
connecting two transformers in parallel, following conditions have to be practically checked.
2.13.1 Parallel Operation of Single Phase Transformers

Followings are the conditions to be satisfied for operating two single phase transformers in
parallel.
1) The primary windings of the both transformer should be suitable for supply system
voltage and frequency.
2) The transformation ratio of both transformers should be same.
3) The transformers should be properly connected with regard to the polarity.
4) The percentage impedance of the both transformers should be equal.
2
Fig.2.40(a) shows the parallel connection of two single phase
transformers.
-The condition (1) is very obvious that the primary winding of
both transformers should be suitable for supply voltage
magnitude V1 and Frequency f.
- If the condition (2) is not satisfied, then the magnitude of
output voltage of both the transformers will not be equal. If two
secondary windings, with unequal voltage magnitude, are
connected in parallel, then current will circulate within the two Fig.2.40(a) Parallel connection of two
sources rather than supplying current to the load. single phase transformers.
The condition (3) is also very essential; otherwise there will be
again circulation current from one transformer to second
transformer.
-Fig.2.40(b) shows the parallel connection of two transformer
with opposite polarities and Fig.2.40(c) shows the waveforms of
output voltage of Tr-A and Tr-B.
Fig.2.40(b) Parallel connection of two

single phase transformers of opposite polarities
Fig.2.40(b) Potential of point A21 always not equal to Potential of point A22
except at zero crossing points.
3
The condition (4) is essential, otherwise the two transformers will not share the load according to their
capacity. This fact can be understood as follow:
Fig.2.41 Equivalent circuit for parallel connection of two single phase transformers.
Let IA = Current delivered by transformer-A, IB = Current delivered by transformer-B

IL = Total current delivered to the load
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Here, I = I + I And I Z =I Z Solving these equations gives:
L A B A 02A B 02 B
~ ~ Z ~ ~ Z
I =I 02 B (2.37) And I = I 02 A (2.38)
A LZ +Z B LZ +Z
02A 02B 02A 02B
If TR-A and TR-B are of same capacity and their percentage impedance are equal,
then Z02A = Z02B and IA = IB. That means, both transformers share the load equally.
If capacity of TR-A > capacity of TR-B and their percentage impedance are equal, then
|Z02A| < |Z02B| and IA >IB accordingly. That means, TR-A shares more load according its capacity.
4
2.13.2 Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformers
All the conditions, required for parallel operation of single phase transformers, are also required for parallel
operation of three phase transformers. However, followings additional conditions also has to be satisfied.
i) The voltage ratio must be same with referred to the line voltage.
ii) The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages must be same for both transformers.
iii) The phase sequence of both transformers should be same.
Two single phase transformers Tr-A and Tr-B rated each as 250 kVA, 400V/11kV are operated in parallel.
The per unit impedances of Tr-A and Tr-B are (1+j6) and (1.2+j4.8) respectively. Compute the load shared
by each when the total load is 500 kVA at 0.8 lagging power factor.
Solution :
The two transformer shares the load according to following equations:
~ ~ Z ~ ~ Z
I =I
A L Z +Z
B And I =I
B L Z +Z
A Here, ZA = 1+j6 = 6.08280.5370 and ZB = 1.2 +j4.8 = 4.9 75.960
A B A B
ZA + ZB = 2.2 + j10.8 = 11.0278.480 500 kVA×1000 = 11kV × 1000×IL  IL = 45.45 Amp
~ 0
Load power factor Cos = 0.8, Or  = Cos-1(0.8) = 36.870 Hence, IL = 45.45 - 36.87
~ ~ Z 4.975.96 0
 I =I B = (45.45 - 36.87 0 )  = 20.21 - 39.39 0
A L Z +Z 0
A B 11.0278.48 ~
Let V = 11kV0 0
~ ~ Z
A 0 6.082 80.9537 0 0 L
And I = I = (45.45 - 36.87 )  = 25.08 - 34.4
B L Z +Z
A B 11.02 78.48 0
~ ~
Load shared by Tr - A = V  I = ( 11kV00 )  (20.21 − 39.39 0 ) = 222.31  - 39.390 kVA
L A
~ ~
Load shared by Tr - B = V  I = ( 11kV00 )  (25.08 − 34.39 0 ) = 275.88 34.39 0 kVA
L B 5
Exciting Current Harmonics OR (Nature of No-Load current I0):
It was observed in an oscilloscope that the waveform of no-load primary current (I0) of a transformer is
not sine wave. That means the no-load current (I0) has fundamental component as well as higher
frequency Harmonic Component. The waveform of I0 becomes non-sinusoidal due to magnetic hysteresis
and magnetic saturation in the iron core. This fact can be seen graphically as shown in Fig.2.43.
Fig.2.43 shows that the waveform of magnetic

flux (ϕ) in the core of a transformer lags the emf e1
by 900.
The waveform of the no-load current (i0) required
to set up the sinu-soidal magnetic flux can be
obtained graphically by mapping with
corresponding hysteresis loop (or ϕ- i0 curve).
Let assume that the hysteresis loop repeats every
one cycle of emf (e1)
Fig.2.43 Effect of magnetic hysteresis and saturation
on waveform of no-load current
Consider the instant when magnetic flux has a value of –ϕ1and corresponding exciting current is zero. Here, -ϕ1
is the residual flux in negative direction.
In order to neutralize this residual flux, i01 amount of positive current has to be expended.
When the magnetic flux increases to ϕ2, the corresponding current is i02(at pont-a).
When the current increases to i0max , the magnetic flux increases to + ϕ max.
Now the ac current (i0) naturally decreases after reaching its peak value and accordingly the magnetic flux
decreases along decreasing path as shown in the hysteresis loop. 6
When magnetic flux decreases to ϕ2, the
corresponding current is i03(at pont-b). Here it
shall be noted that | i02|>| i03| for same value of ϕ2.
Hence, the waveform of i0 shown by dotted and
will not be sine wave.
When the current decreases to zero, magnetic
will have some positive value of ϕ1 and so on.
Transformer Inrush current:

When normal rated voltage is switched on to the primary winding of a transformer without
load on the secondary side, the primary winding draws very high current for few cycles and
decreases to normal no-load current after few cycle. This high current at starting is known as
transformer inrush current.
7
In an ideal transformer, both V1 and ϕ are sinusoidal and ϕ lags V1 by 900 as shown in Fig.2.44(a) and
corresponding ϕ - i0 relationship is shown in Fig.2.44(b) for steady state operation.
In an ideal transformer, at steady state operation,

both V1 and ϕ are sinusoidal and ϕ lags V1 by 900 as
shown in Fig.2.44(a) and corresponding ϕ - i0
relationship is shown in Fig.2.44(b) for steady state
operation.
When normal rated voltage is switched on to the

primary winding of a transformer, the core flux and
corresponding exciting current undergoes a
transient before reaching steady state normal
operation. The duration of such switching transient
depends on the instant at which the V1 is switched
ON. The worst situation is that when V1 is switched
at an instant when V1 is equal to zero as shown in
Fig.2.44(c).
When V1 is switched On i0 current builds up from

zero through the primary winding. Therefore, the
core flux also builds up from zero as shown in
Fig.2.44(c). If there were no switching transient
(that means to reach steady state condition
Fig.2.44 Illustration of transformer inrush current
immediately after switching on of V1 in zero
second),then core flux should be –ϕm, which is not
physically possible.
8
Hence at starting core flux builds up from zero as
indicated by hatched curve in Fig.2.44(c). Therefore
the magnitude of core flux gets double as shown in
Fig.2.44(c). In order produce double core flux, the
primary winding will draw high current. Therefore the
peak value of flux increases to 2 ϕm in the hysteresis
loop as shown in Fig.2.22(d).
In fact, a transient flux (ϕt= ϕm) will produce in the

core to make initial flux = –ϕm +ϕt = 0. The transient
flux (ϕt) decays according to time constant of the
primary winding and become zero after few cycles and
net flux in the core becomes ϕss.
It was found from the experiment that the starting

inrush current is 50 to 100 time higher than the normal
steady state no-load current.
If there is some residual magnetic flux in the core

at the instant of switching, the situation will be as
shown in Fig.2.44(e) and (f). The magnitude of
inrush current will be higher than the ideal case by
ϕr, where is ϕr the residual magnetic flux.
9
Since the total core flux immediately after the switching is unidirectional, the transformer
inrush current also will be unidirectional as shown in Fig.2.45. The flux become alternating
when steady state condition is reached.
Fig.2.45 Typical Plot of transformer inrush current
10
V/V (Or open delta connection) of three phase transformer :
Fig.2.46 shows the Delta / Delta three phase transformer.
Fig.2.46 Connection diagram and circuit diagram of Delta/ Delta three phase transformer.
If a phase winding (say B1-B1’) in primary side and corresponding winding B2-B2’ are
disconnected and still 3-phase voltage is supplied to primary side, the secondary side still
gives 3-phase voltage output. Such connection is known as Open Delta (or V/V) connection.
Fig.2.47 shows such connection.
11
Let IP2 = Rated full load current of a secondary phase coil = secondary line current open delta connection.
The maximum power that the open delta connection can handle is given by:
P = 3. V . I
open L2 P2
The maximum power that the closed delta connection can handle is given by:
P
P = 3. V . I open 3. V .I
L2 P2 = 3
 P2 P2  = = 0.577
P 3. V . I 3
 P2 P2
Hence, a open delta 3-phase transformer can handle only 57.7 % of the full load capacity of the 3-phase
close delta transformer.
12
Chapter –3 ( DC Generator)
Lecture No.9
1
Chapter –3 ( DC Generator )
3.1 Introduction
DC machine is a rotating electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and
vice versa. It generates electrical energy in DC system or it converts the electrical energy in DC system into
the mechanical energy in the form of rotation. A dc machine can be used as generator as well as motor.
3.2 Basic constructional details of DC machine

Fig.3.1 shows a cut-way view of a dc machine. The
various parts of the machine are described below:
Yoke: It is the outermost frame of the machine. It

provides mechanical support to the field pole and also
acts as protecting cover for the whole machine. It also
carries the magnetic flux produced by the field poles. For
small machines, cheapness is more important than the
efficiency of the machine. Hence, for the sake of
cheapness, yoke is usually made of cast iron in small
machine. Whereas, in case of large machine, efficiency
is more concerns. Hence, yoke of the large machine is
made of cast steel or rolled steel having higher value of
permeability.
Fig.3.1 Cut-way view of a dc machine.
2
Field poles: Field poles are the iron core projected

from the yoke as shown in Fig.3.2. The upper part of
the pole, which is connected to the yoke, is known as
pole-core. The lower and wider part is known as pole-
shoe. The combination of many pole shoes surface
forms a circular gap at the centre of the machine. The
field poles are generally made of laminated annealed
steel sheet.
Fig.3.2 Cross-sectional view of
field poles of DC machine
Field windings: It is the copper wire wound on the

field pole as shown in Fig.3.3. The windings are
insulated from the core and each turns of windings are
also insulated from each other to protect from turn to
turn short circuit. Enamel insulated copper wire is used
for this purpose. When DC current is passed through
these windings, the pole core gets magnetized and
produces magnetic flux in the central space of the
machine.
Fig.3.3 Detail of field pole
3
Fig.3.4 Armature core Fig.3.5 A typical lamination of armature core
Armature: It is the rotating part of the machine. The various parts of an armature are shaft, armature
core, armature winding and commutator. Fig.3.4 shows an armature core with shaft. The bearings at both
ends hold the shaft on the central empty space of the machine. The armature core is made of laminated
silicon steel sheet insulated with varnish. A typical lamination of armature core is shown in Fig.3.5.
Commutator: It is another cylinder fitted on the shaft little

away from the armature core. It is made of many numbers
of copper segments (Known as commutator segments)
insulated from each other and from the shaft. A cross-
sectional view of a commutator is shown in Fig.3.6. The
slots of the armature core are provided with armature
winding with many numbers of turns. The armature
windings are made of enamel insulated copper wire. The
coil ends of the armature windings are connected to each
segments through the riser. Fig.3.7 shows a complete
armature of DC machine. Fig.3.6 Detail of commutator
4
Fig.3.7 A complete armature of DC machine.
Armature Winding:
It is enamel insulated copper wire wound on the slots of the armature core. There are definite rules and
methods for armature winding. Followings are some technical terms related to armature winding.
i) Pole pitch : It is defined as the peripheral distance of armature core divided by number of poles OR it the
distance between adjacent poles. Fig.3.8 shows the illustration of definition of pole pitch for 4-pole machine
and 2-pole machine. The arc length a-b is the pole pitch.
(a) Four pole machine (b) Two pole machine

Fig.3.8 Illustration of pole pitch
5
ii) Conductor: The length of the armature winding conductor lying within the magnetic field
is known as the conductor. Fig.3.9 shows a coil ABCD. The length AB and CD are known as
conductor. The length BC is not considered as a conductor because emf will not induce in this
part of the coil.
Fig.3.9 Illustration of a coil Fig.3.10 Illustration of a coil span
iii) Coil Span: It defined as the distance (in terms of number of teeth) between two sides of
a coil. Coil span is 5 in the Fig.3.10.
iv) Types of armature winding:

• Lap winding
•Wave winding
6
Fig.3.10(a)
Fig.3.10(b)
Fig.3.10(a) shows an example of lap winding. Here, the finishing end of first coil (F1) is connected to the
starting end of the second coil (S2) under the same pole as that of the starting end S1 of the first coil. The
common joint point of F1 and S2 is connected to the commutator segment-2.
Fig.3.10(b) shows an example of wave winding. Here, the finishing end of first coil (F1) is connected to
the starting end of the 10th coil (S10 in this particular example) under the similar pole, but one pole away.
The common joint point of F1 and S10 is connected to the commutator segment-10.
Back Pitch (YB) : It is the distance (in terms of no of armature slots) by which a coil advances on the
back and it is denoted by YB.
Front Pitch (YF) : It is the distance (in terms of no of armature slots) by which a coil spans on the back
and it is denoted by YY.
Resultant Pitch (YR) : It is the distance (in terms of no of armature slots) between the starting end of a
coil and starting end of the next coil to which it is connected. and it is denoted by YY.
YR = YB – YF for lap winding
YR = YB +YF for wave winding
7
An Example of Lap Winding:
Number of slots = 12, Number of poles = 2, Number of commutator segments=12
No of slots 12 That means number of teeth between two sides of a coil = 6.

Coil Span = = = 6
No of poles 2 Therefore, a coil started from slot no-1 shall come back through the
slot no-7. The winding diagram is shown in Fig.3.11.
Fig.3.11 Winding diagram of Lap winding
Note that: No of parallel path in the armature winding =2

Incase of Lap winding, the number of parallel path = Number of field poles.
Incase of Wave winding, , the number of parallel path = 2 (irrespective of no of poles)
8
3.3 Operating principle of DC generator
The operating principle of DC generator is

based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Let us consider a 2-pole
elementary DC machine as shown in
Fig.3.12.
When the field winding is excited by DC
current ( If ), the field poles get
magnetized and magnetic flux flows as
shown in Fig.3.8. If the armature is
Fig.3.12 Elementary 2-pole DC machine
rotated continuously by some prime
mover, then the armature conductors a
and a’ continuously cut the magnetic
flux. Hence, according to Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction emf will
induce in the armature conductors. The
nature of emf induced in the armature
conductors can be studied with the help
of Fig.3.13
9
Fig.3.13(a) shows a particular position of armature coil, the
direction of velocity of conductor ‘a’ is same as direction of
magnetic flux density ‘B’. That means: angle between direction
of v and the direction of B is zero. The magnitude of emf
induced in a conductor is given by:
e = B.l.v sin (3.1)
Where, B = Magnetic flux density in the air gap
l = Length of the conductor lying within the magnetic field.
v = Velocity of the conductor
 = Angle between directions of B and v
At this particular instant shown in Fig.3.13(a), the angle  = 00.
Therefore, emf induce is zero. Let us assume this position as
reference position to compare the magnitude and direction of
emf induced at various positions of the armature.
After 300 rotation from this reference position, the situation
will be as shown in Fig.3.13(b). The magnitude of emf
induced across the armature coil a-a’ is given by:
e = 2B.l.v sin = 2B.l.v sin300 = (0.5) 2B.l.v = 0.5 Em
Where, Em = 2B.l.v
Here, the total emf induce across the armature coil is sum of the
emf induced in conductor a and conductor a’. Hence, number ‘2’
appears in the above emf equation. The direction of emf induce in
this position can be determined by Fleming’s right hand rule and
it is shown in Fig.3.13(b). The cross mark ( × ) indicates the
current flowing into the plane of paper and the dot ( • ) indicates Fig.3.13 Magnitude and direction of emf at various
the current coming out from the plane of paper. positions of armature.
10
After 900 rotation from this reference position, the situation
will be as shown in Fig.3.13(c). The magnitude of emf
induced across the armature coil a-a’ is given by:
e = 2B.l.v sin = 2B.l.v sin900 = 2B.l.v = Em
The direction of induced emf is shown in Fig.3.13(c), which is

same as in case of  = 300.
Fig.3.13(d) shows the situation for  = 1350. The magnitude
of emf induced across the coil a-a’ is given by:
e = 2B.l.v sin = 2B.l.v sin1350 = 0.707Em
Fig.3.13(e) shows the situation for  = 1800. The magnitude
e = 2B.l.v sin = 2B.l.v sin1800 = 0
Fig.3.13(f) shows the situation for  = 2100. The magnitude
e = 2B.l.v sin = 2B.l.v sin2100 = -0.5Em

Here, the direction of emf induced has reversed as determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.
Here, it shall be noted that the direction of emf induce reverses after 1800 rotation.
Similarly, the magnitude and direction of emf induced at various positions of armature can be
evaluated and the results are tabulated in Table3.1.
11
Table 3.1 Magnitude and direction of emf at various positions of armature.
Position of armature Magnitude of emf Direction of emf
() (e)
00 0
300 0.5 Em positive
900 Em positive
1350 0.707 Em
1800 0
2100 -0.5 Em Negative
2700 - Em Negative
3600 0
If these data are plotted in a graph paper, it will be a sine-wave as shown in Fig.3.14.
Fig.3.14 Waveform of emf induced in the armature coil.
12
From the above analysis, it is clear that the nature of emf induced in the armature coil is alternating in
nature. However, the generator is supposed to supply DC voltage across the external load. The commutator
segments and the carbon brushes helps to convert the AC voltage generated in the armature coil into the
unidirectional DC voltage across the load. The commutator segments and the carbon brushes also helps to
connect the stationary external load and the rotating armature coil. How the commutator segments and the
carbon brushes perform these two actions can be explained with the help of Fig.3.15.
Fig.3.15 DC machine with commutator segments and carbon brushes

Fig.3.15 shows the DC generator with commutator segments and carbon brushes. The conductor-a is
connected to the commutator segment-y and the conductor-a’ is connected to the commutator segment-
x. The commutator segments rotates along with the armature coil. Whereas, the carbon brushes C1 and
C2 are fixed touching over the commutator segments surface.
13
Fig.3.15(a) shows an instant at which emf induced in the coil is positive. Here, the current comes out
from the conductor-a’ which is connected to the commutator segment-x and delivers current to the
load through the carbon brush-C1. The current comes back to the commutator segment-y through the
carbon brush-C2. Hence, the direction of current through the load is M to N for positive half cycle of
emf in the coil.
Fig.3.15(b) shows an instant at which emf induced in the coil is negative. Here, the current
comes out from the conductor-a, which is connected to the commutator segment-y and delivers
current to the load through the carbon brush-C2. The current comes back to the commutator
segment-x through the carbon brush-C1. Hence, the direction of current through the load is again
M to N for negative half cycle of emf in the coil. Therefore, emf across the external load in one
revolution of armature will be as shown in Fig.3.16.
14
Fig.3.16 Waveform of emf across the external load
If two number of armature coils spaced 900 apart are used as shown in Fig.3.17(a), then two cycles of emf will
be generated across the each armature coil and emf across the external load will be as shown in Fig.3.17(b)
which is more smooth than that in case of DC machine with single armature coil. In fact, there will be many
numbers of armature coils in a real DC generator and the nature of emf across the external load will be almost
a horizontal line.
Fig.3.17 DC generator with 2 numbers of armature coils
15
EMF Equation:
Let  = Magnetic flux per pole (Wb)

P = Number of magnetic pole
Z = Total number of armature conductor
N = Speed of the armature (RPM)
d
Average value of emf induced in a conductor =
dt
Magnetic flux cut by each conductor in one revolution d= P.
60
Time for one revolution = dt = Sec
N
d P.. N
 Average value of emf induced in a conductor = = Volt
dt 60
Let A = number of parallel paths in the armature winding.
P.. N Z
Therefore , Total emf across the carbon brushes = E = 
60 A
Z. N P
OR E =  (Volts) (3.2)
60 A
16
Chapter –3 ( DC Generator)
Lecture No.10
1
3.4 Types of DC generator:

The field winding of a DC generator has to be supplied by DC current in order to produced magnetic field.
The supply of DC current to the field winding is known as “excitation”. The excitation can be provided by
various ways and accordingly DC generators are classified as follow:
a) Separately excited DC generator
b) Self-excited DC generator
a) Separately excited DC generator:

It is the generator, whose field winding is excited by an independent external DC voltage source as shown in
Fig.3.18. There is no electrical connection between field winding and armature winding. Fig.3.18(a) shows
the connection diagram and 3.18(b) shows the circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator.
Here,
Rf = Resistance of field winding
If = Current through the field winding
E = Emf induced across the armature circuit
Ra = Resistance of armature circuit
V = Terminal voltage across the load
RL = Load resistance
IL = Load current
Fig.3.18 Separately excited DC generator
2
V
I = f Here, Ia = IL
f R
f
Using Kirchoff’s voltage law in armature and
load circuit:
E – Ia.Ra – IL.RL = 0
[ note that : IL.RL = V = load terminal voltage ]

Therefore, E – Ia.Ra = V (3.4)
The terminal voltage is always less than the emf generated, because there will be some voltage drop in the
armature resistance. Some voltage drop also takes place in the contact resistance between carbon brushes
and commutator segments. Hence, the actual terminal voltage is given by:
V = E – Ia.Ra – Voltage drop in the brushes. (3.5)
b) Self excited DC generator:

It is the generator, whose field winding is excited by the DC current generated by the armature of the
machine itself. No external DC source is required for such generator. The field winding and armature
winding have electrical connection. The inter-connection of field winding and armature winding can be
connected in different ways and accordingly the self excited DC generators are classified into following
types:
i) DC Shunt generator
ii) DC Series generator
iii) DC compound generator
3
i) DC Shunt generator:
In this type of generator, the field winding and armature winding are connected in parallel.
In other word, the armature circuit is shunted by the field winding circuit. Fig.3.19 shows
circuit diagram of DC shunt generator.
V V
Field winding curreny I = f = (3.6)
f R R
f f
Here, Ia = IL + If (3.7)
Terminal voltage across the load V = E – Ia.Ra (3.8)
V
Load current I = (3.9)
L R
L
Fig.3.19 Circuit diagram of DC shunt generator
As the field winding current is much less with compare to armature current and load
current, the field winding is made of thin wire and it will have higher resistance with
compare to Ra.
A shunt generator must be started without load, otherwise the voltage will not build-up. If
the shunt generator is started with load, all the current generated by armature at starting
will flow through the load circuit and voltage build up can not take place.
4
At starting both armature current and field current are zero.
However, there will be some magnetic flux in the air-gap of
the machine due to the residual flux of the field pole. The
magnitude of this residual flux will be very small. When the
armature is rotated by external mechanical force, the armature
will generate a small voltage due to residual flux. As the load
terminal is open at the starting period, all the current generated
by the armature will flow through the field winding. The field
winding current at the beginning of voltage buil-up process is
given by:
E
(0)
I = (3.10) Where, E(0) = Emf generated by armature due to residual flux.
f(0) R
f
Now, the magnetic flux produced by the field poles will increase to to If(0). Hence, the
magnitude of emf will increase and accordingly more field current will flow. This process
will keep on going and the magnitude of emf goes on increasing and finally the armature
generates a steady constant voltage. Then the load can be connected. The detail of this
voltage build-up process shall be discussed in the next section.
5
ii) DC series generator:
In this type of generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit as shown in
Fig.3. 20.
Here, the same current passage through armature winding,
field winding and load.
Therefore, Ia = If = IL (3.11)
The voltage build-up process is same as in shunt generator.

However, it must be started with load. Otherwise, no
current will flow through the field winding and voltage
build-up can not take place. Fig.3.20 Circuit diagram of DC series generator
The load terminal voltage is given by: V = E – Ia.Ra – If.Rse (3.12)
Here, the series field winding has to carry full load current, it is made of thick wire few number of turns.
iii) DC compound generator :

In this type of generator, there will be two sets of field windings. One set is connected in series with
armature or load and another set is connected in parallel with the armature. Therefore, this type of
generator will have a mixed type of characteristic lying between shunt and series characteristics. As the
series winding has to carry full load current, it is made of thick wire with few turns. Whereas, the shunt
field winding is made of thin wire with many numbers of turns. Because, the shunt field winding has to
carry only small value of excitation current (If). The compound generator had been further classified into
following two types:
a) Long shunt compound generator
b) Short shunt compound generator
6
Fig.3.21(a) and Fig.3.21(b) shows the circuit diagrams of long shunt DC generator and short shunt
generator respectively.
Fig.3.21(a)Long shunt compound generator Fig.3.21(b) Short shunt compound generator
For long shunt generator:

V V=E-I R -I R
I = (3.13) a a a se
(3.14)
f R
f
For short shunt generator:
V E−I R
I = f = a a and V =V+I R (3.15)
f R R f se. se
f f
V=E-I R -I R (3.16)
a a L se
7
Illustrative Example :
A DC compound generator delivers 50A to the load at 500V. The armature, series field and field windings
resistances are 0.05 , 0.03  and 250  respectively. The voltage drop in carbon brush is 1 V per brush.
Calculate the generated emf a) for long shunt compound b) Short shunt compound
Solution:
Given parameters : Ra = 0.05 ohm, Rse = 0.03 ohm and Rf = 250 ohms
a) Long shunt compound:

Voltage across the load V = 500 V
V 500
Shunt field current I = = = 2A IL = 50 A
f Rf 250
 Ia = IL+ If = 50 + 2 = 52 A
Then emf induced E = V + Ia (Ra+Rse) + drop in brushes = 500 + 52×(0.05+0.03) +1×2 = 506.16 V
b) Short shunt compound:

Voltage across the shunt field winding:
Vf = V +ILRse= 500 + 50×0.03 = 501.5 V
V 501.5
I = f = = 2.006 A
f R 250
f
 Ia = IL+ If = 50 + 2.006 = 52.006 A
Then Emf E = Vf + Ia Ra + drop in brushes = 501.5 + 52.006×0.05 +1×2 = 506.1 V

8
3.5 Characteristics of DC generator:
Different types of DC generators have different characteristic and accordingly they are suitable for
different applications. The followings are the main characteristics of DC generator.
i) No-load characteristic (or open circuit characteristic or OCC curve)
ii) Load characteristic (or external characteristic)
3.5.1 No-load characteristic of DC generator:
No-load characteristics is a curve showing the values of emf generated across the armature at different
values of field current at no-load and constant speed. The no-load characteristic of separately excited,
shunt, series and compound DC generators are similar. The characteristic curve can be obtained
practically as shown in Fig.3.22.
Fig.3.22 Circuit diagram for OCC curve Fig.3.23 OCC curve of DC generator
The field winding is disconnected temporally for test purpose. The armature of the generator is rotated at a
constant rated speed by some prime mover and the magnitudes of emf induced at different values of field
current are measured. The resulting curve is shown in Fig.3.23.
9
The magnitude of emf induced across the armature is given by:
Z . N P
E=  And   If Since, the armature is driven at constant speed, E  If
60 A
When the field current is zero, there will be some

residual flux in the air gap of the machine. Therefore,
some emf ( OA) will induce across the armature even the
field current is zero. When in the field current increases,
the magnetic flux () increases proportionately and the
emf (E) increases accordingly up the point ‘B’. The point
‘B’ of the saturation point corresponding to field current
‘Ifsat’. If the field current is further increased above Ifsat,
the magnetic flux will not increase proportionately. The
magnetic flux will increase by very small value with
compare to increase in field current and accordingly the
emf induce (E) will also increase by very small amount
as shown in Fig.3.23. Fig.3.23 shows the OCC curve at
rated speed N1. The OCC curves at different speeds are
shown in Fig.3.24.
Fig.3.24 OCC curves at different speeds
10
3.5.2 Load characteristic of DC generator:
Load characteristic is the curve showing the load terminal voltage at different values of load current.
The different types of DC generators have different load characteristics.
Shunt generator: Let us consider a DC shunt generator as shown in Fig.3.25. When the generator is
operated at full load, the field current ( If ) is very small with compare to the load current (IL).When there
is no load, the armature current ( Ia = If ) is very small with compare to full load current. Therefore, the
voltage drop in armature resistance is very small and hence, terminal voltage is nearly equal to emf
induced (i.e. V E).
(a) Circuit diagram ( b) Load Characteristics

Fig.3.25 Load characteristic of DC shunt generator
When the generator is loaded, the armature current ( Ia = If + IL) increases, then the load terminal
voltage ( V = E – Ia. Ra) decreases. The magnitude of load terminal voltage at different values of load
current is shown in the Fig.3.21(b), which is known as load characteristic.
11
Let 0VL = load terminal voltage at no-load
fVL = load terminal voltage at full-load
The total voltage drop from no-load to full-load = 0VL - fVL
Voltage regulation of generator is defined as change in load

terminal voltage (from no-load to full-load) expressed as
percentage of no-load terminal voltage.
VL - fVL
0
Hence Voltage Regulatio n (%) =  100 (3.15)
0VL
12
Series generator:
Let us consider a DC series generator as shown in Fig.3.26. Here, the filed winding, armature
winding and load are connected in series. Therefore, all of them carry the same current.
(a) Circuit diagram of DC series generator (b) Load Characteristic curve

Fig.3.26 Load characteristic of DC series generator
When the load current (IL) increases, the armature current as well as the field current increases.
Therefore, the voltage drop Ia(Ra+Rse) increases. But, at the same time, the air gap flux
increases due to increase in If. Therefore, magnitude emf induced ‘E’ increases. Before the
magnetic saturation, the increase in emf dominates the armature voltage drop. Therefore, load
terminal voltage increases with load current up to the saturation as shown in Fig.3.26(b). Load
characteristic curve is just below the OCC curve by an amount of armature voltage drop.
Hence, a series generator has a rising voltage characteristic. However at over-load condition,
the load terminal voltage starts decreasing due to excessive demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction and saturation effect.
13
Compound generator: We have seen that a shunt generator has a dropping voltage
characteristic and a series generator has a rising voltage characteristic. Since a compound
generator has shunt as well as series field winding, a compound generator has a characteristic
lying between shunt and series generators. A shunt generator may be modified into a
compound generator to supply substantially constant voltage by adding few turns of field
winding in series with load or armature. As the load current increases, the current through the
series field winding also increases there by increasing the air gap flux. Hence, the emf
induced in armature increases. By adjusting the number of series turns, the load terminal
voltage can be controlled in different ways and accordingly different type of load
characteristics can be obtained as shown in Fig.3.27.
i) If the series field amp-turns are such as to
produce the full load terminal voltage equal to the
no-load terminal voltage, then such generator is
called as flat-compounded generator.
ii) If the series field amp-turns are such as to
produce the full load terminal voltage greater than
the no-load terminal voltage, then such generator
is called as over-compounded generator.
iii) If the series field amp-turns are such as to

