Transmission Line Protection
1
Fault Characteristics
• Transient Faults
Most common on Overhead transmission lines
Approximately 80 - 85% share
Lightning strikes are the most common cause
Other causes are falling trees, swinging lines etc.
By nature transient faults disappear in a short interval
• Persistent Faults
Mostly caused by a broken conductor fallen on to the tower or
ground
Can also be caused by a tree falling on to the line
Must be located and attended to, before normal service can be
resumed
2
Faults on Double Circuit Lines
Simultaneous Faults and Interline Faults
On parallel lines simultaneous faults and
interline faults can happen.
A non switched distance relay will be C A
discriminative in identifying the correct fault
A B
loop, when the protection is measuring two
different fault types at the same time. B C
AN
~ ~
CN
3
Measuring Principles
• Over current protection
• Differential protection
• Distance protection
• Voltage protection
• Frequency protection
4
Application of Distance Protection
• Distance protection is widely applied for transmission
lines because :
• Decision is based on local current and voltage
• No communication required
• Reach is independent of fault current level
• Impedance characteristics can be chosen with different
reach for different impedance phase angles
• Enables remote back-up protection
5
Distance Protection – Basic Principle
UM
ZF
IF UF=0
B
A
Distance
Relay
ZF=UM/ IF
The impedance measured by the relay is proportional
to the distance to the fault.
6
Ground Fault Measurement - Principle
V = I1Z1 + I0Z0 + I2Z2 [ Z1 = Z2 for transmission lines ]
V = Z1( I1 + I2 + I0 ) + I0Z0 - I0Z1 [ I = I1 + I2 + I0 ]
V = I Z1 + I0 ( Z0 - Z1 ) [ 3I0 = IN ]
IN
V = I Z1 + ( Z0 - Z1 )
3
Z0 - Z1
V = IZ1 + IN( )
3
Z0 - Z1
Z0 - Z1 Z = Z1 ( 1 + ( ))
Z = Z1 + ( ) 3Z1
3
7
Ground Fault Measurement
The current used for calculation of the return
path impedance is the phase current
multiplied by a factor KN = (Z0 - Z1) / 3Z1, the
Zero Sequence Compensation factor. Also
termed as Earth Return Compensation factor.
The factor KN is a transmission line constant.
(Ratio of Z0/ Z1 is presumed to be identical
throughout the whole length of the line.)
(1+KN) * Z1 is the total loop impedance for the
earth fault loop for a single end in feed.
8
Measuring Loop - Ground Faults
• The distance protection relays are always set based on the
phase impedance to the fault
Zs IA RL XL
VA
IN RN XN
The measured Impedance is a function of
positive and zero sequence impedance
9
Measuring Loop – Phase - Phase Faults
• The distance protection relays are always set based on the
phase impedance to the fault
Zs IA RL XL
VA-VB
IB RL XL
The measured Impedance is a function of
positive sequence impedance
10
Measuring Loop – Three Phase Faults
• The distance protection relays are always set based on the
phase impedance to the fault
Zs IA RL XL
VA IB
VB IC
VC
The measured Impedance is a function of
positive sequence impedance
11
Measurement Loops
12
Fault Resistance
Phase faults
Constitutes only the Arc Resistance C A
B B
Ground faults
A C
Constitutes of Arc and Tower Footing Resistance
Warrington´s Formula
L = Length of arc in meters
28707 x L Tower Footing
Rarc = 1.4 I= Fault current in Amps Resistance
I
13
Polarization Methods
Self Polarization
The same phase voltage is used for polarization
When a fault occurs close to the relay location, the voltage can drop
to a value where the directional measurement cannot be performed
Cross Polarization
Use other healthy phase voltages for polarization
Terminal three phase fault will not be covered
Memory Polarization
At three phase fault close to the station all phase voltages are low
and cross polarization is not of any use. Instead a memory voltage
is used to secure correct measurement.
