Thesis 7: SACRED LITURGY

“The Liturgy is rightly seen as an exercise of the priestly office of Jesus Christ” (SC 7).

Introduction:

The word “liturgy” originally meant a “public work” or a “service done on behalf of the
people.” In Christian tradition, it means the participation of the People of God in “the work of
God,” which is the salvation of all people and to make himself known to the people as a loving
Father to them. Through the liturgy, Christ, our redeemer and high priest, continues the work
of our redemption in, with and through his Church. Two things are important here: our
participation and Christ’s work of salvation in, with and through the Church. [from CCC 1069
– 1070]

In order for the Father to accomplish the mystery of His will, He sent His Son and the Holy
Spirit for the salvation of the world and for the glory of His name. Jesus fulfilled this plan of
God by the Paschal Mystery of His blessed Passion, Resurrection from the dead and glorious
Ascension. Also, it was from the side of Christ that the mystery of the Church as a sacrament
for the salvation for the world flowed (SC 5). Consequently, the Church, being the sacrament of
salvation, celebrates the liturgy in order to make present the Paschal Mystery of Christ for the
people and participate in the act of salvation which He brings to us. [from CCC 1066 – 1068]

I. The Role of Worship in Christian Life

Worship in the context of the liturgy, which makes present the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross,
brings about the glorification of God and the sanctification of man. Through worship, God is
glorified and we are sanctified. The highest act of worship, through which God is glorified, is
the Eucharist itself. The reason is that through the Eucharist, God gives Himself through His
Son as a sacrifice in order for us to be saved and to participate in the inner life of God.

The liturgy, especially through the Eucharist, builds up the Church by strengthening those who
are in the Church and by incorporating into the Church those who are outside the Church. At
the same time, the liturgy empowers the people to preach and witness the Gospel.

II. Liturgy as an Exercise of the Priestly Office of Jesus Christ

This act of worship in the liturgy, which brings about the glorification of God and the
sanctification of man, especially the Eucharist, is an exercise of the priestly office of Christ
inasmuch as it is seen as a sacrifice, which is the appropriate function of a priest. In the
liturgy, Christ is the eternal High Priest who offers Himself as the perfect sacrifice (victim)
through the Paschal Mystery. In the Paschal Mystery, Jesus Himself is both the agent and the
sacrifice. It is in this sense that liturgy is an exercise of the priestly office of Christ.

In the liturgy, we encounter God through Jesus Christ. He is present in the Holy Eucharist1,
other sacraments and Liturgy of the Hours. The Church, the Body, cannot separate itself from
Christ, the Head. So the sacrifice that the Church offers is the same sacrifice that Christ offers.
The agent therefore of liturgy is Christ (principal agent) and the Church.

III. The Place of the Sacraments in Christian Worship and in the Sanctification of the
Christians

The sacraments are efficacious signs of God’s grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the
Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us (CCC 1131).2 Their goals are the following: to
sanctify men, to build up the Church and to give worship to God (SC 59). They bear fruit in
those who receive them with the required disposition (CCC 1131).3

The seven sacraments, being the visible signs through which God gives different graces, have a
very important role in Christian worship and in the sanctification of the Christians inasmuch as
they are the channels through which the glorification of God and the sanctification of people
take place. In other words, the sacraments are very important in Christian worship in a sense
that it fulfills Christian worship itself.

The sacraments link us to the past in order to live the present and journey to the future; which is
what liturgy means: to remember the mystery of Christ’s sacrifice, to make it present and to
anticipate the heavenly liturgy.

Let us take our example from the sacrament of baptism. This sacrament brings us to the past (to
the mystery of Christ on the cross) to pour out His blood and cleanse us from sin in order to live
as children of God which leads us to paradise in the kingdom of God in the future.

IV. The Consecration of Time

1
Christ is present in the: 1) minister, 2) Eucharistic species, 3) proclaimed word 4) and assembly.
2
Effects of the sacraments: 1) Eucharist makes present the paschal mystery of Christ and thus brings salvation; 2) the sacraments of
initiation incorporate the believers into the communion of the Church and brings all the effects of grace that this process entails; 3)
the sacraments of healing bring forgiveness and well-being to the Christian in special situations; 4) the sacraments of service
summon men and women to special forms of service in the Church and equip them for these.
3
Two things that need to be considered: 1) ex opere operato (Lat. “on the basis of the act performed”) = the objective efficacy and
fruitfulness of the sacraments, which do not primarily depend on the attitudes or merits of those receiving or administering them; 2)
ex opere operantis (Lat. “on the basis of the one acting”) = the subjective dispositions for receiving a sacrament, which function not
as a cause but rather as the condition for the full effectiveness of God’s grace.
The sacraments sanctify all the important events of a Christian’s life. Baptism grants the
person new life in Christ. Confirmation strengthens and incorporates us closer to the Church.
The Eucharist accompanies us in our daily journey and brings about the perfection of charity.
Penance gives us strength again after we fall into sin. Matrimony grants the graces to continue
and fulfill the blessing of God to multiply. Holy Orders enable the Church to continue the work
of Christ through the office entrusted by Christ to the Apostles, in order to bring unity to the
people. Anointing of the Sick accompanies us in moments of suffering and death. Thus, through
the sacraments, we are sanctified in all the important events of our lives.

It means that, in God, all time is sanctified (see question #3 below). Also in the life of the
Church, all time is sanctified. This sanctification is brought about through the different
liturgical celebrations throughout the year. This is known as the liturgical year. In the liturgical
year, the mystery of Christ’s life unfolds from His birth to His second coming, so that at every
moment, time is consecrated. And every moment in the year is a locus to meet the Lord in His
mystery: Advent (preparation), Christmas (birth), Lent (passion & death), Easter (resurrection),
etc. At every moment, we participate in the mystery of the life of Christ himself.

V. Liturgical Inculturation and Popular Religiosity

However, in order to meet the Lord in each particular time in our life, that act of worship has
to fit in our own culture. The celebration of the liturgy should correspond to the culture of
different people. This principle is called liturgical inculturation. Since each of us is created
unique and called to being unique, and each of us are incorporated into a nation or culture
different with others, so the way God comes to us is different with others. Each has different
needs. Thus the mystery of Christ should be known to different nations and people to fit into
that community in a certain way that Christ’s mystery is not annihilated or does not disappear.
In the principle of inculturation, there are some things that are instituted by Christ and therefore
cannot be abolished. But there are some parts that the Church has the power to change it. In the
Eucharist, for example, the bread and wine cannot be abolished. So there is the need to discern
in this regard.

