Cita to thinking about an areitsctural idea and developing its potential is understanding how it might be structure, The spatial and formal essence of an architectural scheme and te structuring of the idea go hand in hand; each informs the othe. To ilustrate ‘this symbiotic relationship, this chapter deseribes the development of structural paterns and how they infuence ‘the formal composition and spatial layout embedded in an architectural idea, This chapter bogins with both regular and regular gre patter, and then discusses transitional and contextual pattems, * Structural pattems: pattems of supports, spanning systems, and latera-force-esstng elements + Spatial patterns: spatial compositions inferred by the choice ofa structural system © Contextual patterns. arrangements or conditions ictated bythe nature and context ofa site 40 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED ‘Structural pattoms can be soon as a two- climensiona layout of supports and spas, as wel as tree-dimensional arangements having formal and spatial imalcaions for an architectural design ‘Analysis based onthe Museum of Modern Ar, Gunma Prefecture, Japan, 19711874, Arata IsaiSTRUCTURAL PATTERNS . Structural pattems ae three-dimensional compositions Y consisting of eral supports, horizontal spaning * systems, and lateral force-esisting elements. ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 41STRUCTURAL PATTERNS Structural Units A structural units a disrete assembly of stuctral ‘members capable of forming or matking the boundaries ofa single spatial volume, There are soveral fundamental ‘ways to define a single volume of space compesitons. 42 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED Spatial Volume Columns and Girder . al | >% NS | Series of Columns oP Bearing Wall‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS Ko V\& V\& UN IK)STRUCTURAL PATTERNS ‘The parallel ines of a plan gid indicate the possible location and arientaton of vertical supporting planes, which may consist of bearing wal’, 2 frame, or series of columns, or any combination thereof. —_ Se Because cured beams ae subject to trio, they are more efficient as straight members, To approximate a curved lina of support a series of columns shoul support series of simply spaning bears, Bearing walls, weve, canbe curved in plan 444 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDSTRUCTURAL GRIDS *= The supports fr two-way spanning systems establish ‘wo sets of parallel nes, usually intersecting at right. angles he points of intersection represent posttons where Columns and loacbearing walls can ideally colsct loads from beams and atherhorzontal spanning elements and channel those loads down to the ground foundation, Even though agri is primary aplan device, extended inta the tid dimension to regulate the height and locaton of floor and roof structures, The principal vertical supports ofa structure naturally mark and define a seis of structural bays—the major spatial dvsions across which structural elements and assemblies must span,—— STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 45+ Ay isa majo spatial division, Lsualy one ofa series, marked or pattoned off by the Principal vertical supports of a structure. 46 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDSTRUCTURAL GRIDS # ‘Another aspect of scale is the relative sizes ofthe members used, Some structures can be seen to be concentrated in nature due to their use of relatively large ‘members carving concentrated loads. On the other hand, ‘there are some structures that use a multiplicity of small ‘members that cistribute ther loads amang a large number of relatively small members, ‘A final attribute of some structural systems sits grain, a determined by the direction, size, and arrangement of its spanning elements, ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 47STRUCTURAL GRIDS ——— flexibility, ives rise to multiple readings of spatial volumes, and establishes aythm and scale for reading the spatial dimensions. 48 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED twas are necessary trom ‘acommodate. ‘a functional point of view, it \ might make sense to use them as loadoaringoloments + grid of columns offers 7 Dnenay spans ~~ Bear-and-calumn supports Tae pane Boam-and column supportsSTRUCTURAL GRIDS ‘One-way spans Beam-and column supports a Two-way Hat pate Joes e w\ \ \ a Twowway fat slab or space frame. - Colum supports \ = - ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 49REGULAR GRIDS Regular grids define equal spans, allow the use of repetitive sructural elements, and offer the efficiency of structural continuity across a numberof bays. While regular grids cannot be considered the norm they do Provide a useful way to begin thinking about the structural implications of various grid pattems, Square Grids A single square bay canbe spanned wit either a onosvay ar two-way syst. However when multiple quae bays extand across the id ofa square fd the structural advantage of oni in wo directions suggest the use of conte two-way spanning systems i apport, particulary for smal to mediom span ranges. It shouldbe noted that while two-way structural action requires square or very nary square bays, square bays do not alvays have tobe spanned with twosvay systems. Fer exemple linear arrangement of square bays allows continuity in only one diretin, eliminating the tutu advantage of two-way spanning systems and