Covers all type of faults
14
Polarization Methods
Cross Polarization
VCA
VC
VBC
VA
VB
VAB
15
Distance Protection Characteristics
Mho Characteristics
16
Distance Protection Characteristics
Offset Mho Characteristics
17
Distance Protection Characteristics
Quadrilateral Characteristics
18
Impedance Setting Criteria
• Typically overhead transmission lines have impedances in the
range of 0.3 - 0.4 ohm/ km and angles of 80 - 85 degrees in a
50Hz system.
A B
ZL = R + jX
21 21
• While setting the distance protection relay, the line impedance
may have to be converted to secondary values by multiplying
with the Impedance ratio.
CTR
Zratio =
VTR
VTsec CTprim VTsec CTprim x
Zratio= x Zsec = x Zprim
VTprim CTsec VTprim CT sec
19
Zones Setting Criteria
S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2 S/Stn 3
Relay Relay Relay Relay
Time A B C D
Zone 2 Zone 3F
Zone 3R Zone 1
Zone 3R
Zone 2 Zone 1
Zone 3R Zone 2
Zone 1
Zone 3 Zone 3R
Zone 2 Zone 1
20
Zones Setting Criteria
A B C
Zone 4
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
21
Load Encroachment
When setting the zones for long lines or setting the over reaching zones, it
can happen that the characteristic may encroach into the Load region.
This will result in unwanted operation of the zones.
A novel approach is to have a Load Encroachment blinding characteristic.
22
Load Encroachment
When protecting very Long Lines, which are heavily loaded,
there exists a problem of Load encroachment, where the
measured load impedance may encroach into the characteristic
zones of the under impedance relay. If the impedance remains in
the characteristic for more than the zone trip time, unwanted
tripping of the line can result.
This situation can be addressed by introducing a Load
Encroachment characteristic into the Under Impedance relays.
These characteristic can be in the form of load blinders or
shaped load region characteristics.
Load Encroachment
Carrier Communication Schemes
Carrier Communication
Schemes
Permissive Schemes Blocking Schemes
Permissive
Permissive Over
Under reach
reach Schemes
Schemes
25
Permissive Under Reach
Operation of Zone 1 sends signal to remote end
SIGNALLING CHANNEL
Instantaneous trip if
REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
Zone 1 Operation
Zone 2 + Signal from Remote end
S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2
Relay Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B C
Zone 2
Time Carrier
Zone 2
Aided
Time Delayed Trip
Trip
Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2
Zone 1 Distance
Enables Instantaneous Tripping over 100% Length of the Line...
26
Permissive Over Reach
Instantaneous Operation of Zone 2 sends signal to remote end
Instantaneous trip if
SIGNALLING CHANNEL
Zone 1 Operation
REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
Zone 2 + Signal from Remote end
S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2
Relay Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B C
Zone 2
Time Carrier
Zone 2
Aided
Time Delayed Trip
Trip
Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2
Zone 2 Instantaneous
Zone 1
Distance
Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...
27
Blocking Scheme
Operation of Zone 4 sends blocking signal to remote end
Instantaneous trip only if
SIGNALLING CHANNEL
Zone 1 Operation REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
Zone 2 + No blocking Signal from Remote end
WITHIN the Permissive Trip Time
S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2
Relay Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B C
Zone 2
Time Carrier
Aided
Trip
Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2
Zone 1 Zone 4 - Blocking Distance
Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...
28
Blocking Scheme
Non-Operation of Zone 4 sends No blocking signal to remote end
Instantaneous trip if
Zone 1 Operation SIGNALLING CHANNEL
Zone 2 + NO BLOCKING SIGNAL from Remote End REQUIRED BETWEEN ENDS
WITHIN the Permissive Trip Time
S/Stn 1 S/Stn 2
Relay Relay Relay
A Signalling Channel B C
Zone 2
Time Carrier
Aided
Trip
Distance
Zone 1 (No Operation) Zone 2
Zone 1 Distance
Zone 4 - Blocking
(No Operation)
Enables Instantaneous Tripping Over 100% Length of the Line...
