ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS
I. Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have discussed particle sizes and index properties, and used these
to classify soils. We have also learner that water changes the soil state in fine-grained soils; the greater
the water content in a soil, the weaker it is. Soils are porous materials, much like sponges. Water can
flow between the interconnected voids. Particle sizes and the structural arrangement of the particles
influence influence the rate of flow.
The flow of water has caused instability and failure of many geotechnical structures. The key
physical property that governs the flow of water in soils is hydraulic conductivity.
When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:
Determine the rate of flow of water through soils.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of soils.
Appreciate the importance of flow of water through soils.
II. Definition of Key Terms
Groundwater - water under gravity that fills the soil pores
Head (H) - mechanical energy per unit weight
Hydraulic conductivity(coefficient of permeability - k) - a proportionality constant used to
determine the flow velocity of water through soils.
Porewater pressure - pressure of water within the soil pores
III. Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s Law governs the flow of water through soils. Darcy (1856) proposed that the average
flow velocity through soils is proportional to the gradient of the total head. The velocity of flow is:
v = ki
vs = v/n (seepage velocity)
where:
i = H/L = hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient of permeability
n = porosity
The flow of water is:
Q = kiA
The hydraulic conductivity depends on:
1. Soil type 5. Pore size
2. Particle size 6. Homogeneity, layering & fissuring
3. Pore fluid properties 7. Entrapped gases
4. Void ratio 8. Validity of Darcy’s law
IV. Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability
a) Constant-Head Test
It is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils. A typical constant-
head apparatus is shown in the figure. Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical sample of
soil under a constant head (h). The outflow (V) is collected in a graduated cylinder at a
convenient duration (t).
��
�=
��ℎ
where:
V = volume of water collected in time t
h = constant head
A = cross-sectional area of the soil
L = length of the soil sample
t = duration of water collection
b) Falling-Head Test
The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water through these soils
is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the constant-head test. A compacted soil
sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal or acrylic cylinder. Porous
stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to prevent its disintegration and
to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows through the sample from a standpipe
attached to the top of the cylinder. The head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs
through the soil.
�� ℎ1
�= ��
�(�2 − �1 ) ℎ2
where:
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
h1 = head at time t1
h2 = head at time t2
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand, the following values are given:
Length of specimen, L = 10 in
Diameter of specimen = 2.5 in
Head difference, h = 22 in
Water collected in 2 min = 0.044in3
The void ratio of the specimen is 0.34
Determine the following: (a) coefficient of permeability, (b) discharge velocity and (c) seepage velocity.
Solution:
a) Coefficient of permeability
Q = kiA
������ ℎ
=� �
���� �
0.044 22 � 2
=� 2.5
2 10 4
� = �. ���� � ��−� ��/���
b) Discharge velocity
Q
Discharge velocity, v = ki =
A
22 0.044
Discharge velocity, v = 0.2037x10−2 x = � 2
10 2.5 2
4
−�
Discharge velocity, � = �. ��� � �� ��/���
c) Seepage velocity
v
Seepage velocity, vs =
n
e 0.34
n= = = 0.2537
1+e 1+0.34
0.448 x 10−2
Seepage velocity, vs =
0.2537
Seepage velocity, �� = �. ��� � ��−� ��/���
2. A soil sample 10cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1m long. A constant supply of water is allowed to
flow into one end of the soil at A and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker, as shown. The average
amount of water collected is 1cc for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown.
Determine the following: (a) average velocity of flow, (b) seepage velocity through the void spaces and
(c) coefficient of permeability.
Solution:
a) Average velocity
Q = Vol/time = 1/10 = 0.1 cc/s
Q 0.1
v= = π
A 10 2
4
� = �. �������/�
b) Seepage velocity
v
Seepage velocity, vs =
n
e 0.6
n= = = 0.375
1+e 1+0.6
0.00127
Seepage velocity, vs =
0.375
Seepage velocity, �� = �.00339 cm/s
c) Coefficient of permeability
Q = kiA
ℎ
�=� �
�
2 − 0.8 � 2
0.1 = � 10
1 4
� = ��. �� � ��−� ��/�
V. Flow Through Layers of Soil
a) Flow Parallel to Soil Layers
When the flow is parallel to the soil layers, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points. The
flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
1
��(��) = �� �
��
1
��(��) = � � + ��2 �2 + . . . + ��� ��
�� �1 1
b) Flow Normal to Soil Layers
For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the head losses in
each layer.