suggesting thal one-way soaning systems may be mor effective than tworway systems. Also, asa square bay grows beyond 60 fet (18m). more one-way systems and fewer two-way systems become avaliable, © A single square bay canbe spanned with either a one-way cor two-way system, 50 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED + ineararangement of square \\ bays allows continuity in oniy one Giecton, eliminating the sta acantage of to way spanning syst and suggesting that one sy area tensa marecffctve —* The bidirectional character of a square Fe canbe modified by the nature ofthe Spanning and suppot systems. Bearing alls—and toa leser extent, column and-beam frames—can emohasize one aris over the ather and suggest the use of a one-way spanning system.REGULAR GRIDS Rectangular Grids The bays of a rectangular grid usualy lead tothe use ‘of one-way spanning systems, especialy when one honzonal dimension ofthe bay dominates the other. The fundamental question is how to arrange the spanning elements. tis not always easy to determine in wich lection the primary structural elements should span. Itmay often be beter from a structural efficiency point ‘of viw to keep the spans of major beams and girders as short as possible and to span the long dimension of ‘rectangular bay with repetitive members supporting a uniformly cstbuted load. + Collector beams ar primary beams orgies that support ‘one or more secondary beams — Se Avrectangular bay canbe seen to havea primary axis along its anger dension wih perpendalr secondary ai. However any perceived ectonalty is a influenced more bythe at of the vetal supporting + Feeder beans re \ I cloments hor tan te actual popertions ofthe ba. ‘the secondary beams that are supported by. 7 \, collocor beans,“ \ _-7 \~# One-way systems may span rectangular bays in \ wo ways. Itmay often be better from a structural efficiency point of view to keep the spans of collector beams and giders as shor as possible while feeder joists and beams supporting a uniformly cistibuted load span the ong dimension. ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 51REGULAR GRIDS Tartan Grids Both square and rectangular rids may be modified in tpt tt ‘a numberof ways to respond ta programmatic needs or contextual requirements, One ofthese is to offset ‘wo parallel eid to produce a tartan or plaid patter at tpt tt tt supports. The resulting interstitial or intervening spaces T, 1 can be used to mediate between larger spaces, define paths of movement, or hause mechanical systems, t t t ‘While the tartan grid illustrated here is basod on the square, rectangular tartan grids are also feasible. In t tH cither cas, the daison to use one-way or twoway spanning systems dapends on the bay proportions, as discussed on page 4. tps tp tp tt _-* Tartan grids provide muhiple support points for both collector beams o ders and feeder beams or joists. ~S——+ The column clusters can be transformed into a pair of walk columns with a stang axis o a single, shaf-like structure * Partial plan and section: Contaal Behoer Insurance Offices, Apeldoom, Netherlands, 1967-1972, Herman Herzberger 52 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDREGULAR GRIDS vertical supports arranged ina rail pattem about a real or implied center. The direction of spans infuenced by the support spacing, measured oth radial and crcumferentally —+ While one-way structures typically span te inegulary shaped bays, two-way fat plates or ft slabs can also span racial sypgot pattems in an efficient manner Collector beams ina radial pattem, ‘varying span lengts. -* lfcallactor beams or girders span in circumferential ‘mann, thor spans will ary while the foodor beams ar joists will have constant span longts. ders of constant length can span feeder beams or joists having * Soo pages 274-776 for dome stuctures, ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 53IRREGULAR GRIDS Modifying Grids Square, rectangular, and tartan grids areal regular inthe sense that they consist of regulary recurring elements regulated by orthogonal spatial relationships. They are Capable of growth in a predictable manner, and even it ‘one of more elements i missing, the pater of the whole remains recognizable, Even racial grids have recurring relationships defined by ther circular geomet, In architectural design ris are powerful organizing devices. It should be noted, however, that regular ris are only generalized gates that can be macified and made specific in response to cumstances of program, sit, and rmateials. The objective isto develop a gr that integrates ‘orm, space, and structure into a cohesive whole, ‘+ Modifying by Addition or Subtraction t ‘A regular grid can be matiied by selectively removing pation or extending structural bays in one or more rections. ‘+ Moding Scale and Proportions A roqular gid can be modified ty enlarging the bay spans in ne or two diestions, creating hierarchical sot of modules diferetatd by sve and popoton + Modifying Geometry ‘A regular grid can be modified by incorporating another {id of contrasting orientation or geometty nto the comesiton, 54 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED q 4 { ae on LH | ‘See the example ofthe Pariament Building by Le Corbusier illustrated onpages 14-16,- IRREGULAR GRIDS Modifying by Addition or Subtraction Reguar grids can be extended horizontally and vertically to form new compositions of forms and spaces. Such aditive ‘compositions