29
Zone 1 Extension Scheme
No Signalling used between ends
Used with Auto-Recloser only
Results in More Breaker Operations
Will trip CB @ 'A' for
Gives improved fault clearance fault @ this position
S/Stn 1 time for fault @ this position S/Stn 2 S/Stn 3
Relay Relay Relay Relay
A B C C
Time
Trip Zone 1 Ext
Distance
Reclose Zone 1 Zone 2
Zone 3F
Distance
30
Weak End Infeed
Weak infeed is a condition that can occur during a fault on a transmission
line, either when the circuit breaker is open, so there is no current infeed
from that line end, or when the current infeed is low due to weak
generation behind the bus.
A B
W
S
CR CS (echo)
Z< Z<
CS CR
Carrier Send = Z2 pickup (Permissive overreach)
CS (echo)=CR x Under Voltage x No start either forward or
reverse
Trip = Zone1 + Z2 start x (CR + t2)
31
Current Reversal Blocking Logic
Permissive Overreaching schemes can
A B trip a healthy line, if Current Reversal
Blocking Logic is not used.
A1 B1 1. A fault occurs on Line 1. It is detected by
~ ~ protections A1, B1 and A2 in the Forward
direction.
A2 B2 2. Relay B1 is faster and trips its CB and
sends a carrier to relay A1.
A B As relay A2 sees the fault in forward direction
it will send a carrier to B2. (POR)
A1 B1 3. As fault is cleared at B1, current direction
~ ~ will change on Line 2.
4. Carrier from A2 and forward looking
measuring element in relay A2 does not reset
A2 B2
before relay B2 detects the fault in forward
direction and trips, also relay A1 will trip
when receiving carrier from B1.
32
Double End Infeed
I1 I Load I2
V1 RF VF V2
VF = RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF ( I1 + I2 )
RF1 =
I1
33
Double end Infeed
Resistive Fault VA
ZSCA k ZL (1-k) ZL ZSCB
IA IB
+ +
EA Rf EB
- -
VA = k ⋅ ZL ⋅ IA + (IA + IB ) ⋅ R f
VA IA + IB
ZA = = k ⋅ ZL + ⋅Rf
IA IA
The influence of the fault resistance on impedance measurement
depends on the fault current infeed from the remote end.
34
Double end Infeed
Resistive Fault
IA + IB
⋅ Rf
Rf IA
IA + IB
ZA = k ⋅ ZL + ⋅Rf
IA k ⋅ ZL
The fault resistance seen by the distance protection can be
apparently increased compared to its real value. This shall
result in Under reach… 35
Double end Infeed
Resistive Fault
The apparent fault resistance seen by
the relay can get a phase shift,
depending on the load conditions Rf
before the fault, which can result in
Overreach.
IA + IB
⋅ Rf
IA
I +I k ⋅ ZL
ZA = k ⋅ ZL + A B ⋅ R f
IA
There is a risk that zone 1 will trip for faults outside its reach.
36
Remote Infeeds
• The distance protection in Station A will measure a higher impedance, than
the actual impedance to the fault F, because of the current contributions
If2 and If3 from other sources in station B.
• The relay will thus under reach and in practice it can be difficult to get a
remote back-up as expected.
Station A Station B
If1 If2
ZL
Vm If1+If2+If3
ZF
F
21 If3
Vm= If1 X ZL+ (If1+If2+If3) X ZF
37
Mutual Coupling
• Positive and Negative sequence coupling between parallel symmetrical lines
are small and can be neglected. Zero sequence coupling can be considerable,
being up to 50% to 70% of the zero sequence impedance of the line.
• In the case of an impedance measurement, the current measured
does not reflect the effect of mutual coupling and the relay’s
measured impedance could under reach or over reach depending
on the direction of the current flow in the healthy circuit.