Moreover, in our act of worship, we are different. The way we approach God is different. And
so here comes popular religiosity, which is a manner of praying from the diversity or
uniqueness of each person. This was originally private. They cannot be called a liturgy, which
are public acts of worship. Some are good. Some are not so good. So it is important to discern
whether it is according to the teachings (doctrines) of the Church.

Questions:
1. Who celebrates the liturgy? It is the whole body of Christ (Christ and the Church), since it is
a public act of worship (even when the priest says Mass alone). [see CCC 1136-1144]

2. How is it celebrated? It is celebrated through the different signs and symbols (e.g. bread and
wine in the Eucharist), words and actions (e.g. speaking, reading, singing, standing, sitting,
kneeling, etc.) and holy images. [see CCC 1145-1162]

3. When is it celebrated? It is celebrated throughout the whole year: 1) liturgical year (where
the whole mystery of Christ unfolds through the different seasons and feasts of the Lord), 2)
Sundays (where the memory of Christ’s resurrection is celebrated [also called the Lord’s Day]),
3) feasts of Mary (where the most excellent fruit of redemption is honored, admired and
exalted) of the saints (proposed as faithful examples and begs for God’s favors through their
merits), 4) the Holy Mass and the Liturgy of the Hours (the mystery of Christ, celebrated in the
Holy Mass [especially at Sunday assembly], permeates and transfigures the different moments
of each day). NB: Adoration is not a liturgical celebration, but a popular devotion. [see CCC
1163-1178]

4. Where is it celebrated? It is celebrated in the church (a house of prayer in which the

Eucharist is celebrated and reserved) or any fitting place. It must have the following elements
that show the active presence of Christ in the place: 1) altar (the Lord’s cross [sacrifice] and the
Lord’s table), 2) tabernacle (in a most worthy place with greatest honor), 3) chair (expression of
the office of presiding over the assembly), 4) lectern or ambo (a suitable place for the
proclamation of the Word of God). [see 1179-1186]

NB: check also Fr. Joel’s reviewer

Thesis 8: BAPTISM & CONFIRMATION
“‘You must repent,’ Peter answered, ‘and everyone of you must be baptized in the name of
Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins, and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit’”
(Ac 2:38).

I. The Nature of Baptism and its Necessity for Salvation

Baptism comes from the word “to baptize” (Gr. “baptizein”) which means “to plunge”. In
Pauline understanding, the act of plunging into the water symbolizes our death to sin, and the
act of rising from the water symbolizes our new birth in Christ (2 Cor 5:17). The nature of
baptism is that we are buried in Christ’s death and from the washing of regeneration we are
renewed in the Holy Spirit in order to become a new person. We are buried with Christ in His
death so that we may share in His glory as the Risen Lord. By being born again, we become a
new creature.

Baptism is defined as the sacrament4 through which we are born anew (spiritual regeneration) in
the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit by the ablution with water and the invocation of the
Holy Trinity. Through the washing with water and with the invocation of the name of the
Father, Son and Holy Spirit, we are born anew.

The essential rite of baptism consists of matter and form. The matter of baptism is natural clean
water.5 Form refers to the formula: “I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and
of the Holy Spirit.” For the validity of the form the following elements must be present: 1) “I”
(which refers to the minister), 2) “you” (which refers to the subject of baptism), 3) “baptize”
(which refers to the action) 4) “name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit”
(which refers to the unity of the three divine persons).6

Baptism is necessary for salvation. Jesus said to peter: “Unless I wash you, you will have no
inheritance with me (Jn 13:8). Jesus also said to Nicodemus: “No one can enter the kingdom of
God without being born of water and Spirit.”

II. The Effects of the Sacrament of Baptism

Now if baptism is necessary for salvation, it must have its effects. Baptism has two principal
effects: 1) purification from sins7 2) and new birth in Christ in the Holy Spirit. The other effects
are: 3) incorporation into the Church (the baptized becomes a member of the Church) 4)
4
Take note of the Church’s definition of the word “sacrament.”
5
Distinction: proximate matter = refers to the application of real water on the candidate through immersion or pouring; remote
matter = refers to the real water.
6
Their unity is indicated by the word “name” which is singular in form.
communion with other Christians (it makes the baptized one with the other Christians) and 5)
sacramental character (the baptized is marked with an indelible seal of Christ which means that
he belongs forever to Him [cannot be repeated]).

III. The Celebration of the Christian Initiation of Adults8

For the adult baptism, the three sacraments of initiation (baptism, confirmation and eucharist)
are celebrated together. Adult baptism therefore has to pass through different stages 1) Pre-
catechumenate (period of evangelization), 2) Catechumenate (period of catechetical
instruction), 3) Purification and Enlightenment (period of prayer, reflection, fasting and
immediate preparation) and 4) Mystagogy9 (period of post-baptismal catechesis to help the
newly baptized after the celebration of the sacraments). Each stage has its own set of rite(s).

The celebration of adult baptism (which includes the three sacraments of initiation) has six
parts: 1) Rite of Reception, 2) Liturgy of the Word, 3) Celebration of Baptism, 4) Explanatory
Rites (clothing with a baptismal garment and presentation of a lighted candle), 5) Celebration of
Confirmation and 6) Liturgy of the Eucharist.

IV. The Distinctiveness of Confirmation

Confirmation is defined as the sacrament by which the baptized person, through the anointing
of the sacred chrism and the imposition of hands, and the recitation of the sacramental formula,
receives the grace and is strengthened to profess and defend the faith. The word “profess” and
“defend” the faith is what makes confirmation different from baptism (which is about the
“reception” of the faith). In this sense, confirmation completes the grace received in baptism.

As for the matter and form constitutes the essential rite of confirmation. The matter is the
anointing of chrism by the laying on of hands. The form is the recitation of the words: “Be
sealed with the gift of the Holy Spirit.”

The effects of confirmation are: 1) deepens and increases the baptismal grace due to the full
outpouring of the Holy Spirit (refers to the effects of baptism mentioned above) and 2) the
sacramental character (it leaves an indelible mark on the person).

7
Purification from sins has three aspects: 1) original sin, 2) all personal sins (in the case of adult baptism) and 3) all punishment due
to sin.
8
The baptism of children is easy since it only follows the basic format: 1) reception, 2) liturgy of the Word, 3) celebration of the
sacrament, 4) explanatory rites and 5) conclusion of the rite.
9
Mystagogy (Gr. “leading to the secrets”) means instruction into the secret rites and mysteries of a religion. In our Christian context,
it refers to the catechetical instructions which aim at deeper knowledge and experience o f God.
V. The Gifts10 and Fruits of the Holy Spirit

In order to profess and defend our faith, the Holy Spirit gives us seven gifts: 1) wisdom, 2)
understanding, 3) knowledge, 4) counsel, 5) fortitude, 6) piety and 7) fear of the Lord. The first
four helps the intellect. The next three helps the will. In order to profess and defend our faith,
we have to know and will it. These gifts can be found in Isaiah 11:1-3. In the New Testament
(NT), we can find the other gifts of the Holy Spirit. 1 Corinthians 12:4-14 lists the following:
expression of wisdom, expression of knowledge, faith, healing, mighty deeds, prophecy,
discernment of spirits, varieties of tongues and interpretation of tongues. 1 Corinthians 12:27-30
has a different list: apostles, prophets, teachers, mighty deeds, healing, assistance,
administration and varieties of tongues. The gifts of the Holy Spirit that is mentioned in the Old
Testament are gifts for all. The one in the NT is not for all but for certain individuals. In the
context of the NT, the Holy Spirit is understood as the one who continues the redemptive work
of Jesus.

Because of the gifts of the Holy Spirit, we are expected to produce results. These results are
called “the fruits of the Holy Spirit” which can be found in Galatians 5:20-23: 1) love, 2) joy, 3)
peace, 4) patience, 5) kindness, 6) generosity, 7) faithfulness, 8) gentleness and 9) self-control.

Thesis 9: THE EUCHARIST

“These remained faithful to the teaching of the apostles, to the brotherhood, to the breaking of
the bread and to the prayers” (Ac 2:42).

10
The gifts of the Holy Spirit: 1) Wisdom = perfects a person's speculative reason in matters of judgment about the truth; 2)
Understanding = perfects a person's speculative reason in the apprehension of truth; 3) Knowledge = perfects a person's practical
reason in matters of judgment about the truth; 4) Counsel = (also called “right judgment”) perfects a person's practical reason in the
apprehension of truth and allows the person to respond prudently; 5) Fortitude = allows people the firmness of mind that is
required both in doing good and in enduring evil, especially with regard to goods or evils that are difficult; 6) Piety = (also called
“reverence”) the gift whereby we pay worship and duty to God as our Father; 7) Fear of the Lord = (also called “wonder and awe in
God”) the fear of separating oneself from God (“filial fear” – a child’s fear of offending his father).
I. The Prefiguration of the Eucharist in the Paschal Meal of the Old Testament (OT)

The Eucharist completes Christian initiation. It is a sacrament of love, a sign of unity, a bond of
charity, a Paschal banquet “in which Christ is consumed, the mind is filled with grace, and a
pledge of future glory is given to us” (SC 47). It is the source and summit of the Christian life
(LG 11).11

According to the Fathers of the Church and the theologians of today, we find the prefiguration
of the Eucharist, with the use of typology12, in the Old Testament. The origin of the Eucharist
can be traced back to the following OT incidents: 1) the bread and wine offered by
Melchizedek13 (Jesus as the High Priest offering bread and wine), 2) the manna14 in the desert to
nourish the people in their pilgrimage to the promised land (the Eucharist is seen as a spiritual
nourishment for us in our pilgrimage to heaven), 3) the meal of the covenant especially the
covenant in Mt. Sinai (the Mass as the meal of the new covenant) and 4) the paschal meal (the
Eucharist as the new Passover meal and Jesus as the new paschal lamb). In fact, the structure of
the Eucharist can traced back to the time when God established a covenant with Israel on Mt.
Sinai.

The Paschal meal of the Israelites is: 1) a yearly feast (14th day of Nisan – between march and
April for 8 days), 2) a memorial feast (God led the people out of Egypt), 3) a ritual celebration
(of God’s great deeds on behalf of His people beginning with the “passing over” the house of
the Israelites), 4) only restricted to the Israelites (Ex 12:43-50), and 5) regarded as having been
instituted and commanded by God (Ex 12:1-14).15

For the structure of the Paschal meal, there are two things: 1) the preparatory rituals (they
choose the lamb, they bake the unleavened bread, they clean the house, they remove the
unleavened bread, they slaughter and roast the lamb, they prepare the meal) 2) the Passover
meal (its two fundamental parts: a) a festive banquet [normal meal: meat, bread, bitter herbs,
relish and wine] and a) a memorial ritual [to remember and make present their liberation from
Egypt]).

11
Personal reflection: It is the source inasmuch as our life as Christians flows from the sacrificial love of Jesus which is made present
in the Eucharist. It is the summit inasmuch as the end for which we exist is to give glory to God and be in communion with Him which
is what the Eucharist is about. In the Eucharist, God gives us Jesus. In the Eucharist, we give glory to God (our end) through Jesus, the
perfect offering (at the end there is an explanation by Fr. Anthony).
12
Typology (Gr. “study of images, prototypes”) refers to a way of interpreting events, persons, and things as types foreshadowing
the NT antitypes that fulfilled revelation and salvation.
13
Genesis 14:18
14
Exodus 16
15
Later on, we shall see that actually the Eucharist is restricted to the Christians only. One cannot receive Holy Communion if one is
not baptized. Also, the Eucharist later on will also be instituted by Christ.
II. The Institution of the Eucharist in the Context of the Antiochene (Paul and Luke) and
Palestinian (Mark and Matthew) Traditions (NT)

In the NT, the synoptic Gospels Jesus celebrated the Paschal meal of the Jews at the Last
Supper. However, at the Last Supper account, there is no mention of a lamb to be slaughtered.16
Why? Jesus Himself is the lamb. The Synoptics never mentioned anything about the lamb,
because it is Jesus Himself who will be slaughtered on the cross, in order to free us from the
slavery of sin. The Last Supper, while rooted in the sacrifice and the Passover of the Jews, takes
on a new meaning. Now, the Paschal Mystery (the Eucharistic celebration of Jesus) does not
anymore mean freedom from slavery in Egypt, but freedom from the bondage of sin. The
Eucharist is seen as the new Passover. And the blood that we need is not that of the lamb, but
that of Christ. And whenever, we celebrate the Eucharist, we participate in our “passing over”
from the state of sin (and not anymore from physical slavery) to become children of God.