canbe used to express growth, establish alinar sequence of spaces, oft collect a numberof secondary spaces about a major or parent form, —+ linear seties of spatial units can be extended in a perpendicular direction to form a planar field of spatial unis, or ina vertical ection to form planar or volumetic compositions. _® Additive modifications, wherever possitle, should occur along major nes of vertical support ané horizontal span, Subtractive modifications result fram the selective removal ‘of a portion ofa regular gid. This subtractive process may ‘occur to create: A major space largo in scale than that established by the grid such asa court or atrium, or -* Brocessod entry space + A portion ofthe regular grid ean be romove to accommodate or adress a unique feature of he site + For subtractive modifications, the rogular grid shouldbe large enough to encompass the building program and be recognizable as a whole from which parts have boon removed, ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 55IRREGULAR GRIDS Modifying Proportions ‘To accommodate the specific dimensional requirements of spaces and functions, a gid can be made iegularin one or two directions, creating a hierarchical set of modules Citferetiated by size, scale, and proportion. \When the structural grid i iregular in only one cretion, ‘the collector beams or giders can span uneven bay lengths while the feader beams o joists retain constant spans. In some cases, i might be more economical to have ‘the collector beams or girders have equal spans while ‘the feeder beams or jists have varying span lengths. In either cas, the unequal spans will esutinthe spanning systems having different depths + An unequal gid spacing ay result from a desired sectional profile or linear variations in program requirements 56 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS The stuctural can b made regular in two dretions to achive a tighter between stucture pace, and function. In this ase, the direction of spanning elements £4} wilvary along ath the roporton ofr stuctura bays, ‘As the stuetural bays vay in proportion, its mportant | y+) to understand thatthe trbutary oad ares or oth the Spaming members and vertical supports wil vary as wel “* Unaqual grid spacing STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 57IRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Accommodating Large-Scale Spaces ‘When spaces are much lager in sale than those required ‘or ypeal uses, such as for auditoriums and gymnasiums, ‘they can disrupt te normal hythm ofa structural grid and ‘the increased spans and resulting loads —both gray and lateral—on vertical supports require special consideration Largershan-normal spaces may be embedded inthe structural grid be separate but attached tote aid, oF be large enough to encompass support functions ino its volume In the fst two instances, iis usvally best to have ‘the vertical supports ofthe large-scale space be equal to Some multiple of the regular support grid. In this way, horigontal continuity can be maintained throughout the structure * large-scale space that is embedded within a grid can be supported and buttressed by the structure of the surrounding spaces. the grid of te large space does rot align with that ofthe suraunding spaces, then some sortoftransional structure would be necessary to ‘aocommadate the shift. = The desired architectural expression may be that of a large-scale space that is separate from but connected to an acjacont structure, Articulating the large-scale space inthis way can alleviate the cificulty that may arse ‘hen two diffrent types of structural systems meet or ‘hen two structural grids ae misaligned. nether case, «third structural system would be required to make the ‘ransition, 58 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ————* Alarge-seale space that incorporates secondary functions and spaces int its volume typically requires a long spanning structural systam, See Chapter 6 fra full discussion of lng span structural systoms. + For the possible sectional relationships of large-scale spaces to adjacent spaces, oe Chapter 4 ‘+ See the example of the Paiament Buldng by Le Corbusier ilustated on pages 1-15. ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 59IRREGULAR GRIDS Contrasting Geometries ‘A regular grid can meat a gid of contrasting geometry reflect difering requirements of intrior space and exterior ‘orm orto express the importance ofa form or space within its context Whenever this occurs, there are three ‘ways in which to handle the geomet contrast, *= The two contrasting geometries can be kept separate and be linked by a third structural system, «= The two contrasting geomettes can overlap with ether ‘one dominating the other othe two combining to form a third geome, * One of the two contrasting geometis can incorporate the othe int its fl. The transitional or interstitial space formed by the intersection of two contrasting geometries can, if args or unique enough, begin to aan an importance or significance ofits own, Inthe latter two cases, the resulting regular or nonuniform layout of vertical supports and varying span lengths makes it cficultto use repetitive or malar structural mamibers, See pages 7073 for transitional patterns to mediate between straight and cunilingar structures, 60 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED _ Contrasting geometries soparatd but connectad by a third structure, r Contrasting geometries intersecting or overlapping, (ne of two contrasting geometies encompassing the oerIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Contrasting geometries separated but linked © Rectangular geometry within a cicular geometry «Rectangular goomotry within a circular geomet + Ovarapoing geometries iar geometry lar geometry * Circular geometry embeded in a rectangular georetty * Rectangular geometry embedded within a cicular geometry ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 61IRREGULAR GRIDS Pian and section: Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Alexandrian Libra ‘Alexandria, Egypt, 1994-2002, Snahetta “The examples on ths and the facing page illustrate ‘ways in which two contrasting geometries —the circular andthe rectangular—can be related. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina exhibit a rectangular structural grid within acreular frm, Th Lister County Courthouse embraces the circular courtrcam space party within the boundaries ofa rectangular form. The lage, sheltered cireular courtyard ofthe SO Hotels separate from but linked by a terace to the linear block of accommodations. 62 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS Plan: Lister County Courthouse, Solvesborg, Sweden, 1917-1971, Erik Gunnar Asplund Partial plan and section: ESO [European Souther Observatory) Hote, Cero Paranal, ‘Atacama Desert, Chile, 1999-2002, Auer + Weber Associates ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 63IRREGULAR GRIDS Contrasting Orientation Justa two structural grids may have contastng geometries, they also might have differing orientations ‘access unique features ofa site, accommodate an existing pater of movement, or express contrasting ‘ors or functions wrhina single compostion, And as in the cas of contrasting geometries, there are three ‘ways in which to resolve how the two grids that ifr in orientation resolve into a single structure * The two grids can be kept separate and be linked by a ‘hid structural system, * The two grids can overap with ether one dominating the othe, or the two combining to fom a tint geometry * One ofthe two grids can incorgrate the other int its field ‘The Vansional or nterstial space formed by the intersection of two geometies having contrasting orientations ca, large or unique enough, begin to attain an importance or significance of its own. Inthe ltr two cases, the resulting inegulr or nonuniform layout of vertical supports and varying span lengths make it ficult to use repetitive or modular structural members. See the following page for ansitona pattarns to mediate between grids having cffering iontations. 64 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘The transitional rk between two geometric ‘ofientations may rellec ether one ofthe orientations ‘or nether of them. ifthe inking space conforms to ‘one ofthe orientations, the contasting orientation vill tonto be emphasized. * Contrasting orientations can lead tothe linking space having unique spanning conditions. ‘When tw grids of contrasting orientation overlap, ‘one will tnd to dominate the othor. Tho ascondoncy ‘of one grid can be futher emphasized by a change in vertical scale Strong structural and architectural ‘mphasis is placed on the exceptional spaces where ‘one can experence both geometries. ‘Another way of weating differing orientations isto unity both parts by gathering them under a third dominant stuctual frm. Like the examples above, ‘emphasis occurs at the exceptional condition of tivo sifferent structural systems are juxtaposed, ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 65IRREGULAR GRIDS Plan and section: Palmach Musoum of History, Tal Avi, tac, 1992-1999, Zi Hecker and Rafi Segal 68 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘The examples on this andthe previous page illustrate soveral ways in which contrasting orientations canbe accommodated within a single composition ‘The Palmach Museum of History conssts of three parts, tw of which are skewed to preserve an exsting cluster of tees and rocks and define an ‘megulaly shaped courtyard, Te structure ofthe Lois & Richard Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Artis based on a reguar rectilinear gr but the columns have the shape of paralllograms to reftect the skewed geomety of ‘the fulleigh, sel atrium space housing the vertical syst of stairways. ‘The Valley Corte House uses the main ving room as a transitional stucture ‘that ses above to visually lnk the contrasting orientations of two wings. Plan and socton: ois & Richard Rosonthal Contr for Contemporary Ar Cincinnati, Orio, 2001-2008, Zaha atid Architects Pian and section: Valley Center House, San Diago County, California, 1999, Daly Gonk Architects ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 67IRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Accommodating Irregular Spaces Design ideas ae often generated not frm the patter of structural supports and spanring elements but rather from ‘the desired ordering of program spaces and the formal {qualities ofthe resuitng composition na typical buicing Program, there are usualy requirements fr various kinds of spaces. There may be requirements for spaces that are singular and uique in thee function or significance tothe building organization, others may be flexible in use and can be freely manipulated Discrete regular spaces maybe framed by the stucture ‘w conform with