​ KAUMARAM SUSHILA INTERNATIONAL RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

GRADE :- 9​th​ IGCSE Sub:- Biology CHAPTER :- Drugs notes

What is a Drug?

● A drug is ​any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the
body
● Some drugs are medicinal drugs that are used to treat the symptoms or causes of a disease – for
example, ​antibiotics

Antibiotics

● Antibiotics are ​chemical substances​ made by certain ​fungi or bacteria​ that affect the working of
bacterial cells, either by ​disrupting their structure or function​ or by ​preventing them from
reproducing.
● Antibiotics are ​effective against bacteria but not against viruses.
● Antibiotics target processes and structures that are specific to bacterial (prokaryotic) cells; as
such they do not generally harm animal cells.
Effectiveness of Antibiotics

● Some bacteria that cause disease have become ​resistant​ to antibiotics and this ​reduces the 
effectiveness of prescribed antibiotics​ when someone has a bacterial infection, as it might 
be caused by a type of bacteria that is resistant to that particular antibiotic 
● Viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics 
● This is because antibiotics work by ​disrupting cell functions such as respiration, or breaking 
down the structure of the cell in some way 
● However, viruses ​do not carry out any cell functions​ and ​do not have cell walls, cell 
membranes or any cell organelles ​as viruses infect and utilise the machinery of animal cells 
to reproduce, which are not affected by antibiotics. 
● Therefore the action of antibiotics ​do not affect them 
● Since the first antibiotic was discovered in 1928, many more have been discovered and 
developed and antibiotics were and are ​widely overused 
● Commonly prescribed antibiotics are becoming ​less effective​ due to a number of reasons: 
o overuse​ and being prescribed when not really necessary 
o patients ​failing to complete the fully prescribed course​ by a doctor 
o large scale ​use of antibiotics in farming​ to prevent disease when livestock are kept in 
close quarters, even when animals are not actually sick 
● This has lead to the effectiveness of antibiotics being reduced, and the incidence of antibiotic 
resistance increasing 
● These bacteria are commonly known as superbugs and the most common is ​MRSA 
● Ways individuals can help ​prevent​ the incidence of antibiotic resistance increasing include: 
o only taking antibiotics when ​absolutely essential 
o when prescribed a course of antibiotics, ​ensure that the entire course is 
completed​ even if you feel better after a few days 
Alcohol

● Wines, beers and spirits contain an alcohol called ​ethanol 

● It is a ​depressant drug​ – it slows down signals in the nerves and brain 
● Because alcohol ​increases reaction times​ (meaning it increases the time taken to react to 
situations because it slows down signalling in the brain), there are ​legal limits for drinking 
and driving ​in many countries 

Effects of alcohol: 
 ● The ​liver​ removes alcohol from the bloodstream
● it has enzymes that break down alcohol but the products of the reactions involved are toxic and
over time, the liver can be ​irreparably damaged
● In many people, alcohol can be a very ​addictive​ drug

Heroin

● Heroin is a powerful ​depressant​ drug

● It ​reduces pain​ and ​slows down breathing
● It is​ highly addictive​ and users quickly develop a ​tolerance​ for it, meaning they need larger and
larger amounts in order to feel the same effects – this increases the risk of
accidentally ​overdosing​, which can cause ​death
● This means they need ​more money​ to pay for the ​increased amounts of the drug​ they are
taking; as the drug makes them ​less able to cope with everyday life and maintain a job​, they
may​ turn to crime​ in order to get the money they need
● As it is so addictive, if a user stops taking heroin they suffer from significant ​withdrawal
symptoms​, such as ​nausea, muscle cramps, sweating, anxiety​ and ​difficulty sleeping
● Heroin can be taken into the body in different ways; one of the most common is ​injecting with a
syringe
● As syringe needles cost money, heroin addicts may ​share needles​ which ​increases​ the risk
of ​transmission of blood-borne infections such as HIV
● In the brain there are many different ​chemical neurotransmitters​ that transfer nerve impulses 
across synapses 
● The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and fit into ​receptor molecules​ on the 
postsynaptic membrane 
● One group of neurotransmitters is called ​endorphins​ which help to ​reduce sensations of 
pain, affect mood ​and​ reduce sensations of hunger and thirst 
● When it enters the brain, heroin is metabolised to ​morphine 
● Morphine molecules ​fit into some of the endorphin receptors​ and this is why taking heroin 
makes users feel so good 
 ● Taking heroin can ​reduce the production of natural endorphins​ and other neurotransmitters, 
which is why repeated use ​leads to the need for greater and greater amounts​ in order to 
get the same feelings 