First, we speak of two accounts of the Last Supper: 1) cultic account (liturgical) and 2) non-
cultic account (non-liturgical). For the cultic account, we have Paul and the Synoptics; which
means Paul, Matthew, Mark and Luke. The cultic account records faithfully that which was
done in the Paschal meal. For the non-cultic account, we have John. For, the Gospel of John has
no account of the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper, but will find the idea of the
Eucharist in chapter 6 in “the bread of life.”

Within the cultic account, there are two traditions that recall the institution of the Eucharist at
the Last Supper: 1) the Palestinian Tradition and 2) the Antiochene Tradition. The Palestinian
Tradition is that which we find in the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. This tradition must have
originated in Jerusalem. It was intended for the Jews in Jerusalem. The Antiochene Tradition is
that which we find in the accounts of Paul (apostle to the Gentiles) and Luke (who was writing
for the Jews in the diaspora and also for the Gentiles). This tradition must have originated in
Antioch. Paul and Luke wrote the institution of the Holy Eucharist in a way that could be
understood by the Hellenistic Jews and the Gentiles. But for Matthew and Mark, because they
were written for the Jews, they were also narrated in a different way.

Both the Antiochene and Palestinian traditions are called the cultic account (or liturgical
account) of the Eucharistic celebration. Actually, the Antiochene tradition is properly based on
the teaching of Paul, which he learned from the Apostles in the church at Antioch. Because we
know that the letters of Paul were written before the Gospel of Luke. So Luke learned from the
ideas of Paul. This tradition used the word “euchristesas” (which means “having given

16
We must remember that the bread, the wine and the lamb are very important in the Paschal meal of the Jews.
thanks”).17 But the Palestinian tradition, which is addressed to the Jews, used the term
“eulogesas” (which means “having pronounced or said the blessing”).18

There are therefore different explanations of the institution here. In the Antiochene tradition, the
function of the Eucharist is linked with the redemptive death of Jesus. Through the Eucharist,
the people are linked to the redemptive death of Jesus on the cross. So when you receive the
Eucharist, you share in the death of Jesus. You share in the very person of Jesus Himself. Since
the addressees don’t understand, in a sense, the covenant on Mt. Sinai, Paul had to use another
term – the “new covenant.” Thus, those who participate in the Eucharist, participate in the new
covenant established by Christ.

For the Palestinian tradition, because they are Jews, blood for them is very important. And this
blood refers to the death of Jesus. So therefore, they do not speak of another thing. For the Jews,
the blood from Abraham makes them his children. So in that sense the Palestinian tradition
speaks of blood (“This is my blood...”). So those who share in the Eucharistic celebration
receive the blood of Jesus. Therefore, both traditions speak of receiving the whole person of
Christ.
III. The Mystery of Transubstantiation and the Real Presence of Jesus Christ (NATURE)

When we participate in the Eucharistic celebration we believe that that Christ is really present.
Here, there are different ways of describing the presence of Jesus in the Eucharist: 1)
spiritualistic language by St. Augustine (the Body and Blood of Christ as a spiritual food and
drink for us), 2) symbolic language by Tertullian (the bread and wine are signs of the Body and
Blood of Christ), 3) realist language (when you receive the sign you receive the reality itself...
one thing important is that all the Fathers say that by means of consecration, the signs change
into the reality they signify... the bread and wine become the Body and Blood of Christ). These
three ways of describing the Eucharist are complementary ways of speaking about it. But at that
time, they could not explain it yet. They just believed it.

Thomas Aquinas said that, in their character as signs, the sacraments have a three-fold
significance: 1) through the sacraments the Church remembers the death of Jesus, 2) the
sacraments give us grace and 3) they are a pledge of participation in the Kingdom of God.
Therefore the Eucharist is seen as the anamnesis (remembrance) of the Paschal meal of Jesus
that makes really present that which it signifies. Therefore, in the Middle Ages, they used the
word “transubstantiare” (first used by Stephen of Beague, Bishop of Autun [1139-1140]). Then
came the word “transubstantiatio” (by Alexander III [1140-1150]). The terms, first of all,
17
Just remember that for the Antiochene, they use the Greek term because of the Hellenistic Jews and Gentiles. They “give thanks”
because they are called to participate in the Paschal meal of Jesus. The Eucharist is seen as a thanksgiving to God.
18
This is typically Jewish. Remember the cup of blessing. The blessing is very important for the Paschal meal of the Jews. The
Eucharist is seen as a blessing from God.
uphold the real presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. Secondly, they give a more precise
formulation of the conservationist19 framework. The real presence of Jesus in the Blessed
Sacrament was defined later on by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. It was declared a
dogma in the Council of Trent. The term “transubstantiation” is already defined as the official
teaching of the Church for the real presence in the Council of Lateran. But transubstantiation
became a dogma in the Council of Trent in 1564 (session 13). It said that “transubstantiation” is
the change of the whole substance of the bread into the Body of Christ and the whole substance
of the wine into the Blood of Christ through the words of consecration. However, the species of
bread and wine remains unchanged. Transubstantiation should be understood in the
metaphysical level. Remember that the doctrine talks of the real presence. It is explained
through transubstantiation.

IV. The Interrelationship of the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist
(STRUCTURE)

The Eucharistic celebration, in its structure, is patterned after the Paschal meal. Since the
Paschal meal has the reading of the Word of God and meal itself, the Eucharistic celebration
also has two parts: the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist. Sacrosanctum
Concilium 56 says that that these two parts are connected to each other to the extent that they
become a single act of worship. So it means that in the Mass, both the Word and the Eucharist
should become the source of instruction and nourishment of the people. For in fact, Matthew
4:4 tells us: “One does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes forth from the
mouth of God.” It means that even if the Liturgy of the Eucharist is very important, we should
be prepared by the Liturgy of the Word. For Jesus Himself preached first to the people before
the multiplication of loaves and fish (Lk 9).