andrinforce the program requirements of ‘the spatial volume ‘This usualy involves working back and frth between a stuctual concept and the program requirements for ‘he spaco, searching for an appropriate fit batween the structural strategy and the vision forthe formal, aesthetic and performance qualis of the resulting spatial environment, AAciscrete ireguar space may algo be developed as an independent structure with a separate structural system and geomaty superposed over he building a a ‘whole, Although appropriate to accommodate te spatial requirements of such spaces as theaters, concert halls, and larg galleries, tis strategy typcallyrequites long span spanning systoms, For a discussion of long-span structures, soo Chapter, 68 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Accommodating Irregular Shapes. tan me Plan diagrams: Mil Owners’ Assocation Bulking, Ahmedabad, India, 1952-1954, Le Corbusier ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 69IRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Accommodating Irregular Shapes Itis advisable to ty to recognize the inherent geometry embedded in regular plan shapes when atemptng to develop a strategy ‘or its structural system, Even the ‘most ineguiar of plan shapes can often be dissected into parts which canbe seen tobe transformation of regular geomet shapes he manner in which an inegular shape or form might be constructed will oftn suggest logical options fora framing strategy. This may be as simple as using the center of an are for a radial framing system or framing parallel or perpendicular ta significant wal or pane within an imegular qaometry. Curves, especialy, possess a numberof properties for establishing the bass for a framing strategy. (One might use the radius or center of an arc, a point that is tangent tothe at, or inthe case of double curvatures, the inflection point where a change in curvature occurs. The aporoach one takes will depend on the design intent and how the structural strategy might reinforce the concept. % Equal column spacing along the are creates unequal column spacing on the rectangular ri Equal column spacing onthe rectangular gyi crates a subtle inoquality of column spatng along the ae ‘Although structural framing systems are usualy developed in plan, consideration should also be given tothe effect ofthe structure onthe vortal aspects ofa building —its tvalions and the scale of it interior spaces. IFeolumn locations wil be expresso inthe facade, for example, 4 the isle effect of a rgular column spacing on a curving cextrior wal plane shouldbe considered, Pat te chlo of aging an hp Ys itominne succor sts \ ‘rom te inevitable variations in span lengths. WV 70 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS Plan and section: Kunsthaus, Graz, Austria, 1987-2008, Peter Cook and Colin Fourier Perio | ra a_i, Pet) tit bi The examples on ths page illustrate two ways in ‘which regular forms have been intogratd into the rectilinear geometry ofa composition, The bulbous form housing the exhibition spaces and related public facilites inthe Kunsthau is party a response ‘oan regular ste and te required fire-sepaation distance fom existing adjacent buildings. I appears ‘a float above the geometry of the structural grid ‘that suppor it ‘The significance of tho main reading room ofthe Seinaok Libary is expressed in both plan and section by its fan shape, which i anchored at ‘the circulation desk tothe reclinear goomey of ‘the offices and support spaces. G Ei Plan: Seinajoki Libra Seinajoki Finland, 1963-1965, Alvar Aalto ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 71IRREGULAR GRIDS Plan shapes may evolve that do not conform to or incorporate a clear rectilinear or curvilinear geometry, such as ovoid and paallelograms. One approach is selector erate a significant eoge o near condition off of which one can orent te grid or framing pattern These lan diagrams are usta few ofthe mary possibities that emerge ‘This parallelogram offers a choice of framing or spanning parallel to one sot of edges or the other while maintaining a uniformity of span length = ____* Imposing a radial pattem of framing or spans on this ‘ovoid pian shape emphasizes its curvature, with the possibilty of tansiating the cuvlinear quality into the Vertical dimension. ‘+ Recognizing the geometry of the parallelogram can lead toavariety of lattice-ype structures, ‘© When aniregular shape is she major support line along te slippage and frame ether petpendiular tothe sip ine or in response tothe imegular edge conditions. ‘Framing or spanning perpendicular to ane sot of eds regulares the structure and leaves triangular shaped tend conditions to be spanned ina diferent manner ~——+ The laxity of column location afforded by concrete flat plate structures enables an to create irregular oor shapes as wll as respond toa variety of interior space configuations. 