Tobacco & The Gas Exchange System

● Smoking causes ​chronic obstructive lung disease, coronary heart disease and ​increased 

risks of several different types of cancer, including​ lung cancer 
● Chemicals in cigarettes include: 
o Tar​ – a carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer)) 
o Nicotine​ – an addictive substance which also narrows blood vessels 
o Carbon monoxide​ – reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood 

● Section through a normal lung Section through a smoker’s lung  

● Tar is a ​carcinogen​ and is linked to increased chances of cancerous cells developing in the 
lungs 
● It also contributes to ​COPD, ​which occurs when ​chronic bronchitis​ and ​emphysema​, two 
different diseases which are frequently linked to smoking, occur together 
● Chronic bronchitis is caused by ​tar​ which stimulates goblet cells and mucus glands to 
enlarge, ​producing more mucus 
● It destroys ​cilia​, inhibiting the cleaning of the airways, and ​mucus​ (containing dirt, bacteria 
and viruses) ​builds up​ blocking the smallest bronchioles 
● A ​smoker’s cough​ is the attempt to move the mucus but it ​damages the epithelia​ resulting in 
scar tissue, which ​narrows the airways​ and makes ​breathing difficult 
● Emphysema​ develops as a result of ​frequent infection​, meaning ​phagocytes​ are attracted to 
the lungs where they release ​elastase​ – an enzyme that ​breaks down the elastin in the 
alveoli walls​, to enable them to reach the surface where the bacteria are 
● Without adequate elastin, the ​alveoli cannot stretch​, so they recoil and many burst 
● The breakdown of alveoli results in the appearance of large air spaces, ​reducing the surface 
area for gas exchange​ and making sufferers breathe more rapidly 
● As it progresses, patients become ​breathless and wheezy​ – they may need a constant supply 
of oxygen to stay alive 
 The breakdown of alveoli in emphysema reduces the surface area for gas exchange

Carbon monoxide

● Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to haemoglobin​, reducing the capacity of blood

to carry oxygen
● This puts more strain on the breathing system as ​breathing frequency and depth need
to increase ​in order to get the same amount of oxygen into the blood
● It also puts more strain on the circulatory system to pump the blood faster around the
body and ​increases the risk of coronary heart disease and strokes

Nicotine

● Nicotine​ ​narrows blood vessels​ so will put more strain on the circulatory system
and ​increase blood pressure
● Narrow blood vessels are more likely to become clogged with fat, including cholesterol –
if this happens in the coronary artery, this causes ​coronary heart disease
● This means the heart muscle cells do not get sufficient oxygen and so less aerobic
respiration takes place
● To compensate the cells respire ​anaerobically​, producing ​lactic acid​ which cannot be
removed (due to lack of blood supply)
● This creates a ​low pH​ environment in the cells causing ​enzymes to denature​ and
eventually ​heart muscle cells will die
● If enough die this can cause a ​heart attack
 The majority of cases of lung cancer are caused by smoking 

Graph showing correlation between numbers of adults who smoke and lung cancer rates over 
time 

● Note that as the general trend shows that as the numbers of adults who smoke decreases, so 
does the lung cancer rates a few years later (as cancer takes some time to develop) 
● The trend in the rate of developing lung cancer for women has been increasing, while in men 
it is decreasing 
● This is because numbers of female smokers – unlike men – continued to increase in the 1950s 
and 1960s before starting to fall 
● As cancer takes some years to develop, a fall in female rates of lung cancer is likely to occur 
later 
● Hormones produced in the body help to control the way it develops and responds to changes 
● Some people take additional hormones to ​increase these effects 
● This is most commonly done to ​improve sporting performance 
● Testosterone​ is the hormone produced in the testes that affects the development of male 
secondary sexual characteristics 
 ● It is one of a group of hormones known as ​steroids​ which stimulate ​anabolic reactions​ to 
occur in the body (meaning the synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones), so it is known 
as an ​anabolic steroid 
● One of the effects of testosterone is to cause ​more proteins to be made in muscles​ so that 
muscles become larger and stronger 
● Taking anabolic steroids therefore ​increases muscle mass, helps athletes train harder and 
for longer periods of time, ​and can​ increase aggression​ which can give an edge when 
competing 
● The use of anabolic steroids in sports is banned as it gives an ​unfair advantage​ and also 
has ​serious side effects​, including: 
o increases risk of heart disease 
o increases risk of liver damage 
o increases risk of kidney damage 
o affect the menstrual cycle in women 
o decreases the ability of the immune system to destroy pathogens 

  
Exam Tip 
Most questions about this section of the syllabus expect you to analyse data in a table or graph and 
discuss it to show the evidence for a link between smoking and lung cancer as shown in the notes 
above. 

Keep your points concise and refer to the data as much as possible. 
How Drug mimics through the brain