V. The Role of the Eucharist in the Life of the Believer and in the Community of the
Church (IMPLICATION)

Now, as was already said, if we participate in the Eucharist, we participate in the person of
Christ Himself. Therefore, the Eucharist plays a very important role in our lives as Christians.
The Eucharist should indeed become the source and summit of our Christian life. First, it is the
source of nourishment, because in the Eucharist is contained the whole treasure of the Church –
that is Christ Himself. As the body needs food for it to grow and be nourished, so also does our
spiritual life need the Body and Blood of Christ. Secondly, in the Eucharist, we fulfill our
mission, that is to praise and give thanks to God (by which we are sanctified and become sons
and daughters of God).
19
By means of consecration, the elements of the signs of bread and wine are changed into the reality signified by them, the Body
and Blood of Christ.
But for the Church, because the Eucharist is the sacrament of communion, therefore the
Eucharist builds the Church. At the same time, the Eucharist fortifies and links the different
members of the Church together on their pilgrimage to heaven. So therefore, the Eucharist is the
summit and the highest point by which we offer to God our praise and thanksgiving by which
we are sanctified, because there is no other way to offer God thanksgiving and praise than the
sacrificial offering of the Son Himself.

Thesis 10: PENANCE & ANOINTING OF THE SICK

“I will give you the keys of the kingdom of Heaven: whatever you bind on earth will be bound
in heaven; whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Mt 16:19).
I. The Interpretation of the Gospel Passages Mt 16:19 and Mt 18:18 and Jn 20:23
(BIBLICAL FOUNDATION)

There are three biblical foundations as regards the sacrament of penance. The first is found in
Matthew 16:19, where the power to bind and loose was given to Peter alone after his confession
about the identity of Jesus as “the Christ (or the Messiah), the Son of the living God” in
Matthew 16:16. This power to bind and loose is later on understood as the power of the key to
the kingdom of God. Understood in the context of the key to the kingdom of God, this power is
understood as the power to forgive sins. Some, however, interpret the power of the key as, first
of all, as: 1) the power or authority to teach (authoritative teaching) and 2) the power to impose
and lift the ban of excommunication. This is the reason why the pope, being the successor of
Peter, has the power to teach all over the universal Church and the power to impose or lift the
ban of excommunication.

The second is found in Matthew 18:18, where the power to bind and loose was given to the
twelve Apostles in the context of fraternal correction in the community, of a sinner who refuses
to listen to the Church. This power to bind and loose also refers to the power to impose or lift
the ban of excommunication. As a consequence, it also refers to the power to forgive sins. The
college of bishops, being the successors of the Apostles, share in this power.

The third, and the more explicit one, is found in John 20:23, where, after the resurrection of
Jesus, and in the context of sending (or commissioning) His Apostles, He breathed on them the
Holy Spirit and gave them the power to forgive sins.20 From these passages (especially the
second and the third), the Church believes that, from the beginning, the power to forgive sins
was given by Christ to the Apostles, which was handed on to their successors, the college of
bishops.

II. The Evolution of the Sacrament of Penance in the Mediterranean and Celtic Traditions
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)

However, in the history of the Church, this power to forgive sins was understood differently by
different traditions: 1) the Mediterranean Tradition and 2) the Celtic Tradition.

For the Mediterranean Tradition, which started as early as the 1st century21, forgiveness of sins,
after baptism, only happens once in a lifetime. It has two characteristics: 1) it is public in nature
and 2) imposes heavy penance on the penitent. It is public in nature inasmuch as the penitent
has to go to the bishop to confess his sins publicly with the people. Then the bishop will give
20
“Receive the holy Spirit. Whose sins you forgive are forgiven them, and whose sins you retain are retained" (John 20:22-23). The
CCC (#1485) teaches that the institution of the sacrament of penance is explicitly found in the aforementioned passage.
21
It was Hermas (c. 140), a lay person, who first clearly mentioned, in his writings, the possibility of forgiveness of sins committed
after baptism.
him the penance which he will do also in public. Then on Easter, after finishing his penance he
will be accepted back to the community. If he commits sin again after that, there is no more
chance of forgiveness. This practice influenced the Church until the middle ages.

For the Celtic Tradition, the sacrament of penance in Ireland and the British Isles underwent
some changes, in the middle ages, due to the practice of spiritual direction which was
influenced by the monastic movement. What happened was that, by the 6th century, people,
influenced by the monks, also started to look for spiritual direction for spiritual nourishment,
where they talk to their spiritual directors about matters of the soul. But since this practice of
spiritual direction necessarily touches also on the dimension of sin, little by little this practice
influenced the sacrament of penance, known as the Celtic Tradition. The Celtic Tradition has
two characteristics: 1) it is private in nature and 2) it is repeatable.

In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council adopted the Celtic penitential discipline as normative and
official for the whole Church.

III. The Conciliar Teaching on Penance

(MAGISTERIAL TEACHING)

In the history of the Church, especially in the time of the First Ecumenical Council in Nicaea,
some heretics (like the Novatianists) believed that the Church has no power to forgive sins.
These heretics believed that the bishops cannot forgive sins like apostasy, adultery, and murder.
Against this heresy, the Council of Nicaea (325) taught that the Church has the power to forgive
sins. The bishops have the power to forgive, and that they should establish the policy of
forgiving sins to reconcile those who gravely sinned. But it happens only once. So the tendency
was for the people to avail of this forgiveness immediately before they die.

However, in the Council of Trent in 1546 (14th session), the fathers of the council made a
synthesis of the Catholic teaching on the sacrament of penance: 1) that the sacrament of
penance is necessary for the forgiveness of sins; 2) the penance as a sacrament was instituted by
Christ principally on Easter Sunday (John 20); 3) the the sacrament of penance is necessary for
those who have sinned after baptism.