72 { BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘These plans show two ways in which irogular plan shapes can incorporate a regular grid pattem The dramatic sweep of the tensile roof structure ofthe Yoyogi National Gymnasium is created by prestressed cables suspended from two larger stel cable, which intum are supported between two structural towers. From this ental spine, the rof cables drape down Plan: Arena Magajor, Yoyogi National Gymnasium, and are anchored to curvilinear conerete bases, The Tokyo, Japan, 1961-1964, Konzo Tango plan view, however, shows the regularity ofthe cable spacing Tho angulay,muitifactod nature of the Des Moinos Public Library building belies the roguaty ofthe structural rid of columns onthe intorior Note how secondary columns define tho boundaries ofthe building facades. ig |= ‘Des Moines Public Library, Des Moines, lowa, 2006, David ChipperfeldArchitects/HLKB Architecture ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 73IRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Accommodating Irregular Edge Conditions Buildings may be shaped by the configuration ofthe site, ‘the possibilties for ew cordors and outlook, the edge conditions of streets and street frontages, or by the desire ‘to preserve unique topographic features. Any ofthese conditions can lead to an regular geometry that must be rationalized with the building program and the structural sytem devised to house it (One strategy is to reduce the building form into orthogonal shapes with different orientations. Ths will often result in exceptional conditions that must be esohed at ‘the intersections between the orthogonal pats ofthe composition. See pages 64-65, Another approach isto adapt asories of equivalent spatial tunis or formal elements to an imegular edge coniton by bonding the linear aray along the path of the regulary ‘Th imeguiaity can be regularzed by visualizing it as a series of curvatures and recognizing the center of radius ‘or each are segment as well as the points of inlet where changes of curvature acu, 74 BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDIRREGULAR GRIDS ‘Those projects show how we can respond to iregulr edge conditions. Can Ls, perched high on the edge ofa cif overlooking the Mediterranean, appears tobe a loose collection of small, vernacular buldings linked by a circulation spine Te individual nature ofthe foms or spaces allows each to be criented independently ofeach other. The EOS Housing project, on te other hand, isa terace housing schomo. The sinuous, continuous forms are gonerated by to radial geometry ofthe party walls that soparate th individual housing units Pian: EOS Housing, Helsingborg, Sweden, 2002, Anders Wilheimson| ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 75,IRREGULAR GRIDS 76 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED ‘classic duality in architectural design les inthe opposition between the straight and the curved. Reference has already been made to this oppostion on page 70, Presented here are adaitional approaches to resoving ‘the tension betwoon a curved surface or plane and the rectilinear geometry of a regular structural grid, Each has implications on the design of the structural frm as well as ‘the qualty of the interior spaces, (ne could begin with the geometry that generated the curved surface or plane. This might suggest a framing ar spanning patter that reinforces the curilinear edge to the space that is generated. The radial nature ofthe pattem would contrast stangly withthe orthogonal grid, ‘which could reinforce a distinction between two parts of ‘the building program. The opposite approach would be tw extend the orhogonal relationships established by the regular grid structure tothe cuved surace or plan. In this lan diagram, the radial patter reinforces the undulating natu ofthe space enclose by the curvilinear surface or plane, whichis reflected in the imegular spacing ofthe column supports inthe rectangular portion ofthe st Extending the orthogonal bay structure tothe curilinear surface or plane creates an iragular series of spaces ‘that mediatabetwean the straight and the curved and unifies the two edge conditions. ‘The foxibilty of column locaton afforded by conrote flat plate structures enables one to roate iragular floor shapes as well as respond toa variety of interior space configurationsIRREGULAR GRIDS Exterior view and plan detail: One Jackson Square, New York, New York, 2009, Kohn Pederson Fox These two examples show how cuvlnear cutain walls canbe created. The irregular, site-assembled curtain ‘wall panels of One Jackson Square ae attached to the ccrilinear perimeter ofthe overhanging concrete slabs. The slab edges had to be farmed procsely so thatthe mulon joints ofthe curtain wall system would align propel. na few of the units containing dauble-height ‘spaces, a large beam replaced the slab edge as a means ‘of support forthe curtain wall The ventral potion of Wils, Faber & Dumas Headquarters “consists of a square grid of concrete columns spaced at “Ag foot {14-m)contors while perimeter columns are sot back from the curvilinear slab edges, Dar, solartnted lass panes are connected by cer path iting and silicone ointod to form a thr-stry high eurain wall, ‘whichis suspended from a perimeter edge beam atthe roof lovel, Glass fins provide lateral bracing Plan and section: Wilis, Faber & Dumas Headquarter, ipswich, England, 19711875, Norman Foster/Foster + Partners ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 77IRREGULAR GRIDS Sheared Grids ‘Two potions ofa building may be adjacent to each iter, each responding ints om way to programmatic or contextual requirements of constant. Lach may also require two cfferent types of structural pattems that meet along @ common line of support Each may have similar structural patems but one may sip o displace relative ‘othe other. In these situations, ffrences between ‘the parts may be expressed in the scale or gain ofthe respective structural