produce the full load terminal voltage less than the
no-load terminal voltage, then such generator is Fig.3.27 Characteristics of compound generator
called as under-compounded generator.
14
3.6 Voltage Build-Up Process in DC generator:
Before loading a DC shunt generator, it should be allowed to build-up its voltage up to its rated value.
Usually, there is always some residual magnetic flux produced by the filed pole even in the absence of field
current. Therefore at starting, when the armature is rotated at its rated speed by its prime-mover, a small
amount of emf will induce across the armature due to this residual flux. As the load is not connected during
this voltage build-up process, this emf forces current through the field winding. Hence, the air-gap flux
will increases, provided the field circuit is correctly connected to the armature, otherwise this current may
wipe off the residual flux. Because of this increase in air-gap flux, the magnitude of emf induced across the
armature increases. Because of this increase in emf, field current will increase and air-gap flux will
increase. This process goes on repeating until the emf reaches a final steady value. Now the question is
when the emf reaches final steady value and what will be this final value. These facts can be explained
with the help of OCC curve as shown in Fig.3.28.
Fig.3.28 Voltage build-up in a DC shunt generator
Fig.3.28 shows the OCC curve and the plot of Rf line in a common current and voltage axis. The voltage
build-up process follows the path of OCC. Let us consider an instant when the field current had increased
to OA2.
15
At this instant, Emf generated E = A2C2 Ohmic voltage drop in Rf = A2B2
dI
L f
B2C2 = Opposing self induced emf in the field coil due to changing current If = f dt
As the voltage build-up process proceed on, the ohmic voltage drop goes on increasing and self
induced emf goes on decreasing.
When the voltage build-up process reaches the point of intersection between OCC curve and the Rf line at
point ‘P’, the total emf (E) is equal to the ohmic voltage drop in Rf and self induced emf Lf.dIf/dt has
decreased to zero. That means If becomes constant or If is no more increasing. Hence, the voltage biul-up
process stops at point ‘P’ and steady emf generated is equal to E0 as shown in Fig.3.28.
From the above explanation, it is clear that the instant ‘P’ depends upon the nature of OCC curve and the
value field winding resistance ‘Rf’. Fig.3.29 shows the voltage build-up process at different values of field
winding resistance.
16
Fig.3.29 Voltage build-up with different values of field winding resistance
When the field winding resistance is equal to Rf, the maximum voltage build up is equal to E0.
If the field winding resistance is increased to Rf1, the resistance line shifts up as shown in Fig.3.29. Now the
new point of intersection is P1 and the maximum voltage build up is equal to E1 , which is less than E0.
If the field winding resistance is increased to a large value ( say to Rf2 ), then there is no intersection between
OCC curve and Rf2 line. Therefore, the generator can not build up the voltage with value of field winding
resistance.
The maximum value of field winding resistance at which the generator just can build-up its voltage is RC,
which is just tangent to the OCC curve. Above this value of resistance, the generator cannot build-up the
voltage. This value of resistance is known as “Critical resistance”.
17
Fig.3.30 shows the voltage build-up at different speed for a given value of field winding resistance.
Fig.3.30 Voltage build-up with different speed
If the generator is allowed to build-up the voltage at lower speed N1, then the new point of inter-section
is P1 and the maximum voltage build up is equal to E1 , which is less than E0. If the generator is allowed
to build-up the voltage at further lower speed NC, the OCC curve is just tangent to the given value of Rf
line. The generator will be just able to build-up its voltage at this speed. However, the maximum value of
emf will be very small and equal to EC. This speed is known as critical speed. Below the critical speed,
the generator cannot build-up the voltage.
18
Illustrative Example 3.5
A DC shunt generator generates 500V at no-load. The armature and field windings resistances are 0.05 
and 250  respectively. When the generator delivers 30 A to the load, Calculate the terminal voltage and
voltage regulation.
Solution:
At no-load V=E= 500V
At loaded condition:
V E −V 500 − V
I = = =
f R R R
f f f
500 − V
And I = I + I = 30 +
a L f 250
Then load terminal voltage:

500 − V
V = E - Ia.Ra = 500 - (30 + )  0.05
250
Or 250V = 500×250 – (30×250 + 500 –V) ×0.05
Or 250V = 125000 –(375 + 25 – 0.05V)
Or 250V – 0.05V = 125000 – 400
Or 249.95V = 124600
Or V = 498.5 V
19
A DC series generator has armature and field windings resistances of 0.5  and 0.3  respectively. When
the generator delivers 5 A to the load, the load terminal voltage is 250V. Calculate the terminal voltage
when the load current is 25A. Assume that the speed is constant
Solution:
Given that V = 250V, Ra = 0.5 ohm and Rse = 0.3 ohm
Z. N P
For Series generator E = 
60 A
For constant speed E    If = Ia = IL
When load current IL1 = 5 A, E1 = V1 + IL1. (Ra + Rse) = 250 +5 (0.5 + 0.3) = 254V
E1  IL1 and E2  IL2
E I I
 2 = L2 OR E = L2  E = 25  254 = 1270V
E I 2 I 1 5
1 L1 L1
 V2 = E2 – IL2( Ra + Rse) = 1270 – 25(0.8) = 1250V
20
Chapter –4 ( DC Motor)
Lecture No.11
1
4.1 Operating Principle of DC Motor:
The DC machine descried above also can be used as motor to produce rotating torque. If the field winding as
well as the armature winding is supplied by DC current, then the armature rotates continuously in a
particular direction.
Let us consider an elementary two pole DC machine as shown in Fig.3.31 where carbon brushes and
commutator segments are not provided. The field current (If) produced magnetic field whose polarity is
fixed as shown in Fig.3.32. In the initial position, armature current (Ia) passing IN through conductor a’ and
coming out through the conductor ‘a’. The direction of magnetic flux (ϕ) is N-pole to S-pole. Here, the
current carrying conductors (a and a’) are lying in the magnetic filed. Therefore, force will develop on the
both conductors whose direction as determined by Fleming Left Hand Rule are shown by red color arrow in
the figure. Hence, the armature rotates in anti-clock wise direction.
After 1800 rotation, the situation will be

as shown in Fig.3.31(b). The direction of
current in armature conductors remains
same. Now the direction of force will be
opposite with respect to case (a). Hence,
the armature tries to rotate in clock-wise
direction. Therefore, the armature just
oscillates and can not rotates continuously
in a direction. The other problem is that
the battery of armature has to be rotated (a) Initial position (b) After 90 0 rotation
along with the armature.
Fig.3.31 Operation of DC motor without
The arrangement of carbon brushes and carbon brushes and commutator segments
commutator segments helps to give
continous rotation as explained below:
2
Fig.3.32 Operation of DC motor
Fig.3.32 shows an elementary two pole DC machine with carbon brushes and commutator segments. The
coalnductor a’ is permanently connected to the commutator segment-x and the conductor ‘a’ is
permanently connected to the commutator segment-y. Therefore coil a-a’ rotates along with the
commutaltor segments. The corbon brushes C1 and C2 are fixed and they are touching over the surface of
commutator segments. Hence, the battery of the armature coil need not to be rotated along with the
armature. Here, the armature winding is supplied by dc current Ia through the carbon brushes and
commutator segments. The field winding is also supplied by dc current If. In Fig.3.32(a), the armature
current Ia flows through the path: C1-x-a’-a-y-C2. The direction of force develop on the conductors a and
a’ are shown in Fig.3.32(a). Hence, the armature rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
3
After 1800 rotation, the situation will be as shown in Fig.3.32(b). Here, the carbon brush C1 comes in
contact with the commutator segment ‘x’. Therefore the armature current (Ia) flows IN through the
conductor ‘a’. That means the direction of current through the conductor ‘a’ has reversed due to the
action of carbon brushes and commutator arrangement. Here, the direction of force developed is in the
same direction as in case of Fig.(a). Therefore the armature continuously in anti-clockwise direction.
Here, it shall be noted that when the conductors crosses the magnetic neutral axis (MNA), the direction
of current in the conductor’s gets reversed.
4
Let N = Speed of the armature in RPM
r = Radius of the armature coil
Then the armature torque Ta = F × r (N-m)
Work done by the force in one revolution = F × 2r
60
Time for one revolution = second
N Work done
Now the power developed by the armature = Rate of doing work =
time
F  2 .r F  2 .r.N 2 .N.T
OR P = = OR Pa = a (watts) (3.16)
a 60 60 60
N
When the armature rotates, the armature conductors cuts the magnetic flux. Therefore, emf will
induce across the armature coil. This emf is known as back emf. It opposes the applied voltage and
its magnitude is given by:
Z..N P
E =  (3.17)
b 60 A
Hence, the power developed by the armature also can be written as: Pa = Eb × Ia
2.N.T 60
 From eqn (3.16) a = E I Or T = E  I 
60 b a a b a 2. . N
Z..N P 60 1 P
Or T =   Ia Or T = Z. .Ia ( ) (3.18)
a 60 A 2. . N a 2 A
Therefore, Ta  ×Ia
5
4.2 Back EMF in DC Motor:
When the armature rotates, the armature conductors cut the magnetic flux produced by the field poles.
Hence, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf will induce across the armature
winding. According to lenz’s law, the direction of emf induced across the armature winding is opposite to
the applied voltage to the armature. This opposing induced emf is known as back emf.
Fig.3.33 shows the circuit diagram of a DC motor. The

applied voltage V pushes current Ia through the armature
winding against the opposition offered by back emf Eb.
Hence, the magnitude of armature current is given by:
V-E
I = b (3.19)
a R
a
Where, V = Applied voltage to armature Fig.3.33 Back emf in DC motor

Ra = Resistance of armature winding
Z. .N P
E = back emf = 
b 60 A
Equation (3.19) can be re-write as : Ia.Ra = V - Eb Multiplying this equation by Ia gives:
Ia2.Ra = V Ia - Eb Ia Or V Ia - Ia2.Ra = Eb Ia
i.e. (Input power to armature) – (Copper loss in armature) = (Power developed by armature)
6
3.8.1 Roles of Back EMF in DC Motor:
Back emf plays very important roles in DC motor. If there were no back emf, the motor will not be
able to convert the electrical power into mechanical rotation. Followings are the three major roles of
back emf in DC motor.
i) Back emf protects the armature from short circuit during the normal running condition. If there
were no back emf during normal running condition, the armature current will be:
V-E
I = b = V-0 = V
a R R R
a a a
This is just like a short circuit the applied voltage ‘V’ by a very low resistance Ra and Ia will be very
high. This high current will be beyond the designed current carrying capacity of the armature winding
and the armature winding will get damaged.
Let us take a typical practical example of 10 kW motor with Ra = 0.5 ohm and V = 200 volt
Power 10  10000
Full load current of motor = = = 50 amp
voltage 200
V - 0 200 - 0
In the absence of back emf, I = = = 400 amp
a R 0.5
a
This current is current is 8 times greater than the rated full load current.
V - Eb 200 - 190
If back emf Eb = 190 V, then I a = R = 0.5
= 20 amp.
a
This current is less than its full load current. In this way, back emf helps to protect the
armature from short circuit.
7
ii) Back emf helps to produced required amount of torque according to increase or decrease in mechnical
load on the shaft of the motor.
When the load on the shaft increases, the speed of the shaft decreases.
Z..N P
Therefore as per eqn: E =  (3.17)
b 60 A
V-E
Magnitude of back emf decreases. Hence, as per eqn: I = b
a R
a
The armature current increases and motor will develop more torque.
Similarly, When the load on the shaft decreases, the speed of the shaft increases. Therefore as per eqn
(3.17), the magnitude of back emf increases. Hence, the armature current decreases as per eqn (3.19)
and motor will develop less torque. In this way back helps to balance the mechanical torque on the
shaft and torque developed by the armature.
iii) In every energy converting system, there must be an opposing agent. Otherwise, the energy
conversion will not take place. Let us take an example of a bi-cycle. It converts the force applied by a
human feet into the mechanical rotation of wheel. Here, human feet will feel the opposition from the
bicycle pedestal. The human feet will apply the force against this opposition and energy conversion
takes place. Now, if the chain of the bi-cycle is broken, the human feet will not fell opposition from the
pedestal and energy conversion will not take place. Here, the chain is playing the role of opposing
agent. In case of DC motor, back emf acts as opposing agent in energy conversion process. The applied
voltage ‘V’ pushes the armature current Ia under the opposition of back emf and the electrical power
input to the motor converts into the mechanical power in terms of rotation.
8
4.3 Type of DC motors and their characteristics :
Based on the method of excitation of field winding, DC motors are classified into following three type:
i) DC shunt motor
ii) DC series motor
iii) DC compound motor
These different types of motor have different characteristics and accordingly they are used in various
applications. The characteristics of DC motors are distinguished by the following characteristics curves.
i) Torque – armature current characteristic (Electrical characteristic )

ii) Speed – torque characteristic ( Mechanical characteristic)
4.3.1 Characteristics of DC shunt motor:
a) Torque – armature current characteristic:

It is a curve showing the armature torque developed at different values of armature current.
It was derived in the earlier section that Ta  . Ia and   If.
In case of dc shunt motor, the field winding is connected across

the fixed DC voltage. Therefore, the field current (If) is
constant and hence the air-gap magnetic flux ( ) is constant.
Therefore, Ta  Ia
Hence, Ta-Ia characteristic of DC shunt motor is a straight line as

shown in Fig.3.34. It shows that the armature torque changes
proportionately with armature current. However, the net shaft
torque is always less that the armature toque due to friction loss.
The net shaft torque is shown by the dotted line in the Fig.3.34.
9
Fig.3.34 Torque – armature current characteristic Of DC shunt motor
b) Speed – torque characteristic:

It is a curve showing the speed of the motor at different values of armature torque. The nature of this
characteristic curve can be explained as follow:
b  60  A
Z. .N P E E
The back emf developed by the armature is given by: E b =  Or N = Or N  b
60 A  Z P 
V-E
Since  is constant for DC shunt motor, N  Eb And I
a
= b
R
a
When the speed of the motor decreases, back emf (Eb) decreases, the armature current (Ia) increases and
the armature torque (Ta) increases. Hence, the speed-torque characteristic has the shape of drooping curve
as shown in Fig.3.35.
10
Fig.3.35 Speed – torque characteristic of DC shunt motor
It can be seen from the characteristic that there is no appreciable change in speed from no-load to
full-load. Hence, shunt motor is called as a constant speed motor and it is suitable to drive a load
which is totally and suddenly thrown off so that there is no fair of excessive speed. Due to its
constancy in speed, it also suitable for driving the shaft of machine tools, lathe machine etc,
where approximate constant speed is required.
4.3.2 Characteristics of DC series motor:
a) Torque – armature current characteristic:

In case of DC series motor, armature current flows
through the field winding and field current and
armature current are same.
Here, Ta  . Ia and   If = Ia
Therefore, Ta  Ia2
11
Hence, Ta- Ia characteristic of DC series motor is
parabolic in nature as shown in Fig.3.36. However,
after saturation of field pole, the magnetic flux does
not increase with increase in armature current.
Therefore, Ta  Ia after saturation. Hence, the Ta- Ia
characteristic is a straight line after the saturation.
b) Speed – torque characteristic:

E Fig.3.36 Torque-armature current characteristic
Here, N  b Eb = V - IaRa, and Ta  Ia2 of DC series motor

At heavy torque (Ta), the armature current is high.
Therefore, the back emf will be less to allow high
armature current. Therefore, the flux per pole will be
very high. Hence speed will be very low at high
torque due to low back emf and high flux.
On the other hand at light torque, the armature current
is low. Therefore, the back emf will be high to allow
low armature current. Therefore, the flux per pole
will be very low. Hence speed will be very high at
Fig.3.37 Speed-torque characteristic of DC series motor
light torque due to high back emf and low flux.
Therefore, the torque- speed characteristic will be as
shown in Fig.3.37.
From the characteristic, it is clear that at starting ( when the speed is very low), the motor develops
a high starting torque. On the other hand, at no-load, the speed is dangerously high. Hence, a DC
series shall not be operated without load on the shaft. Due to its characteristics of high starting
torque, it is suitable for electric train, trolley bus, lifting hoist etc. 12
4.3.3 Characteristics of DC compound motor:
A DC compound motor has both series and shunt field windings. If the series field winding produces the
magnetic flux in the same direction as produced by the shunt field winding (as shown in Fig.3.38a), then
such a motor is known as cumulative compound motor. On the other hand, if the series field winding
produces the magnetic flux in the opposite direction as produced by the shunt field winding (as shown in
Fig.3.38b), then such a motor is known as differential compound motor.
(a) Cumulative compound (b) Differential Compound

Fig.3.38 Field windings in DC compound motors
Cumulative compound motor: In a cumulative compound motor, the series field flux supports the shunt
field flux. Therefore, the increase in flux per pole with the armature current is more severe with compare to
that in shunt motor. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic of cumulative compound motor will be above the
characteristic of shunt motor as shown in Fig.3.39 and the speed-torque characteristic will be as shown in
Fig.3.40. Due to cumulative action of series field, at a particular value of torque, the flux per pole will be
more with compare to a shunt motor. Hence, the speed-torque characteristic is more sloping than the
characteristic of shunt motor but less sloping than a series motor.
13
Fig.3.39 Ta-Ia Characteristics Fig.3.40 Speed- torque characteristic
Differential compound motor: In a cumulative compound motor, the series field flux
opposes the shunt field flux. Therefore, the flux per pole decreases with increase in
armature current. Hence, Ta-Ia characteristic of differential compound motor lies below the
characteristic of shunt motor as shown in Fig.3.39. Due to differential action of series
field, at a particular value of torque, the flux per pole will be less with compare to a shunt
motor. Hence, the speed-torque characteristic lies above the characteristic of shunt motor
as shown in Fig.3.40.
14
A 250V DC shunt motor has armature and field windings resistances of 0.05  and 125  respectively.
When the motor is fully loaded, the motor draws a current of 30 amp and runs at a speed of 1500 rpm.
When the 75% of load is taken off, the motor current reduces to 10A. Calculate the new speed.
Solution: I I
E E N E E
Since, N b  b 2 = b2  f 1 OR N = b2  f 1  N
 I N
1
E
b1
I
f2
2 E I 1
f b1 f2
Case-1 : Fully Loaded Case-2 : 25% Load
V 250
When the motor is fully loaded: I1 = 30A, I f 1 = = = 2A Ia1= I1 – If1= 30 – 2 = 28A.
R 125
f
Eb1 = V – Ia1(Ra) = 250 – 28(0.05) = 248.6 V N1 = 1500 rpm
When 75% of load is taken off:
I2= 10A, If2 is same as before = 2A. Ia2= I2 – If2= 10 – 2 = 8A.
Eb2 = V – Ia2(Ra) = 250 – 8(0.05) = 249.6 V
E I
b 2 f1 249.6 2
Then N =  N =   1500 = 1506 rpm
2 E I 1 248.6 2
b1 f2
15
Chapter –4 ( DC Motor)
Lecture No.13
1
4.4 DC motor starter
Current drawn by the armature and the back emf generated by the armature during normal operation is given by:
V-E
b Z. .N P
I = and E = 
a R b 60 A
a
At the instant of starting, the motor starts from zero speed and after some time it runs at normal speed.
Therefore, at starting back emf Eb=0 and motor draws a starting current Ia(st) and it is given by:
V-0
I = This starting current will be very high. It just like a short circuit current –
a(st) R
a the supply voltage ‘V’ shorted by a low resistance Ra.
If supply voltage V=250 V and Ra= 0.05 ohm, the starting current drawn by the armature circuit will be:
V - 0 250 − 0
I = = = 5000 A
a(st) R 0.05
a
When the armature rotates, it generates back emf and the armature current decreases. When speed
reaches to its normal value, the armature current also decreases to its normal value. The starting current
will be very high just for few seconds.
Even though the high starting current is only for few seconds, it is harmful for the dc motor operation in
the following aspect:
i) It may blow out the fuse which is used to protect the motor.
ii) It may damage the commutator segments and carbon brushes
To avoid these problem, DC motor shall be started using a starter which helps to reduce the starting
current to a safe value
2
Basically a DC motor starter is a variable resistance connected in series with the armature circuit as shown
in Fig.3.40.
Fig.3.40 Basic circuit of DC motor starter
At starting, the pointer ‘P’ is at the end-1 of the starting resistance RS so that whole value of RS is
connected in series with Ra and starting current drawn by the armature is given by:
V-0
I =
a(st)
R +R
a s
By selecting the proper value of RS, the value of Ia(st) can be reduced to safe value. As the speed
increases, back emf increases and the value of RS shall be reduce accordingly by sliding the pointer
‘P’ to ward the end-2 of RS.
A commercial DC motor starter will have some additional protection features in addition to starting
resistance RS. Fig.3.41 shows the detail circuit diagram of a commercial 3-point starter.
3
The three terminals of the starter are marked as L,
A and Z. The negative terminal of supply source is
directly connected to the armature which is also
connected to the negative terminal of the field
winding. The positive terminal of the supply source
is connected to the terminal marked ‘L’ of the
starter, which is further connected to the starting
arm ‘B’ through the over-current release magnet
‘M’
To start the motor, the main switch is first closed

and the starting arm ‘B’ is slowly moved to the stud
no-1 of the starting resistance RS. As soon as the
arm ‘B’ makes contact with stud no-1, the field
winding gets full supply voltage through the
conductive arc and the at the same time full starting
resistance RS is connected in series with armature
circuit and the starting armature current reduces to
Fig.3.41 Detail circuit diagram of a commercial 3-point tarter.
safe value.
As the motor speeds up, the arm ‘B’ is further moved to and the starting resistance is gradually cut out.
When the arm reaches to last stud (i.e. ON position), RS is completely cut out and at the same time, the
motor will have full normal speed and the back emf will have full value and the armature current will
normal.
4
At starting, the arm ‘B’ moves over the various stud against
the a strong spring force which tends to pull back the arm to
OFF position. But there is a soft iron piece ‘S’ on the arm
which in the ON position is attracted and hold by the
electromagnet ‘E’
When the motor is switched off by turning off the main

switch, the hold-ON magnet ‘E’ will get demagnetized and
the arm ‘B’ will be thrown back to OFF position under the
action of spring force.
If the motor is overloaded, the motor will draw high
armature current and the electro-magnet ‘M’ becomes strong
enough to pull up the liver ‘D’ and it will short circuit the
electromagnet ‘E’. Then the electromagnet ‘E’ will get de-
magnetized and it will release the arm ‘B’ to OFF position
thus by protecting the motor from over-loading.
If the field wing of a running motor breaks, there will be zero current through the field winding. However,
there will be some residual magnetic flux in the core of field poles. Hence, at lower value of magnetic flux ,
the motor runs at dangerously high speed. The coil of electromagnet ‘E’ is connected in series with the field
winding. Therefore, when the field winding breaks, the current through the coil if electromagnet ‘E’ also
becomes zero and it gets de-magnetized thus by releasing the arm ‘B’ to OFF position. In this way motor
gets protected from running to high speed. This is also known as protection against the loss of field.
5
4.5 Speed Control DC motor
In practical application, a DC motor may have to operated at different speed under the different loading
conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt some methods to control the speed as per requirement. There
are various methods available for speed control of DC motor.
Factors affecting the speed of DC motor:

Z. .N P E  60  A E V - I .R
N a a
Back emf E =  OR N = b OR N  b OR (3.20)
b 60 A Z   P  
Therefore the factors affecting the speed are:
•Applied voltage (V)
•Armature resistance (Ra) By varying these parameters, speed of a DC motor can be varied .
•Magnetic flux per pole (ϕ)
4.5 .1 Speed Control of DC shunt motor

i) Field Control Method:
In this method, the speed is varied by changing the
magnetic flux. A variable resistance RS is connected in
series with the field winding to regulate the field
current there by regulates the magnetic flux as shown
in Fig.3.42.
Fig.3.42 Circuit diagram for field control method
The variable resistance RS can only reduce the field current below its rated value. Therefore, this
method is only suitable to control the speed above the rated speed. When the value of RS is increased,
the field current will decrease and magnetic flux per pole will decrease.
6
When the value of RS is increased, the field current will
decrease and magnetic flux per pole will decrease.
E
Since N  b

Speed will increase. By varying the value of RS, speed
can be controlled above its rated speed.
V
When, the pointer ‘P’ is at end-0 of the RS, RS= 0, field current will be maximum and given by: If1 = R
f
Let us say motor runs at a speed of N1 rpm and corresponding back emf is Eb1 and Eb1 = V-Ia1.Ra
The value of Ia1 depends on load on the shaft of the motor.
Armature torque at this condition T  I  I
a1 a1 f1
When the pointer ‘P’ is moved toward the end-1 of RS keeping the load torque on the shaft constant, the
value of RS increases. Field current decreases to:
V
I = Since the load torque is constant, the armature has to develop same
f2 R +R amount of torque as before.
f S
Therefore, Ta2 = Ia2×If2 = Ia1×If1. I I
Since If2 has decreases, Ia2 will increase to produce same amount of torque. a2 a1 f1
I =
I
f2
Back emf at this condition Eb2 = V – Ia2.Ra.
E I
b 2 f1
Therefore, motor runs at a new speed : N =  N
2 E I 1
b1 f2
7
ii) Armature Control Method:
In this method, the speed is varied by changing the armature resistance by adding a variable resistance ‘R-
S’ in series with Ra as shown in Fig.3.43. When RS is added, there will be some voltage drop in RS.
Therefore, voltage across the armature circuit decreases and accordingly the speed of the motor decreases.
By varying the value of RS, the speed of the motor can be varied. Here, it shall be noted that this method
is only suitable to control the speed below its rated speed.
When, the pointer ‘P’ is at end-0 of the RS, RS= 0, There will be no
voltage drop in RS and the voltage across the armature will be
maximum. The armature current depends on the load on the shaft.
Let Ia1 = amrmature current at this condition
Then back emf at this condition is given by: Eb1 = V-Ia1.Ra.
Here, it shall be noted that the filed current If remains
constant, because Rf is connected across the fixed supply Fig.3.43 Circuit diagram for armature control method
voltage ‘V’
When the pointer ‘P’ is moved toward the end-1 of RS keeping the load torque on the shaft constant, the
value of RS increases. Field current remains constant. Therefore, If1 = If2.
Since the load torque is constant, the armature has to develop same amount of torque as before.
Therefore, Ta2 = Ia2×If2 = Ia1×If1. Since If2 = If1 , Ia2 will be equal to Ia1 to produce same amount of torque.
Back emf at this condition Eb2 = V – Ia2.(Ra +RS)

IE
b 2 f1
Therefore, motor runs at a new speed N =  N
2 E I 1
b1 f2
8
4.5.2 Speed Control of DC series motor
Speed of a DC series motor can be controlled by various methods.
i) Field diverter method:
In this method a variable resistance (RS) is connected across the series
field winding as shown in Fig.3.44.
When RS is connected across the field winding, the total line current (I)
gets diverted through RS and Ise decreases. With reduce value of Ise,
magnetic flux per pole decreases and the speed of the motor increases
(because, speed is inversely proportional to flux per pole). Desired
amount of Ise current can be passed through the field winding by varying Fig.3.44 Circuit diagram for field
control method
RS and accordingly speed can be controlled above the rated speed.
Let Ise1 = current through the field winding without RS = I1 = Ia1
The magnitude of Ia1 depends on load on the shaft.
Torque developed by the armature Ta1 α Ia1× Ise1 = Ia12 (because, Ia1= Ise1)
Let N1 = speed at this condition and corresponding back emf is given by: Eb1 = V – Ia1(Rse +Ra)
If RS is connected keeping the load on the shaft constant, the total current (I2) divides into two parallel path
according to current division rule: 2 I
Let I2 = Ise2 + IS , then, Ta2 α Ia2× Ise2 Since the load torque constant, Ia2× Ise2 = Ia1 2 I = a1
a2 I
se2
Then back emf at this condition Eb2 = V – Ia2.Ra – Ise2.Rse
E I
Therefore, motor runs at a new speed N = b2  se1  N
2 E I 1
b1 se 2
9
ii) Armature diverter method:
In this method a variable resistance (RS) is connected across the armature circuit as shown in Fig.3.45.
When RS is connected across the armature winding keeping the

load torque constant, the total line current (I) gets diverted through
RS and Ia decreases. In order to produce same amount of armature
torque, Ise will increase to produce more magnetic flux at reduced
value of Ia. When the magnetic flux increases, speed decreases. By
varying the value of RS, the magnitude of Ise can be varied and
accordingly speed will vary. Fig.3.45 Circuit diagram for armature
diverter method
Let Ise1 = current through the field winding without RS = I1 = Ia1
The magnitude of Ia1 depends on load on the shaft.
Torque developed by the armature Ta1 α Ia1× Ise1 = Ia12 (because, Ia1= Ise1)
Let N1 = speed at this condition and corresponding back emf is given by: Eb1 = V – Ia1(Rse +Ra)
If RS is connected keeping the load on the shaft constant, the total current (I2) divides into two parallel path
according to current division rule.
I I
Let I2 = Ia2 + IS2 Then, Ta2 α Ia2× Ise2 Since the load torque constant, Ia2× Ise2 = Ia1× Ise1  I a2 = a1 se1
I
se2
Then back emf at this condition Eb2 = V – Ia2.Ra – Ise2.Rse
E I
Therefore, motor runs at a new speed: N 2 = b2  se1  N1
E I
b1 se 2
10
ii) Tapped field control method:
In this method, the series field winding is provided with number of tapings as shown in Fig.3.46.
The magnetic flux produced by the field winding is

given by:
NI
=
Reluctance
By shifting the contact pointer ‘P’, the effective number

of turns field winding can be changed and magnetic
flux will change accordingly. Then speed of the motor
will vary.
11
Chapter –5 ( Induction Machine)
Lecture No.13
1
5.1 Introduction
Induction machine is a rotating electrical machine operated by AC voltage source or which generates AC
voltage. It also known as asynchronous machine, because it never operates at synchronous speed. It can be
used as generator as well as motor. Because of its simple construction and better operating characteristics
with compare to a dc motor, induction machines are widely used in various industrial and domestic
applications.
5.2 Basic constructional details of induction machine
An induction machine has three major parts namely- stator, rotor and yoke. Fig.5.1 shows a cross-
sectional view of a dc machine. The various parts of the machine are described below:
Fig.5.1 Cross-sectional view of induction machine
a) Stator: It is the stationary part of the machine in cylindrical form with hallow space at the center. The
stator core is made of laminated silicon steel. The inner circumference of the stator core has alternate number
of slots and teeth. The slots are provided with stator windings made of enamel insulated copper wire. In case
of three-phase induction machine, the stator winding is three-phase distributed winding with each phase
spaced 1200 electrically apart. The windings are insulated from the slots with insulating paper. When the
stator windings are supplied by three-phase voltage, the winding creates definite number of magnetic poles
on the stator core.
2
Example of a three-phase stator winding:
Let number of slots = 12 Number of magnetic poles = 2
No. of slots 12 No. of slots 12
Coil Span = = = 6. No of slots per phase = = = 4.
No. of poles 2 No. of phase 3
Coil span is the number of teeth between two side of a coil.
12
Here, 3600 electrical = 12 slots 1200 =  120 = 4 slots
360
Fig.5.2 Example of three-phase stator winding
3
b) Rotor: It is the rotating part of the machine. It is cylindrical in shape with a central shaft. The shaft is
supported by bearing at both end so that it can rotates freely keeping a small air gap of about 1 to 4mm
between rotor and stator. It is made of laminated silicon steel sheet. There are two types of rotor i) Squirrel
cage rotor and ii) Phase wound rotor
i) Squirrel cage rotor: This type of rotor is made of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots near by
outer circumference as shown in Fig.5.3. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors and ends of these
conductors are short circuited by copper rings known as end rings.
Fig.5.4 Phase wound rotor

Fig.5.3 Squirrel cage rotor
ii) Phase wound rotor: This type of rotor is also made of cylindrical laminated silicon steel core, but it has
open slots along the outer circumference. Three phase windings are wounded on these slots which creates
same number of magnetic poles as produced by the stator windings. The winding principle is same as that of
the stator windings. The three-phase rotor windings are connected in star and three ends of rotor windings are
connected to the three separate slip-rings mounted on the shaft and the slip-rings are short circuited by the
carbon brushes with or without external resistance as shown in Fig.5.4. The slip-rings are electrically
insulated from the shaft. The slip-rings rotates along with the shaft, but the carbon brushes are fixed and
always touching over the slip-rings.
4
c) Yoke: It is the outermost frame of the machine. It houses the stator core and provides mechanical
protection of the whole machine.
Yoke
4.3 Operating principle of three-phase induction motor

When the three phase stator windings are supplied by three phase balanced ac voltage source, three phase
currents will flow through the stator windings. The stator winding will magnetized the stator core. Let us study
the nature of magnetic field produced by these three phase stator currents.
5
Let us consider a two pole machine and suppose that each phase winding is concentrated in a slot as shown
in Fig.5.5. R and R’ represents the starting and finishing ends of the R-phase winding. The cross mark (×)
indicate the current entering inside and the dot mark (•) indicates the current coming out. Let us assume that
the current is positive when it is flowing inside.
Fig.5.5 Distribution of magnetic flux due to three phase stator current
The three-phase stator currents produce their own magnetic flux, whose nature will be same that of three
phase stator currents. That means, the magnetic flux produced by each phase current will be alternating in
nature and given by following mathematical equations:
Fig.5.6 shows the waveform and Fig.5.7 shows

the phasor diagram of the magnetic flux
produced by three-phase stator currents.
6
Fig.5.6 Waveform of three-phase stator magnetic flux Fig.5.7 Phasor diagram of three-phase flux
The net air-gap magnetic flux is the sum of three individual magnetic flux produced by individual phase
current. Let us study the nature of net air-gap magnetic flux at any instant.
When t = 00,
R = m Sint = 0
3
Y = m Sin(t – 1200) = m Sin(00 – 1200) = − 2  m
3
B = m Sin(t – 2400 ) = m Sin(00 – 2400) = + 2  m
At this instant, flux produced by R-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux is sum of Y and B.
Their sum is shown in Fig.5.8.
7
Fig.5.8 Total air gap flux at t = 00
The total air-gap flux is given by:
 =  2 +  2 + 2. . .Cos
T Y B Y B
3 3 3 3
OR  = (  ) 2 + (  ) 2 + 2.  . .Cos600 = 1.5 
T 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m m
Hence, net air-gap flux at t = 00 has a magnitude of 1.5 m and direction is downward.
8
When t = 600, 3
R = m Sint = m 600 = + 
2 m
3
Y = m Sin(t – 1200) = m Sin(600 – 1200) = − 
2 m
B = m Sin(t – 2400 ) = m Sin(600 – 2400) = 0
At this instant, flux produced by B-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux is sum of R and Y.
Their sum is shown in Fig.5.9.
3 2 3 2 3 3
The total air-gap flux is given by: T = ( m ) + ( m ) + 2. m . .Cos600 = 1.5 
2 2 2 2 m m
Hence, the net air-gap flux at t = 600 has a magnitude of 1.5 m (same as before) and direction is as
shown in Fig.5.9. Which has rotated by 600 in clockwise direction with compare to that for ωt =00.
9
At this instant, flux produced by Y-phase current is zero and net air-gap flux is sum of R and B. Their
sum is shown in Fig.5.10.