The Second Vatican Council retained the doctrine of the Council of Trent but made some
contributions by revising the rites of the sacrament of penance. The Council had a decree
promulgating the new rite of penance (Ordo Paenitentiae [1973]) which consists of: 1) a rite for
the reconciliation of an individual penitent; 2) a rite for the reconciliation of many penitents
with individual confession and individual absolution; 3) a rite for the reconciliation of many
penitents with general absolution.
IV. The Quasi-Matter and Form and its Mediated Effect
(NATURE)

Every sacrament, in order to be valid, requires two essential elements: matter and form.
However, in the sacrament of penance, we do not talk of matter, but of quasi-matter, inasmuch
as there is no material element involved, but actions of the human person. And so, for the
sacrament of penance, the two essential elements are: quasi-matter and form.

The quasi-matter of penance is the acts of the penitent before (contrition), during (confession)
and after (satisfaction) the celebration of the sacrament. Contrition refers to the “sorrow of the
soul and detestation for the sin committed, together with the resolution not to sin again”
(Council of Trent).22 Confession refers to the disclosure of one’s sins, especially mortal sins.
Satisfaction refers to the reparation of the harm done by the penitent.

The form of penance is the priestly absolution: “God, the Father of mercies, through the death
and resurrection of His Son, has reconciled the world to Himself and sent the Holy Spirit
among us for the forgiveness of sins; through the ministry of the Church, may God give you
pardon and peace, and I absolve you from your sins, in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Spirit.”

There are two basic effects of the sacrament of penance: 1) forgiveness of sins (mediated effect)
and 2) reconciliation with the Church (immediate effect).23

V. The Interpretation of James 5:14-16

(BIBLICAL FOUNDATION)

Through the anointing of the sick, the Church entrusts the sick member to the suffering and
glorified Lord so that He may heal them and restore them back to health (Cf. LG 11). The
effects of this sacrament are: 1) spiritual healing (comfort, peace, courage, forgiveness of sins,
etc.) and 2) physical healing (restoration of physical health) [CCCC #319].

The biblical foundation for the sacrament of anointing of the sick is James 5:14-16.24 How
should this passage be interpreted? There are several points that are important in this passage.
22
There are two kinds of contrition: 1) Perfect Contrition = when the sorrow arises from a love by which God is loved above all else
(contrition of charity; 2) Imperfect Contrition (or attrition) = when the sorrow arises from the consideration of the sin’s ugliness or
the fear of eternal damnation (contrition of fear).
23
From CCCC #310: 1) reconciliation with God (forgiveness of sins), 2) reconciliation with the Church, 3) state of grace, 4) eternal
punishment, 5) spiritual consolation, and 6) spiritual strength.
24
“Is anyone among you sick? He should summon the presbyters of the church, and they should pray over him and anoint (him) with
oil in the name of the Lord, and the prayer of faith will save the sick person, and the Lord will raise him up. If he has committed any
sins, he will be forgiven” (James 5:14-15).
First, James specifically speaks of presbyters, who were leaders of the community (the council
of elders). These presbyters later on became known as priests. This passage became the reason
for the later restriction of the sacrament of anointing to ordained priests.25 Second, this
sacrament is for the sick person.26 Third, James also stresses the importance of the prayer of
faith. It is this prayer that will save the sick person. Fourth, it is important to note the two
effects of this sacrament: 1) healing of one’s sickness and 2) forgiveness of sin. From this, we
can see the holistic perspective of the early Church. Care for the sick was directed to the whole
person (totality) – both physical and spiritual.

VI. The Evolution of the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick

(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)

“In the OT, sickness, which became present after the fall of Adam and Eve, was experienced as
a sign of weakness and at the same time perceived as mysteriously bound up with sin. The
prophets intuited that sickness could also have a redemptive value for one’s own sins and those
of others. Thus sickness was lived out in the presence of God from whom people implored
healing” (CCCC #313).

In the NT, Jesus healed many sick persons like the lepers, the paralytics, the blind, etc. This was
a clear sign that with Him had come the Kingdom of God and therefore victory over sin, over
suffering, and over death. By His own passion and death he gave new meaning to our suffering
which, when united with His own, can become a means of purification and of salvation for us
and for others. (CCCC #314)

Having received from the Lord the charge to heal the sick,27 the Church strives to carry it out by
taking care of the sick and accompanying them with her prayer of intercession. Above all, the
Church possesses a sacrament (anointing of the sick) specifically intended for the benefit of the
sick. This sacrament was instituted by Christ28 and is attested by Saint James (see James 5:14-
15).

The Patristics did not say much on the anointing of the sick because their focus was to fight
against the heretics of that time. But in a book by St. Hippolytus of Rome, there is a short
prayer for the consecration of the oil in which prayers are offered for the “strengthening of all
25
Only priests (bishops and presbyters) are the ministers of this sacrament.
26
The sacrament is not only for the dying (at the point of death). Any member of the faithful can receive this sacrament as soon as
he or she begins to be in danger of death (e.g. sickness, old age or serious operation). It can be received several times (if the sickness
gets worse or another serious sickness afflicts them). [CCCC #316]
27
In Luke 10:9, Jesus commanded the seventy disciples who were sent on a mission to “cure the sick” as part of the proclamation
that the Kingdom of God is at hand.
28
The Protestants don’t accept the anointing of the sick as a sacrament, because they say that it was not instituted by Christ, but
only by the Church. The Church says that Christ instituted it by His example of healing the sick people.
who require it, and health of all who use it.” In the year 350, Bishop Serapion wrote in his
sacramentary29 another prayer for the consecration of the oil that was to be used on those who
are sick. In the 5th century, Pope St. Innocent I also used the same passage in the letter of James
to speak of healing. In the 9th century, Charlemagne sought uniformity of Church worship to
unify his kingdom. As a result, the practice of anointing was restricted to the presbyters and the
bishops.30 In the 12th century, the sacrament of the anointing of the sick was included in the
viaticum31 for the dying32, which reinforced the idea that the anointing is only for the dying, as
its other name (“extreme unction”) suggests.

VII. The Post-Vatican II Understanding and Celebration of the Anointing of the Sick
(MAGISTERIAL TEACHING)

In the 20th century, due to the advancement of modern scholarship, there was a return to the
original and deeper understanding of the sacrament. The Second Vatican Council introduced the
following changes: 1) a return to the term “anointing of the sick,” i.e. it is for the sick (in danger
of death) and not only for the dying; 2) a new simplified rite (in which the oil is placed only on
the forehead and on the hands);33 3) canon law directs that the anointing should be part of the
priest’s ministry of caring for the sick; 4) any plant oil may be used (not only olive oil).