pattems, * When the scale and grain of two atid are simi, any |¢—>|<—>| ‘This stations similar tothe ‘one above, buthere the one ‘way framing or spans in one ‘wing continues unchanged +0 the coma poston, giving ‘the arangoment a definite sidodnoss <> |e 4 |e} | HEH af one wing of the buling Tt one win, while picking up the t continues tothe comer ty 4 spacing of heater wing in one position. For the adjaining Tt Alrection, dominates due tits t ‘acates to beequvalona { material and type of stuctue. calunn would have tobe he comer bay requires a longer ade tothe longer sid ofthe one-way spanning system. end bay. Equivalent Sides One Side Dominant ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 81‘TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS ‘The three plan diagrams on this pag illustrate how a omer conan can be made special or unique through ‘the significant sia, istinctive shape, or contrasting rientation of a aiseret comer eloment, * The square comer bay s enlarged to emphasize its primacy over each wing, which maintains its own one- Way framing or spans. Tivo columns ae added to ease the transition from the salar bay spacing ofthe wings to the larger comerbay spans. «+ The square comer bay is rotated to erphasie its comer postion while each wing maintains it wn one-way framing or spans. Two clumns are added to support the comers of the rotated ay. We LT THe = Thee lar comer bay contrasts with the rectilinear geometry of each wing, emphasizes is comer positon, and requires its own structural patter, Each side ean be ‘ramed as a one-way system with beams linking each ‘wing t the comer bay. 82 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDTRANSITIONAL PATTERNS ‘+ The epatitive spans are reduced in the wedge-shaped comer bays. The convergence ofthe radiating framing members at 2 single interior comer column is a difficult connection to make Increasing the radius of curvature ofthe wedge-shaned comer bays allows longer spans and avoids the awkward intersection of six spaning ‘members as shown ave, * Increasing the rads of ceurvature even mare results in longer more variable spans * Both wings can be stuctured independently ofeach other but be tied bya transitional mer bay —>|¢>|¢>| + The comer void emphasis t the independence ofeach Wing, which rejoined at a t single col, le * Both wings are indopondont structural systoms related only by proximity Corner as Void ‘STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 83PATTERNS IN CONTEXT Foundation Grids The primary function ofa foundation system isto support and anchor te suerstuctire above ar tansmitit loads safely into the earth Because he foundation sores as a crea link inthe cstbuton and resin of bing loads, ts att of supports must be designed to both accommodate te form and layout of he superstucture above and respond tote varying conditions of sol rock, ard water below. The bearing capacity ofthe supporting sol wil impact ‘the choice ofa foundation type fra building, Shallow or spread foundations are employed when stable sol of adequate bearing capacity ocurs relatively near to the ground surface. Fotings are proportioned to distribute ‘heir load over a wide enough area that te allowable bearing capacity ofthe soil snot excgeded, This should ensure thal whatever settlement does occur is minimal or is uniformydisvibuted under al portions of the stucture ‘When the bearing capacity of the sol ona site vais, spread foundations may be joined by a stuctural pith or mat foundation —essentaly a thick heavy reinforced concrete slab, Mat foundations dstrbute concentrated loads to areas of higher capacity sol to avoid the ciferetial settlement that would occur between individual spread footings. ‘When uiling loads excoed the bearing capacity ofthe supporting sal, pile or caisson foundations must bo used. Pile foundations consist of steel concrete, or timber ples thal are driven int the ground unl they reach a mare suitable bearing stratum of danse sol ar rock or until the friction of the soil an the piles is sufficient to support the design loads. inivdual ils are typically joined with a castin-lace concrete cap that in turn support a building column, Caissons are cast in-place conerete shafts that are created by diling the soil ta the required depth, placing reinforcing stoel, and casting the conerot, Caisson are genorally larger in ciameter than piling and are pareulary suited to slopes whore lateral cislacomentis a major oncom 4 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED /, / —# The magnitude, pattem, and «istrbution of building loads on a foundation is directly related to ‘the sie and arrangement of the structural bays. ‘Smaller structural bays distribute their loads over a greater umber of smaller footings + Conversely lager structural bays result in fewer but incvidvaly hs large footings and foundation. \ _—* Mat foundation “+ Structural calumn ++ Pile cap -* FlingPATTERNS IN CONTEXT Building on Slopes Pile foundations can bo used on regular or sloping ‘topography, particularly where the surface soil onthe slope may be unstable and te pilings can extend down to bear ‘om or in more stable stratum of sil or rock. In such cass, itmay no be necessary to retain sol, and the location of the ples can align withthe desied column locations inthe building When itis desirable or necessary to excavate into a slope, retaining walls are often employed to contain the mass ‘of earth above the