38
Mutual Coupling Compensation
Distance relay adaptation for parallel lines
The influence of zero sequence coupling in impedance
measurement can be compensated in different ways.
By including the parallel line zero sequence
current in the relay measurement
Different KN factor for different Zones in the same
setting group
Different setting parameters for different operating
conditions in separate setting groups
39
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)
When a power line is closed on to an engaged earth switch,
no measuring voltage will be available, which means
practically zero Impedance in fault path.
This point is also boundary condition for Zones 1 & 2. For
Quad characteristics, the directional measuring can’t operate
correctly.
SOTF Fault Point
40
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)
An SOTF function will address this situation. Different principles are
used, from one phase current to non-directional impedance
measurement.
AC SOTF - Used where VT is on LINE SIDE of the CB
A dead line condition is detected before closing of the breaker.
Then an over current element or a non directional over reaching
zone is allowed to trip instantaneously ( for approx 1 sec)
DC SOTF - Used where VT is on BUSBAR SIDE of the CB
When Circuit Breaker Manual Close is Operated, an over current
element or a non directional over reaching zone is allowed to trip
instantaneously ( for approx 1 sec)
sec)
41
Switch On To Fault (SOTF)
DC SOTF - Used where VT is on
BUSBAR SIDE of the CB
The Breaker status can be monitored
or the Close command can be used
for initiating the SOTF function
A second Harmonic Restraint
function may be used, if closing
command is to charge a transformer
Power Swing Blocking
Power swing is a three phase phenomenon that can start by,
sudden load change or due to a fault somewhere in the
network that is cleared after a delay.
Close to the centre of the power swing, it can be low voltage
and high current and thus low impedance will result.
A distance zone must then be blocked during the power
swing, as the swing locus may pass through its operating
characteristics.
43
Power Swing Detection & Blocking
Power Swing Outer
boundary
Power Swing Inner
Zone 3
boundary
Zone 2
Zone 1 Power swing locus
Transit
time
A Power Swing can be detected by measuring the transit time
of the impedance locus, passing two dedicated impedance
zones or blinders.
Typically the time used is 35 - 45 ms.
44
Power Swing Blocking
• When the power swing detection relay / function
operates, the relevant impedance zones shall be
blocked for a preset time.
• The power swing detection function is inhibited
when zero sequence current is detected. This is to
ensure tripping during high resistance earth faults,
where fault resistance can decrease gradually.
45
Power Swing Blocking
46
Stub Protection
When the line disconnector is open in a Breaker and Half system, the
distance protection relay can’t measure proper impedance. Not to risk
incorrect operation, the distance protection must be blocked and a Stub
protection is released.
The Stub protection is a simple over current relay with a controlled release.
Bus A Bus B
Line Disconnector
Open
&
I > Stub Protection Trip
21
47
Series Compensated Transmission Lines
• Used to increase load capacity
• Improve power system stability
• Improve load division on parallel paths
• Reduce transmission losses
A XC =40% B
XL =100%
48
Series Compensated Transmission Lines
• Effect of series capacitor
• Voltage reversal
• Current reversal
• Transients/dynamics
• Circuit elements
• MOV/Gap operation
• Classical protection devices will mal-function due to these effects.
Series Compensated Transmission Lines
jX B´
Consideration for line distance protections
100%
gap flashed • Correct directional discrimination at
voltage reversal (negative fault
B
reactance) and current reversal
• variation in resulted line impedance
A´
R
40%
gap not flashed
A
50
Use of traveling waves for protection
• Advantages
• Fast detection
• Not affected by CT saturation
• Less affected by series capacitors
• Types of traveling wave based protection methods
• Distance estimations (Single ended/Double ended)
• Not suitable for real-time applications
• Affected by reflections
• Very high sampling rates (Mhz-range)
• High bandwidth communication
• Fault direction identification
• Suitable for real-time applications
• Not affected by reflections
• Lower sampling rates (kHz-range)
• Lower bandwidth communication
Thank you…
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