3 2 3 2 3 3
The total air-gap flux is given by: T = ( m ) + ( m ) + 2. m . .Cos600 = 1.5 
2 2 2 2 m m
Hence, it is clear from the above mathematical and phasor analysis that the net air gap flux has a
constant magnitude of 1.5 m at any instant and its direction is rotating in clockwise direction with a
constant speed. Such a magnetic field is known as rotating magnetic field. The speed of the rotating
magnetic field is known as synchronous speed and is given by:
120. f f = Frequency of voltage applied to the stator winding
N =
S P P = Number of magnetic pole for which the stator winding is wound.
10
The rotating magnetic field produced by the stator currents cuts
the rotor conductor ( which are at rest at starting). Therefore,
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf
will induced in the rotor conductors. As the rotor conductors are
short circuited by end rings at both ends, there is a closed path
and current will circulate through the rotor conductors. Now the
current carrying rotor conductors are lying in the magnetic field,
hence force will develop on the rotor conductors. Under the
action of the force so developed, the rotor starts rotating.
Now the question is, in which direction the rotor will rotates. This can be determined with the help of
Lenz’s law. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of induced current will be such that the magnetic
field produced by the induced current opposes the cause by which it was induced. Here, the main
cause of induce of rotor current is the relative speed between magnetic field and rotor conductor.
Hence the direction induced current in the rotor will be in such a direction which will produced force
in the conductors in such a direction that the rotor rotates to reduce the relative speed between
magnetic field and rotor conductors. That means, the rotor rotates in the same direction as the rotating
magnetic field.
The rotor will try to catch-up the synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field, but it never success
to do so. If the rotor rotates with synchronous speed, there will no relative speed between magnetic field
and rotor conductors, hence no emf and current will induce in the rotor conductors and no force will
develop on the rotor conductors. Therefore, the rotor always rotates at a speed less than the synchronous
speed. That is why an induction motor is also known as asynchronous motor.
11
Let N = speed of the rotor (in RPM)
Ns − N is a factor indicating the fraction by which the speed of the rotor is less than the synchronous
Ns speed. This factor is known as ‘Slip’.
Ns − N
 Slip s = (5.3)
Ns
For example: If number of magnetic pole P = 4 and f = 50 Hz
120. f 120  50
Then N = = = 1500 RPM If the rotor rotates at N = 1470 RPM
S P 4
1500 − 1470
Then slip s = = 0.02 pu
1500
That means, the speed of the rotor is 2% less than the synchronous speed. The slip of the motor changes
with load on the shaft. If the load on the shaft of the motor increases, the speed of the rotor decreases and
the value of slip increases.
At starting, rotor speed is zero. The relative speed between magnetic field and rotor conductors (NS – N) is
maximum. Therefore, maximum emf will induce in the rotor conductors at the starting and maximum
current will flow in the rotor conductors and accordingly the stator will draw maximum current at starting.
At starting, the electric circuit of induction motor is similar to that of a transformer. The stator winding
acts as primary winding and rotor conductors acts as secondary winding. Hence, the frequency of emf
induced in the rotor at starting is equal to the frequency of voltage applied to the stator winding and the
magnitude of emf induced in the rotor circuit at starting is given by:
12
N
E = 2E (5.4)
2 N 1
1
Where,
E1 = emf induced in the stator winding per phase
N1 = Numbers of turn per phase in the stator winding
N2 = Numbers of turn per phase in the rotor winding
At starting, the frequency of emf induced E2, will be equal to the frequency of applied input voltage just
like in transformer.
120. f Ns.P
N = OR f =
S P 120
When the rotor rotates, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and rotor conductors decreases.
Therefore, the magnitude of emf induced in the rotor conductors reduces to:
ER = s.E2 (5.5)
Frequency of emf induced in rotor circuit also decreases to:
(Ns. - N)P f ( N - N)P/120 ( N - N)

f = OR R = s = s =s OR fR = s.f (5.6)
R 120 f N .P/120 N .
s s
13
Chapter –5 ( Induction Machine)
Lecture No.14
1
5.4 Analysis of stand-still condition of induction motor
Stand still condition is the instant of starting, when the speed of rotor is zero. At this instant, the relative
speed (NS – N) is maximum and slip is maximum ( s =1 ) and emf induced in the rotor circuit is maximum.
This condition is similar to the transformer operation with stator winding as primary winding and rotor
circuit as secondary winding. Hence, the electrical equivalent circuit of three-phase induction motor at
stand-still is same as that of a transformer. Fig.5.11 shows the per phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase
induction motor at standstill.
Fig.5.11 Per phase equivalent circuit of three phase induction motor at standstill
Here, V1 = Supply voltage to stator winding per phase

I1 = Stator current per phase
I0 = No-load stator current per phase
E1 = Stator emf per phase
E2 = Rotor emf at stand-still per phase
R1 = Stator winding resistance per phase
X1 = Stator winding leakage reactance per phase
R2 = Rotor winding resistance per phase
X2 = Rotor winding leakage reactance per phase at standstill
I2 = Rotor current per phase at stand-still
2
Rotor current per phase at stand-still is given by:
E
I = 2 (5.7)
2
R2 + X 2
2 2
I2 lags E2 by a phase angle of 2.

R
Where, Cos = 2 (5.8)
2
R + X2
2
2 2
The torque developed by the rotor at stand-still (TS) is proportional to the flux per pole and active component of I2.
Hence, TS = K. . I2 Cos2, Where  = Flux per pole.

Like in transformer, the magnetic flux per pole () remains constant irrespective of change in I1 and I2. It
only depends on Iμ Or V1 or E1.
Since, E2  E1    E2
E R
 T = K .E 2  2
S 1 2
R2 + X 2 R + X2
2
2 2 2 2
K1.E 2 R
OR T = 2 2 (5.9)
S
R + X2
2
2 2
3
5.5 Analysis of running condition of induction motor
When the rotor rotates, the relative speed between rotating magnetic field and the rotor conductors
decreases, there by reducing the rate of cutting the flux by the conductor. Therefore, the magnitude of emf
induced in the rotor decreases with compare to emf induced at stand still condition. The frequency of emf
induced in the rotor circuit also reduces accordingly. The magnitude and frequency of emf induced in the
rotor at running condition are given by:
ER = s. E2 (5.10) and fR = s.f (5.11)
Since the reactance of an inductor depends on frequency, the value of leakage reactance of rotor circuit
‘X2’ also reduces in running condition and is given by:
XR = s. X2 (5.11)
Hence, the situation of running condition is drastically different from the standstill condition and the
equivalent circuit of the three-phase induction motor at running condition is shown in Fig.5.12.
Fig.5.12 Per phase equivalent circuit of induction motor at running condition
4
Here, XR is shown variable, because it value changes
with speed. The rotor current at running condition is
given by:
s.E
I = 2 (5.13)
R
R + ( s. X ) 2
2
2 2
IR lags ER (i.e. s.E2 ) by a phase angle of R.
R
Where, Cos = 2 (5.14)
R
R 2 + ( s. X ) 2
2 2
The torque developed by the rotor at running condition (TR) is proportional to the flux per pole and active
component of IR.
Hence, TR = K. . IR CosR, Where  = Flux per pole.
s.E R
 T = K .E 2  2
R 1 2 2 2 2
R +s X R2 + s2 X 2
2 2 2 2
K s E 2R
OR T = 1 2 2 (5.15)
R R2 + s2 X 2
2 2
5
A 400V, 4-pole, 50 Hz, 3-phase, 10 HP, star-connected induction motor has no-load slip of 0.01 and
full load slip of 0.04 Calculate:
a)Speed of rotating magnetic field b) No-load speed c) Full load speed
d) Frequency of rotor current at full load d) Full load torque
Solution:
120  f 120  50
a) Speed of rotating magnetic field : N = = = 1500 rpm
S P 4
N −N
b) Slip is given by: s= s
N Or N = Ns(1-s)
s
No-load slip snl = 0.01  No-load speed N0 = Ns(1-snl)
N0 = Ns(1-snl) = 1500 (1 – 0.01) = 1485 rpm
c) Full load slip sfl = 0.04  Full-load speed Nfl = Ns(1-sfl)
Or Nfl = Ns(1-sfl) = 1500 (1 – 0.04) = 1440 rpm
d) Frequency of rotor current at full load = fr = s. f = 0.04 ×50 = 2 Hz
e) Full load torque:

Full load power = 10 HP = 10 ×735.5 = 7355 watts
The relation between power and torque is given by: P = 2. .N .T
60
P  60
fl 7355  60
 Full load torque T = = = 48.77 N - m
FL 2. . N 2    1440
fl
6
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz slip-ring induction motor has star-connected stator windings and rotor
windings. The rotor winding impedance is (1 + j4) ohms per phase at standstill. The rotor circuit has
induced emf of 400V between slip rings at standstill. The stator to rotor turn ratio is 2. Assuming that there
is no power loss, calculate: rotor current and power factor and stator current a) at starting b) when running
at 1440 rpm.
Solution:
The per phase equivalent circuit of three-phase induction
motor is shown below:
a) At standstill:
120  f 120  50
N = = = 1500 Speed of rotor N = 0
S P 4
N − N 1500 − 0
 Slip s = s = =1
N 1500
s
Emf induced in rotor circuit at stand still (line to line) = 400V
400
Emf induced in rotor circuit at standstill (E2 per phase) = = 230.9V
3
E 230.9
Then rotor circuit current per phase, I = 2 = = 56 A
2
R2 + X 2 2
1 +4 2
2 2
R 1
Rotor circuit power factor Cos = 2 = = 0.243 lagging
2
R2 + X 2 12 + 4 2
2 2
I N N 1
Asssuming no power loss, 1 = 2 Or I = 2  I = I =  56 = 28 A
I N 1 N 2 1 2
2 1 1
7
b) At running condition:
N − N 1500 − 1440
s= s = = 0.04
N 1500
s
Emf induced in rotor circuit (per phase) ER = s E2 = 0.04×230.9 = 9.23V
s.E
2 0.04  230.9
Rotor circuit current per phase I = = = 9.12 A
R
R 2 + ( s. X ) 2 2
1 + (0.04  4) 2
2 2
R 1
Rotor circuit power factor, Cos = 2 = = 0.987 Lagging
R
R 2 + ( s. X ) 2 12 + (0.04  4) 2
2 2
N 1
Stator current I = 2  I OR I =  9.12 = 4.56 A
1 N R 1 2
1
8
5.6 Torque-slip characteristic of three-phase induction motor
The torque- slip characteristic is curve showing the torque developed by the motor at different values of
slip or speed.
K s.E 2 R
The torgue develpoed by the motor is given by : T = 1 2 2
R
R2 + s2 X 2
2 2
From this equation, it is clear that the torque developed by the motor depends upon the slip, provided R2
X2 and E2 are constants. However, the relation between torque and speed is not linear.
Within the normal operating range (i.e. no-load to full-load), the value of slip is very small. Therefore the
term s2X22 is very small with compare to R22. Therefore, the torque equation for normal operating range
can be simplified as follow:
K s.E 2 s
T = 1 2 Or T  Or T  s for constant R
R R R R 2
R 2
2
Hence, torque increases proportionately with increase in slip ( or with decrease in speed). This part of
characteristic curve is represented by a straight line AB on the curve shown in Fig.5.13. The torque
goes on increasing with slip, but there is a limit up which the torque increases with slip. After that
limit, the torque decreases with increase in slip.
9
Fig.5.13 Torque-slip characteristic of 3-phase induction motor.
The value of slip at which the torque will be maximum, can be determined as follow:
K s..E 2 R 1
T = 1 2 2 Let Y =
R
R +s X2
2 2 T
R
2 2
R2 + s2 X 2 R2 s2 X 2 R sX 2
Then Y = 2 2 = 2 + 2 = 2 + 2
2
K s.E R 2
K s.E R 2
K s.E R K s.E 2 2
K E R
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2
dY −R X2 dY dY
OR = 2 + 2 Y will be minimum, when = 0, Or TR will be maximum when =0
ds K s 2 .E 2 K E 2 R ds ds
1 2 1 2 2
10
R X2 R2 R
2 = 2 2
Or s = 2 = 0 2 = 0 ( Condition for maximum efficiency )
Or
2 2 2 Or s =
K s .E
1 2
K E R
1 2 2 X2 X
2 2
At this particular value of slip (speed), the torque will be maximum as shown in Fig.5.14.
If the slip is further increased beyond this value

of s = R2/X2, s2X22 will be no more small with
compare to R22. But R22 becomes small with
compare to s2X22. This is the overload
condition. Hence, the torque equation during
overload condition can be simplified as follow:
K s..E 2 R K .R .E 2
T = 1 2 2
Or T = 1 2 2
R R2 + s2 X 2 R
2 2 s. X 2
R 1
Or T  2 Or T  for R constant Fig.5.14 Torque-slip characteristic of 3-phase induction motor.
R s R s 2
Hence, torque decreases with increase in slip ( or with decrease in speed). This part of characteristic curve is
represented by a the line BC on the curve shown in Fig.5.13. At point ‘C’ speed is zero (s=1), the torque
developed by the motor is equal to OC, which known as starting torque of the motor. Hence, the expression
for starting torque can be obtained by setting s =1 in the eqn(5.15) as follow:
K .E 2 R
T = 1 2 2 (5.16)
S
R2 + X 2
2 2
11
5.7 Effect of rotor resistance on T-S characteristic
It has been shown in the previous section that:

s R
T  for normal operating range And T  2 for over - load and starting conditions .
R R S s
2
If some resistance (Rex) per phase is added in series with the rotor winding (that can be done in case of
phase wound rotor), the starting torque will increase and running torque will decrease. Now the maximum
torque will developed at new value of slip sm = (R2+Rex)/X2. Fig.5.15 shows the effect of rotor resistance
on T-S characteristic.
Fig.5.15 Effect of rotor resistance on T-S characteristic.
12
Curve ABC is the T-S characteristic with rotor resistance R2 and Curve AB’C’ is the T-S characteristic with
rotor resistance R2+Rex. At a particular speed N1, with rotor resistance R2, the running torque is equal to T1.
At the same speed with rotor resistance equal to R2+Rex , the running torque is onlyT2. However, the
starting TS2 with rotor resistance R2+Rex is greater than the starting torque TS1 with rotor resistance R2.
Hence, external resistance is used in series with rotor winding, where high starting is required such as in
electric lift, electric train etc. In such a case, the external resistance shall be reduce again during the normal
running period, otherwise running torque will be low.
13
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50Hz slip-ring induction motor has star-connected stator windings and rotor
windings. The rotor winding impedance is (1+j4) ohms per phase at standstill. The rotor circuit has
induced emf of 400V between slip rings at standstill. The stator to rotor turn ratio is 2. The motor
produces a starting torque of 25N-m. Calculate the torque produced by the motor at 1440 rpm
Solution:
120  f 120  50
Synchronou s speed N = = = 1500 rpm
S P 4
N − N 1500 − 0
At starting, speed of rotor N = 0 slip at starting s = s = =1
0 N 1500
s
Emf induced in rotor circuit (line to line) = 400V
400
Emf induced in rotor circuit (per phase) = E 2 = = 230.9V
3
K .E 2 R K .E 2 R
Starting torque is given by : T = 1 2 2 Or 25 = 1 2 2
S
R2 + X 2 R2 + X 2
2 2 2 2
25  ( R 2 + X 2 ) 25  (1 + 42 )
Or K = 2 2 = = 1.933 ×10 - 3
1 2
E R (230.9) 2  1
2 2
N − N 1500 − 1440
When the rotor speed N = 1440 rpm Slip s = s = = 0.04
N 1500
s
K s..E 2 R
Torque developed by rotor at any speed is given by : T = 1 2 2
R
R +s X2
2 2
2 2
− 3
1.933  10  0.04  (230.9)  12
 T = = 3.55 N - m
R
12 + (0.04  4) 2
14
5.7 Losses and efficiency of three phase induction motor:
Induction motor takes electrical power input from the electrical source and the shaft of the
motor gives mechanical power output. The output power is always less than the input power,
because there are power losses within the motor at various stages. The different power
transformation stages in induction motor are shown below in Fig.5.16.
Fig.5.16 Block diagram of power stages in 3-phase induction motor
The power stages diagram also can be presented in pictorial format as shown in in Fin.5.17
15
Fig.5.17 Pictorial format of power stages in 3-phase induction motor
- Total power input to the stator is the sum of the active power and reactive power consumed by the motor.
- The reactive power will be utilized to establish air-gap magnetic flux in the machine. Whereas, the active
power will be utilized to give mechanical power at the end.
- Stator copper loss is the power loss (I2R) due to the internal resistance of the stator winding, which will be
converted into heat energy.
- Stator iron loss is the power loss in the stator iron core due to eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
- Hence, the active power input to the rotor will be less than input active power by an amount of stator
copper and iron loss
16
- Frequency of emf induce in the rotor circuit is very low (fr =sf ).
- Hence, the iron loss in rotor circuit is negligible.
- If the copper loss in the rotor circuit is subtracted from the power input to the rotor, it gives
mechanical power developed by the rotor.
- There will be some power loss in the shaft due to the friction.
- Hence, the net power output at shaft is obtained by subtracting the friction loss from the
mechanical power developed by the rotor.
Net Power Output from Shaft

The overall efficiency of the motor :  = (5.17)
o Avtive Power Input to Stator
Let torque developed by the rotor at a speed of ‘N’ RPM = TR
17
2. .N.T
Then power developed by the rotor P = R
R 60
If there were no copper loss in the rotor circuit, all the power input to the rotor would be converted into
mechanical power and in such a case the rotor would rotate at synchronous speed.
2. .Ns.T
In such a case the power developed by the rotor woul d be R
60
2. .Ns.T 2. .N.T
Hence, the rotor copper loss = R- R = 2. .T Ns - N.
60 60 R 60
Rotor copper loss 2. .T (Ns - N) Ns - N

Then = R = = s (slip)
Rotor input power 2. .T Ns Ns
R
Therefore, Rotor copper loss = s × Rotor input power (5.18)
18

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Electric Machine-I (Course Code: EE 551 )

Delivered By: Prof. Dr. Indraman Tamrakar

Chapter –1 ( Reviews on Magnetism )

-Electric motors are most widely used in different applications such as

- Operating principle of all the electric machines are based on theories of

Fig.1.1 Bar magnet and its magnetic field

Fig.1.2 Force of attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles

Fig.1.3 Magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field

Magnetic field intensity at point ‘A’ is given by:

Fig.1.4 Illustration of magnetic flux density

Magnetic flux density at the pole face is given by:

Fig.1.5 Illustration of right hand screw rule

Fig.1.7 Illustration of work law

Fig.1.8 Cross-sectional view of an electromagnet

Let L = Length of the core

Fig.1.9 (a) Electromagnet (b) Magnetization curve (B-H curve)

The magnetizing force inside the core is

Fig.1.10 (a) Un-magnetized Fig.1.10(b) Partially magnetized Fig.1.10 ( c ) Fully magnetized

Fig.1.11 Hysteresis loop of an electromagnet

OC = Retaintivity = Residual Flux Density

Energy Loss in demagnetizing the residual flux density

Then the magnetic flux in the core at any

The source has to expend some energy to push

Fig.1.12 Hysteresis loop of a magnetic material

Fig.1.14 (a) Electromagnet excited by ac voltage source

Fig.1.14 (b) Waveform of exciting current and Corresponding hysteresis loop

Where, Bm = Peak value of magnetic flux density in the core (Wb/m2)

Fig.1.15 Magnetic circuit

Fig.1.17 Series magnetic circuit

Section-1 : L1 = ba + ai + ih, Area = A1, Permeability = μ1

Fig.1.18(a) Parallel magnetic circuit Fig.1.18(b) Corresponding electric circuit

For electric circuit,

No Relative motion between

Fig.1.21 Illustration of statically induced emf

Example-1: Emf due to increasing current in coil-A

Fig.1.22 Illustration of Lenz’s law (case-I )

Fig.1.23 Illustration of Lenz’s law (case-II)

The distance moved ‘dx’ by the conductor in a small time

Fig.1.26. Illustration of Fleming’s right hand rule

Fig.1.28 Dynamically induced emf with inclined direction of motion of conductor

Fig.1.29. Force developed on current carrying conductor

The magnitude of the force so developed is given by:

Therefore, inductance also can be defined as flux-linkage per ampere of current.

Fig.1.33 Inductive coil

Fig.1.34 Illustration of mutual inductance.

Fig.1.35 Illustration of leakage flux.

- Leakage flux is not useful in electric machine.

We = K Bm2 f 2 t2 Vol (Watts) (1.23)

Where, Bm = Peak value of magnetic flux density in the core (Wb/m2)

Initial flux Final flux

Initial flux in the coil 1 = 0.5 mWb = 0.5×10-3 wb

Initial current in the coil I1 = 10 Amp

Here, lmean = 20 cm = 0.2 m, Air gap length Lg = 2mm = 0.002 m

Total Reluctance of the magnetic circuit :

  Re l(total) 2 ×10- 4  165.684  105

Fig.2.2 Basic construction of transformer

-Basically, a transformer consists of a rectangular window shaped iron core as shown in

Fig.2.3 Circuit representation of transformer