grade change, The retanad sai is considered to act asa fui that exerts lateral pressure on ‘the face ofthe retaining wal, tending to cause the wall to side laterally orto vertu. The overturning moment ‘created by the lateral sol pressure andthe opposing resistance of the walls foundation is rtcaly dependent ‘on th height ofthe wal. The moment increases withthe ‘square of the height ofthe earth thats retained. As @ retaining wall becomes tall, it may be necessary to install tisbacks to piling orto bul in counterforts—aross walls ‘that ten the wall lab and add weight to its footing, A series of retaining walls parallel tothe slope can provide contingous support fr bearing walls inthe superstructure ‘ofthe buldng. tis not advisable to ad the weight of the building tothe sol behin the retaining wall. The location ‘ofthe retaining walls should therefore coincide with ines ‘of support inthe building above A relaining wall may fll by vertuming horizontal siding, or excessive setting + Thrust tends to overturn a retaining wall about the ‘toe ofthe base. To provent a retaining wall rom ‘verturing, the resisting moment ofthe composite ‘weight ofthe wall and any scl bearing onthe hee! of ‘the base must counter the overturning moment ereatod by the sol pressure ‘To proventa retaining wall from sig, the composite ‘weight ofthe wal times the coefficient of ftion for ‘the sol supporting the wall must counter the lateral thrust onthe wall The passive pressure ofthe sil abutting the lower lv! of the wal ais in resisting the latoral thrust ‘© Topreventa retaining wall rom setting, the vertical force must not exceed the bearing capacity of the sol STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 85PATTERNS IN CONTEXT For small projects, particularly when the design does not require excavation into a sloping st, grade beams may be used t tthe foundation ito a single, rig unt that is in ‘um anchored to pling, usually atthe upper porcon of he sit, This has been suecessful where minimum disruption of the site is desirable and on sits that are primanly accessible ftom the high si, When the design doesnot eit excavation into a sloping site, the foundation wals may nn perpendicular tothe slope ad be stepe to flow the opgrapy Because stoned foundation was do not ean earth ‘hoy wl pally ot equi he enfocoment an oge ‘ooings ofa roaring wal ‘+ Footings must be stepped when necessary to keep them in the ground when site slopes exceed 10%, ——+ Footing thickness should be maintained in its vertical porvon _—+ Footings ae tobe placed on undisturbed soil or on properly compacted fill, ‘+ Footings are to be atleast 12 inches (305) below grade, exceptin conditions where frost occurs, n which case ‘the footings must extend below the fost line ofthe ste * Footing tops are to be level, whereas the bottom of footings may have a slope of up to 10%, 86 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATEDPATTERNS IN CONTEXT Parking Structures. \When parking iste sole purpose of a structure, ‘the specific dimensions requred for maneuvering and parking voices dictate te possible column locations forthe layout ofthe structural bays. \When parking isan anlar funtion in a building, itis typically located on the lower floors of the structure while other uses occupy the upper floors, Itis often dificult ta resolve the structural gi that is appropriate for the upper lors with one that effectively accommodates parking. Overlaying the ‘wo conditions may identify a possible common arid between the two by taking advantage ofthe flexibly of column locatons suggested in the diagrams on the folowing page, \Where column alignment isnot possible it may be feasible to use transfer beams or angled stuts to cay the loads from the vane lors through the parking floors to the ground foundation. Is always desirable to minimize these conditions. Mixed-use buildings in which two uses, suchas parking and housing, require a specific degree of ire separation, may have the rof ofthe lower parking stucture constructed asa tick, posttensianed concrete plate The pat is able te transfer column or bearing wal laa from the upper floors to the parking stucture while providing the required fie soparaton. Tis is only feasible when the upper structure is subject to relatively light Icad andi ikoly nt cost-effective if tore are large concentrated loads or when the misalignment between columns creates concentrated loads in the middle third af longer spans, STRUCTURAL PATTERNS / 87PATTERNS IN CONTEXT le SS © 90° Parking Layout ‘The columns ina parking structure shoul if possible, be placed between adjacent rows of parking spaces in ane tirection and at some multpe ofthe width of the parking spaces inthe other. The layout shoud allow sufficient space for cars to maneuver and car doors to open unimpeded. Columns should be visible to divers when backing up. This wil cften result in moderately long spans inthe range of 80 feet (18 m) However asthe plan diagrams show, there are alternative locations for column supports, The back triangles indicate possible lines of suppor along which columns can be spaced in concert withthe width of the parking spaces. (One can soe that a variety af span lengths ae feasible, ‘making it possible fora patcular layout tobe coordinated with tho column support patom in tho structure above, 8 / BUILDING STRUCTURES ILLUSTRATED Sow Faw SI FSeN Sw Sw a oe axe ew FSP ‘Possible nes of support. ‘Angled Parking Layout