The celebration of this sacrament consists essentially in an anointing with oil, which is blessed
by the bishop. The anointing is on the forehead and on the hands of the sick person, and
accompanied by the prayer of the priest, which is said only once: “Through this holy anointing
and His most loving mercy, may the Lord assist you by the grace of the Holy Spirit, so that
freed from your sins, He may save you and in His goodness raise you up” (cf. CCCC #318;
Anointing [Paul VI]).

Through the anointing, the Church makes the sick person understand that their suffering is a
sharing in the suffering of Christ; that this sacrament has a personal and communitarian aspect.
The personal aspect is that it prepares them for the sharing in the suffering of Christ. The
communitarian aspect is that they can offer their suffering as a sacrifice for the other members
of the Church.

29
The Sacramentary of Serapion 29:1.
30
Previously, the lay people could anoint themselves or their sick relatives.
31
Viaticum is the Holy Eucharist received by those who are about to leave this earthly life and are preparing for the journey to
eternal life (CCCC #320).
32
The order of giving the sacraments was changed from “penance, anointing and viaticum” to “penance, viaticum and anointing.”
33
Previously, it was placed on the five senses.
Thesis 11: HOLY ORDERS
“I am reminding you now to fan into a flame the gift of God that you possess through the laying
on of my hands” (2 Tm 1:6).

Introduction:
Holy Orders34 refer to the sacrament through which the mission entrusted by Christ to His
Apostles continues to be exercised in the Church until the end of time. This is the sacrament of
apostolic ministry which includes three degrees: episcopate, presbyterate and diaconate.
Together with Matrimony, this sacrament is called the social sacrament inasmuch as it is
instituted for the salvation of others. And if ever the ordained35 person is saved, it is because of
his service to others.

I. Ecclesial Leadership and Sharing in the Threefold Office36 of Jesus Christ

In the OT, we see that even in the most primitive times, families and tribes assembled to give
public worship to God. After the flood, Noah offered a sacrifice to God (Gen 8:20). We also see
Melchizedek, a priest of God Most High, offer a sacrifice of bread and wine to God (Gen
14:18).37 Later on, among the twelve tribes of Israel, the tribe of Levi (the Levites) is set aside
for worship. However, among the Levites, priesthood was established in the line (lineage) of
Aaron.38

In the NT, the letter to the Hebrews refer to Jesus as the “High Priest according to the order of
Melchizedek” (Heb. 5:10). This indicates that Jesus is not a priest by reason of any ordinary
human lineage just like Melchizedek. His priesthood comes from that fact that He is the Son of
God.39 Later on, Jesus commissioned His Apostles to continue His mission of salvation to all
people (Mt. 28:19-20) as can be seen in the Acts of the Apostles.40

While all who receive Baptism, and are incorporated into the Body of Christ, share in His
priesthood (called the common priesthood41), there are those who are called to the ministerial
priesthood (Holy Orders) in order to serve the Body of Christ in a special way. For even during
the time of Jesus, He chose the Twelve in order to shepherd and lead the people. Later on, these
34
The word “order” in Roman antiquity designated an established civil body, especially a governing body.
35
Ordination is the sacramental act which integrates a man into the order of bishops, presbyters or deacons, through which the gift
of the Holy Spirit is conferred that permits the exercise of a “sacred power” which can come only from Christ through His Church.
36
The word “office” (a position of authority and responsibility) seems to be used for the ministerial priesthood (priest and bishop),
while the word “mission” is for the common priesthood. The term “office” seems to apply also to the deacon inasmuch as he has
received the authority to serve the people of God. [to be clarified]
37
Formal acts of worship were performed by either the head of the group or by someone who is appointed other than the head of
the group.
38
In general, a priest is someone who mediates between God and men, officially designated to bring God from men homage and
sacrifice, and to bring to men from God divine truth and blessing.
39
As the High Priest, Jesus is the fulfillment of the OT priesthood. He is the unparalleled mediator between God and man inasmuch
as only He can bring sacrifice and redemption to God and man, respectively. Also, it is universal inasmuch as it embraces the whole
human race. His priesthood replaces all others. Therefore, there is only one true priest (Jesus Christ); the rest are his ministers.
40
In the Acts, the Apostles continued Jesus’ ministry of salvation by healing, preaching, exorcising, leading and celebrating the
Eucharist for the people.
41
By virtue of our common priesthood, we are called to offer spiritual sacrifices, preach the Gospel and serve others.
Apostles were considered as leaders of the Christian community.42 This is known as ecclesial
leadership.

The leadership authority entrusted by Jesus to the Apostles and their successors is a leadership
of service to the people. This leadership is a participation in the threefold office of Christ: 1)
kingly (to rule the people of God through service in order to build up the Church); 2) prophetic
(to be ministers of God’s word); 3) priestly (to offer the Eucharistic sacrifice on behalf of the
people).43 The main purpose of this leadership is the salvation of all people and the building up
of the Church.

II. The Nature of the Episcopate, of the Presbyterate and of the Diaconate44

There are three levels of priesthood in the priestly office of Christ: episcopate, presbyterate and
diaconate.

Those who are in the episcopate (the bishops) receive the fullness of the sacrament of Holy
Orders, the fullnes of priesthood. They are the successors of the Apostles, transmitters of the
apostolic line and the apex of the sacred ministry.45

Those who are in the presbyterate (the priests) are known as co-workers of the bishop. They
also enjoy the sacerdotal dignity although they are subordinate to the bishops. They do not
receive the fullness of priesthood unlike the bishops. They are dependent on the bishop in their
exercise of power. They are consecrated to preach the Gospel, to shepherd the people and to
celebrate the divine worship. They share in the threefold office of Christ in a lesser degree.46
42
Though the NT does not have an organized blueprint for the sacrament of Holy Orders, still it indicates how the Apostles and the
disciples of Jesus developed a system of structured leadership to guide the Christian community: 1) Peter as the spokesperson for
the Apostles (Acts 2:14); 2) the Apostles were respected as instructors and leaders (Acts 2:42); 3) the selection of deacons for the
physical needs of the people (Acts 6:4); 4) the installation of presbyters by Paul and Barnabas (Acts 14:23).
43
The deacon, even without the ministerial priesthood, participates in a special way in the Eucharist because of the ministry that
they have received at ordination.
44
For this topic, read also Lumen Gentium (chapter 3 & 4).
45
The bishops are to be regarded as shepherds of the Church who by “divine institution” have succeeded to the place of the
apostles. Vatican II teaches that the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders is conferred by Episcopal consecration. The council
states that Episcopal consecration confers three offices of sanctifying, teaching and governing. By the imposition of hands and
through the words of consecration, the grace of the Holy Spirit is given, and a sacred character is impressed such that, in an
immanent and visible manner, the bishop takes the place of Christ himself as teacher, shepherd and priest, and acts as his
representative. His consecration however is collegial in nature. Though each bishop has the pastoral care of a church entrusted to
him, he at the same time bears collegiality with all his brothers in the episcopacy the solicitude for all Churches: which means that he
is responsible, with the other bishops, for the apostolic mission of the Church under the authority of the Pope. Only the bishop can
ordain because only he has the fullness of priesthood.
46
The priests are appointed as co-workers of the bishops for the proper fulfillment of the apostolic mission that had been entrusted
to them by Christ. They are united with the bishops in sacerdotal dignity and at the same time depend on them in the exercise of
their pastoral functions. Through the anointing of the Holy Spirit, they are signed with a special character and so are configured to
Christ in such a way that they are able to act in the person of Christ the head (in persona Christi Capitis). In the Eucharistic assembly,
At the lower level of the hierarchy are those who are in the diaconate. Those who are in the
diaconate (Gk: “diakonia” = service) are ordained in order to serve the people, especially at the
liturgy of the Word. They receive the imposition of hands, not unto priesthood, but unto the
ministry (Acts 6:6).47

III. The Essential Elements48 of the Episcopal, Presbyteral and Diaconal Ordination Rites

For the three levels of Holy Orders (bishops, priests and deacons), the essential elements of the
ordination rites are: 1) matter (the imposition of hands on the candidate) & 2) form (specific
consecratory for each level or degree). Through the essential elements, all receive the gift of the
Holy Spirit but in different levels.49

Fathers of the Church & Councils:

Letter of Clement - indicates that in the Corinthian community leadership and liturgy (the
offering of sacrifice) were the official functions since the office was both presbyterial and
Episcopal in structure, there were also deacons... were compared to the Jewish hierarchy for the
first time.

Ignatius of Antioch - proposed the "monarchical episcopate", a typology that does not
correspond to the later Catholic hierarchy.

Tertullian - first to refer to the bishops as "summus sacerdos" or high priest probably under the
influence of a Melchizedek theology. He gave a collective Latin technical name to the Church's
officeholders: ordo.

they exercise in the supreme degree their sacred office; there acting in the person of Christ and proclaiming His mystery, they unite
the votive offerings of the faithful to the sacrifice of Christ their head and make present the offerings of Christ to the Father on the
cross until he comes. From this unique sacrifice, their whole priestly ministry draws its strength.
47
At the ordination to the diaconate, only the bishop lays hands on the candidate, thus signifying the deacon’s special attachment to
the bishop in the task of his “diakonia.” Among his tasks are: 1) assisting the bishop in the celebration of the divine mysteries (above
all the Eucharist), 2) distribution of Holy Communion, 3) assisting at marriages, 4) proclamation of the Gospel and preaching, 5)
presiding over at funerals, 6) various ministries of charity. For the ordination to the priesthood, the other priests lay hands on the
ordained in order to signify that they belong to each other.
48
Note that in all the sacraments, the essential elements are always the matter and form.
49
In the Latin Church, the rites consist of the following: 1) initial rites (presentation and election of the ordinand, instruction by the
bishop, examination of the candidate, litany of the saints); 2) act of consecration; 3) other rites {bishop (anointing with holy chrism
[a sign of the special anointing of the Holy Spirit who makes the ministry fruitful], giving of the book of the Gospels [a sign of his
apostolic mission to proclaim the Word of God], ring [fidelity to the Church], miter [his office as shepherd of the Lord’s flock], crosier
[his office as shepherd of the Lord’s flock]); priest (anointing with holy chrism [a sign of the special anointing of the Holy Spirit who
makes the ministry fruitful], presentation to the priest of the paten and chalice [the offering of the holy people which he is called to
present to God]); deacon (giving the book of the Gospels [a sign of the mission to proclaim the Gospel of Christ])}.
Cyprian - for him sacerdotium 'relates to the Eucharistic altar; he speaks of a clericus (Greek
Kleros, lot), referring to those who, because of their state, have a special concern for and
relationship to God. He called the various offices in the one ordo "grades", thus carrying the
hierarchical trend further.

Hippolytus - brought together elements of the liturgy and theology of orders in his Apostolic
Tradition. The office of bishop, with its duties of preaching, shepherding, and priestly service,
is the complete form of the ecclesial office that is conferred through prayer and imposition of
hands. In this consecration, the power of the spirit of leadership is implored for and bestowed
upon the candidate.

The post-biblical development led to formation of a structure of Church offices and within that
structure, to the dominance of the bishop, a position that was theologically justified on the basis
of apostolicity.

Reformers - restored the idea of the "universal priesthood" (common priesthood). There is no
distinction between the clerics and the laity. Thus they disputed the existence of the sacrament
of orders and the power of orders conferred by it. Luther says that Baptism ordains all
Christians as priests and bishops... so there's no need of priestly mediation

Council of Trent - opposed this idea of the reformers and defended the existence of a visible,
external priesthood, in such a way that "priestly service" is the over-aching concept for and
institution that exists by "divine command" and is arranged in hierarchical stages; Strengthened
the teaching of the existence of the sacrament of holy orders.

Vatican II - taken effort to renew, particularly through a wealth of biblical and patristic studies
and research in the history of liturgy, the main emphases in the theology of orders. These efforts
were reflected in the Vatican II documents on the constitution on the liturgy Sacrosanctum
Concilium and especially in the Dogmatic Constitution of the Church, Lumen Gentium.

NB: Also be familiar with the important canonical considerations concerning Holy Orders in
the supplementary reviewer.