��
�� (��) = �
��
��
�� (��) = � �2 �
1
+ +... + �
��1 ��2 ���
c) Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
The equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow parallel and normal to soil layers is:
��� = �� (��) ��(��)
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Consider the stratified soil deposit shown in the figure. Consider 1 unit width.
a) If there are four layers, 3m thick each, and kx1 = 2 x 10-3, kx2 = 1 x 10-5 , kx3 = 2 x 10-4, kx4 = 1 x 10-3 in
cm/sec, determine the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction.
b) If i = 0.70, determine the total flow in cm3/sec.
Solution:
a) Equivalent coefficient of permeability
1
��(��) = �� �
��
1
�� (��) = 2�10−3 �� � � 300�� + 1�10−5 �� � � 300�� + 2�10−4 �� � � 300�� + 1�10−3 �� � � 300��
1200��
�� (��) = �. ������−� �� �
b) Total flow
i = 0.70
q = kx(eq) iA
q = (8.025 x 10-4) (0.70) (1200cm x 1)
q = 0.674cm3/s per cm width
2. The figure shows layers of soil in a tube that is 100mm x 100mm in cross section. Water is supplied to
maintain a constant head difference of 400mm across the sample. The hydraulic conductivity of each
soil in the direction of flow through them is as follows:
Soil k (cm/sec) Porosity, n
A 1 x 10-2 25%
B 3 x 10-3 32%
C 4.9 x 10-4 22%
a) Calculate the equivalent k in cm/sec.
b) Calculate the rate of water supply in cm3/hr.
c) Calculate the seepage velocity through soil C in m/sec.
Solution:
a) Equivalent hydraulic conductivity
��
��(��) = �
��
500
��(��) =
150 150 200
+ +
1�10−2 3�10−3 4.9�10−4
��(��) = �. ��������/���
b) Flow rate c) Seepage velocity through soil C
vave
Q = kiA Seepage velocity, vs =
ℎ n
�=� � Q
� Seepage velocity, vs = A
n
400 2
� = 0.001057 10 0.08456
500 10x10
Seepage velocity, vs =
3
0.22
� = 0.08456 �� �
� Seepage velocity, �� = �. ��� �/�
� = ���. � �� ����
3. A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in the figure. Assume flow takes place laterally and
vertically through the sides of the canal and vertically below the canal. The values of k = kx = kz in each
layer are given.
a) What is the equivalent permeability in the horizontal direction through the sides of the canal, in
cm/day.
b) What is the equivalent permeability in the vertical direction through the sides of the canal, in
cm/day?
c) Determine the equivalent permeability in the vertical directions below the bottom of the canal,
in cm/day.
Solution:
a) kx(eq) through the sides of the canal
1
�� (��) = �� �
��
1
��(��) = 2.3�10−5 �� � � 1.0� + 5.2�10−6 �� � � 1.50� + 2�10−6 �� � � 0.50��
3�
�� (��) = 10.6�10−6 �� �
�� (��) = �. ����� �� ���
b) kz(eq) through the sides of the canal
��
��(��) = �
��
3�
��(��) =
1� 1.5� 0.5�
+ +
2.3�10−5 5.2�10−6 2�10−6
��(��) = 5.16 � 10−6 ��/���
�� (��) = �. ������ ��/���
c) kz(eq) below the bottom of the canal
��
�� (��) = �
��
1.5� + 1.2� + 3�
�� (��) =
1.5� 1.2� 3.0�
+ +
2�10−6 0.3�10−4 0.8�10−3
�� (��) = 7.18 � 10−6 ��/���
��(��) = �. ������ ��/���
