CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Sociolinguistics studies how language relates to society and it draws insights from sociology,

anthropology, and social psychology as well as other areas of linguistic study.

Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society and between the users

of language and the social structures in which the users of the language live. Bussman

(1996:439) identifies sociolinguistics as that discipline which developed from the co-

operation of linguistics and sociology and it aims at investigating the social meaning of

language system and of the common set of conditions of language use and the linguistic and

social structures. Hudson (1980:4) asserts that sociolinguistics is the study of language in

relation to society. In the opinion of Holmes (1992), the aim of sociolinguistics is to move

towards a useful framework which provides a motivated account of the way language is used

in a community and the way the users employ language.

Particular studies in sociolinguistics have demonstrated the importance of the social function

of language and have also shown that it is often possible to find social explanations for

aspects of linguistic structure (Malmjaer, 2001:415). Studies in sociolinguistics deal mainly

with the way language varies according to the social context in which it is used and according

to the social group to which a user belongs. It aims to describe this variation and to show how

it

reflects social structure. Malmjaer posits that those linguistic units which vary fairly

systematically in relation to social variables such as the user’s region, class, ethnic group,

age, and gender are known as sociolinguistic variables. Lyons (1968:201) is of the assertion

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that context determines the meaning of an utterance and utterance according to Finnegan

(2008:549) is an expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.

Context is very important in decoding the meaning of proverb. It is context that determines

the choice of proverbs used. Context determines the situation in which what people

communicate can influence the kind of language they use. The context or situation is the

environment in which proverbs become meaningful. Three main features of context are

distinguished by Bussman: the setting, the participants and the type of activity in which they

engage. Finnegan (2008:4) agrees with Bussman by saying only in a particular context can an

expression convey a speaker’s intended meaning and be interpreted correctly by a hearer. He

further states that to grasp the intended meaning of an expression, hearers must consider it in

the light of its context. He sums it up by saying the best way to view a language is to see it as

a three-sided figure of expression, meaning, and context. Expression encompasses words,

phrases, and sentences including intonation and stress.

Proverbs everywhere, Nigerian proverbs inclusive are determined by socio-geographical

experience (Akporobaro, 2006:72). This is to say that the nature of the imagery and the forms

in which the truth in proverbs are expressed, to a very large extent, reflect the socio-cultural

milieu in which the people live. Akporobaro further states that the repertoire of imagery

implicit in the proverbs of the Southern people is different from those dominant in the

proverbs of the North. This is because proverbs reflect the values, beliefs, hopes, and

aspirations of the people. For thousands of years, philosophers have pondered on the meaning

of meaning, yet the speakers of a language can make meaning out of what they hear and can

also produce utterances that are meaningful to other speakers. Meaning has to do with the

senses and referents of these elements of expression while context refers to the social

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situation in which the expression is uttered including whatever has been expressed earlier in

that situation. It depends on generally shared knowledge between speaker and hearer.

Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams, (2003:173) are of the opinion that language without meaning

is meaningless. Akwanya (2005:13) further points out that words are meaningless in

themselves, but only become meaningful when they are used as part of the language where

they belong. This is to say, for instance, that Yoruba words will be meaningless to an Igbo

person who does not understand Yoruba. Such words will only make meaning to someone

who understands and speaks Yoruba. This by extension applies to proverbs. In every culture,

there are nuggets of popular wisdom, expressed in the form of concise sayings. These are

usually known as proverbs. Other terms such as adage, maxim, precepts are also used

(Crystal, 2008:53). Crystal adds that in many cultures, especially in Africa, proverbs are

important and frequent elements in ordinary conversations.

Different scholars have given definitions of proverbs. Mieder (1985:3) defines a proverb as a

short, generally known sentence which contains wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views

in metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to

generation. Lamidi (2008:61) gives a definition which is not too different from Mieder’s, and

according to him, proverb is a witty saying that captures the logic, culture and observations of

a people. Whiting (1994) cited in Mieder (1985:21) summarizes a proverb as thus; “an

expression which owing its birth to the people, testifies to its origin in form and phrase. It

expresses what is apparently a fundamental truth- that is, a truism,-in homely language, often

adorned, however, with alliteration and rhyme. It is usually short but need not be: it is usually

true, but need not be. Some proverbs have both a literal and figurative meaning, either of

which makes perfect sense; but more often they have one of the two”.

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A proverb must be venerable; it must bear the sign of antiquity, and since such signs may be

counterfeited by a clever literary man, it should be attested in different places at different

times. This last requirement we must often waive in dealing with very early literature, where

the material at our disposal is incomplete. Structurally, proverbs display inter-language

similarities with their reliance on vivid images, domestic allusions and word play. In the

words of Olatunji (1984:61), proverbs evolve from traditional lore, history and religion and

are usually attributed to elders as they embody the wisdom of elders or ancestors in society.

From pre-literate times, the wisdom of proverbs has been a lamp unto the feet of people in

their social interactions. It is succinct and pungent, and it is used to add grandeur to an

otherwise flat and ordinary speech. Young people sometimes find it difficult to understand it

since the meaning is not easily decoded from the surface. This is because the language is

elevated from the ordinary language of everyday communication.

Meanings in proverbs can be analogous to happenings in the real world. Proverb is based on

the wisdom, beliefs, culture, experiences, history, of its society and, it is therefore

interpretable easily within the society. Proverbs are understood in relation to a background of

assumptions and values, so they are primarily a social phenomenon. Although, proverb is

mainly used among the elderly, it is sometimes used in interpersonal discourse by both the

young and old in appropriate contexts. This context, Lamidi (2008:61) says, must include

topic, participants, setting and subject matter. Context is thus mandatory for their correct

interpretation, because they indirectly provide a message. They are learned through social

interaction and for social purposes, and they are at the vanguard of social values. This is to

say they promote the values that are held high in a socio-cultural milieu.

Afo proverbs play the above roles. Proverbs are interpretable within the cultural environment.

They constitute an interesting and informative source of folk knowledge that portrays certain

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cultural beliefs. They are an integral part of language; a spectacle through which the Afo

people see their culture. Tadi (2007:165) sums the usefulness of proverbs as a communicative

instrument, proverbs help in depicting the values, the norms, the aspirations, the likes and

dislikes of the members of a society. Proverbs mirror the life of a people and guide them in

their daily actions. Consequently, proverbs play an active role in the social life of a people as

they advise, criticize, admonish or console one another. They help in conflict resolution,

enrich the language philosophy, or reflect a people’s material and spiritual life.

Communication is of vital importance for meaningful human existence. For the peaceful co-

existence of man and his fellows, communication must take place, and language makes this

happen. It is a people’s identity. Language does not exist in a vacuum, it does exist in a

society, and as a result, language and society are functionally and socially inseparable.

Therefore, this study attempts to explore the proverbs in Afo from a sociolinguistic

perspective.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Proverb is an important aspect of indigenous Nigerian languages. Most existing ethno-

linguistic studies of proverbs in Nigeria have focused mainly on Igbo,Yoruba, and Urhobo

(e.g. Lamidi, 2008; Oha, 1998; Olubode-Sawa, 2009; and Maledo, 2015). To the best of the

knowledge of the Researcher, not much has been done on aspects of the language of Afo

proverb.

It is a sociolinguistic fact that most minority languages of the world are facing the threat of

possible extinction of which Afo is not excluded. This fact has been collaborated by Agu

(1998) as cited in Emike, (2012:25) when he states that “half of the 6000 languages that

abound in the world are spoken by adults who do not pass it onto subsequent generation”.

With a population of over 100,000 native speakers, vital aspects of the Afo language and

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culture such as their proverbs, are gradually fading away in the repertoire of the new

generation of speakers of Afo. This scenario thus calls for research into the various aspects of

Afo language and culture in order to ensure the preservation of the language and culture, and

increase the communicative and performance competence of the users and speakers of Afo

language. To the researcher’s best knowledge, no attention has been given to the study of Afo

proverbs especially in the context of its sociolinguistic implications. Hence, it is in the

premise of this research gap that the study is aimed at analysing Afo proverbs within the

context of sociolinguistics.

1.3 Research Questions

The study sought to provide answers to the following research questions;

i. What are the meaning of Afo proverbs within the context sociolinguistics?

ii. What are the functions of proverbs in relation to the linguistic community and the

society in general?

iii. What are the communicative effects and conversational values of proverbs in Afo?

iv. What are the socio-cultural relevance of Afo proverbs?

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

This study aims at analysing Afo proverbs from the sociolinguistic standpoint. Specifically,

the study aimed at achieving the following objectives;

i. Provide a working knowledge of the meaning of Afo proverbs within the context

sociolinguistics.

ii. Examines the functions of proverbs in relation to the linguistic community and the

society in general.

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 iii. Highlight the communicative effects and conversational values of proverbs in Afo.

iv. Show the socio-cultural relevance of Afo proverbs.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Proverbs are useful resources to pass across ideas. Even more, they provide a source of

information for anyone who wishes to have access to the traditions and the cultural heritage

of a linguistic community. They are also extremely valuable for sociolinguistic purposes. A

good understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity of a given society is useful in

promoting equity and respect in schools and places of work for all. Hence, this study will be

of invaluable significance in many quotas. First, the study will serve as an additional

contribution to the existing studies carried out by scholars and academia on proverbs most

especially within the context of sociolinguistics. Similarly, the study is a contribution to the

body of present and future research that seeks to study aspects of the language and culture of

Afo from a sociolinguistic standpoint.

Through language, one can gain access into the culture of a group of people. Thus, the

sociolinguistic study of Afo proverb which by extension is an aspect of the Afo language is

significant as it will underscore how the people of Afo use proverbs to organize speech. In

the event of minority languages facing the possibility of extinction, this study will be

invaluable, as it will serve as a documentary that helps in preserving Afo proverbs which is

an aspect of the language and culture of the language. In the same vein, this study will

enhance the sociolinguistic background of Afo speech community and the ethno-linguistic

potentials of the language.

1.6 Scope of the Study

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The study is based on a sociolinguistic analysis of Afo proverbs. To analyse all the proverbs

available in the linguistic repertoire of the language is an impossible task due to the

constraints of time, location and financial resources. Hence, randomly selected Afo proverbs

will be gleaned from Afo songs and native speakers within the context of use. Where

necessary, cross references will be made to proverbs from other language communities in

order to explicate their usefulness in depicting the values, norms, aspirations, the likes and

dislikes and sometimes, the do’s and don’ts of members of society at large.

1.7 Basic Linguistic Information of Afo

1.7.1 Name, Location, Demography and Ethnography

The Afo language is known by a variety of alternative names such as Afao, Afu, Aho, and

Epe which are probably Hausa forms, although their origin is unknown (Armstrong, 1955).

The Afo are an ethnic group of central Nigeria, and identify themselves as Eloyi and are

related to the Idoma ethnic group (Appiah, & Gates, 2010).

The Afo are settled in Benue and Nasarawa States. In Benue State, they are settled in Agatu

Local Government Area and Benue River areas, while in Nasarawa State, they are settled in

Kokona Local Government Area, Keffi Local government Area, and predominately in

Nasarawa Local Government Area. Some of the main villages of the Afo in Nasarawa State

are Agwada, Onda, Mararaba Udege, Udege Mbeki. Neighbouring languages are Mada,

Agatu, Gwandara, Gade, Gbagyi, Hausa, Basa and Ebira. Ajiri is a town and not the name of

the people. It became the title of the chief during the political era of the second republic,

when the government of Chief Solomon D. Lar, wanted to emancipate the people. Ajiri

became popular because of Makama Dogo, a chief of Nasarawa, who was killed in this

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village. When the government wanted to give them a traditional stool, they decided to give

Ajiri the title – Osu Ajiri.

Traditionally, most of the Afo people lived in a 15 miles (24 km) range of rocky hills in what

today is Nasarawa State. They revolted against the British in 1918 and were forced to leave

their homeland. Today, they are scattered in different parts of Nasarawa and Benue States,

although some have moved back to the original hills. The British divided the Afo into ten

village areas in 1932, appointing a head for each village, but these village heads were not

recognized by the Afo (Paul, 2009). The Afo are one of the more economically advanced of

the Benue Valley tribes. In the hills, they grow guinea corn, cotton, yams, and tobacco. They

practice in weaving and dying, producing cloth that is much in demand and can be traded.

The Afo villages in the hills are made up of round huts with conical thatched roofs grouped

around a central courtyard. In the plains the Afo are mostly farmers, selling dried fish and

palm oil for cash. In the plains, Afo built large houses within compounds and fortified their

villages (Paul, 2009).

The village is the largest political unit, independent of its neighbours. A chief is assisted by a

council of elders in administering the village and resolving disputes. The ‘gḁṍdo’ is the father

of the village, the authority on customs and law, in charge of planting and harvest rites. Most

Afo people practice their traditional beliefs, which centred on the god Oẅṍ, who is

symbolized by a white silk cotton tree or a fig tree. They worship their ancestors, whose

spirits are thought to live on and to require food and care. Religious rites include masked

impersonation of ancestors, witchcraft, magic, and divination with strings. A small number of

Afos have adopted the Muslim religion, while majority practice Christianity (Paul, 2009).

According to the Summer Institute of Linguistics (2000), as of the year 2000, about 25,000

people in the Awe and Nasarawa Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Nasarawa State and the

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Otukpo LGA of Benue State were reported to speak the Afo language, in the Idomoid branch

of the Benue-Congo group. Many use Hausa as their second or primary language (Eberhard

et al., 2019).

1.7.2 Genetic Classification of Afo

Armstrong (1955, 1983) classified Afo (Eloyi) as Idomoid, but that identification was based

on a single word list, and later Armstrong expressed doubts. All other preliminary accounts

classify it as Plateau, and Blench (2008) leaves it as a separate branch of Plateau. Blench

(2008) considers Eloyi to be a divergent Plateau language that has undergone Idomoid

influence, rather than vice versa. Hence, Afo Language can be classified as Idomoid under

the Benue-Congo language family.

The Benue-Congo language family is the largest and most complex branch of the Niger-

Congo language phylum. The Benue-Congo languages are centred in present-day Nigeria,

although considered together with Bantu they cover most of Eastern and Southern Africa.

Since Greenberg's classificatory exercise, essentially dating from the 1950s, a major revision

and realignment of these languages has taken place. This dates from a seminal paper by

Bennett and Sterk (1977) that took a fresh look at the structure of Niger-Congo. This revised

view became the basis for a new overview of Niger-Congo published in 1989 (Bendor-

Samuel, 1989). One major revision was the set of languages included in the ‘Kwa’ and

‘Benue-Congo’ families. Although these new families have been used as basis for much

discussion in print, their coherence has never been clearly established, nor has their internal

structure been clarified. The language family tree showing the genetic classification of Afo

language is shown in figure 1 below:

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 Proto Benue-Congo

West Benue Congo East Benue-Congo

Yei Akpes Noi Central Nigeria Ukaan Bantoid Cross

Akokoid Igboidv Kanji SE Plateau Jukunnoid Cross River

Bantoid

Edoid Ayere-Ahan Tarok

Yoruboid North West Central Bendi Delta Cross

Nupoid Idomoid

Afo (Eloyi)

Figure 1: Language family tree of Afo language (Blench & Mallam, 2004, as cited in Umaru,
2016:3).

1.7.3 Sociolinguistic Profile and Dialectal Situation of Afo

The first outsider to report on Afo culture was Gerhard Rolphs who visited their area in 1866

(Rolphs 1867:8 & 1871:72, 1874:5). His descriptions are under the name Afu, which was

usual until the 1960s. Temple (1922) represents the next ethnographic record. Armstrong

(1955) is a summary of existing administrative reports. Tschudi (1956) is the first modern

ethnographic account of Afo (the Eloyi). Afo language have always been spoken by relatively

small populations. No group of Afo speakers has formed large centralised political structures

resulting in the consequent spread of a language of intercommunication. Afo language has

almost no profile in education or the media. The main development of orthography has been

by missionaries, especially SIL, in relation to Bible translation. In some ways this has been

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problematic, as literacy is seen as only important for Christians. There were also secular

attempts at literacy under the NORLA programme (Wolff, 1954), although these never had a

major impact. The Nigerian Government has been publishing a series entitled ‘Orthographies

of Nigerian languages’ since the late 1970s and Afo language has been detailed in these

publications (Kuhn & Dusu, 1985 for Berom; Hyuwa, 1986 for Kaje; Longtau, 2000 for

Tarok; Goro 2000 for Koro Ashe). However, these are not necessarily linked with a literacy

programme except where individual authors are part of such programmes (e.g. Hanni Kuhn,

and Barnabas Dusu) and as a consequence, there has been no necessary language

development.

Broadly speaking, the languages with the greatest number of speakers have seen most work,

but sometimes literacy programmes of Afo seem to be initiated for political or personal

reasons. The existence of a literacy programme does not imply that vernacular literacy is used

outside the restricted context of Christianity. Indeed, many ‘literacy’ programmes in Afo

including those sponsored by churches, exist to teach reading in either Hausa or English. To

teach people to read their own language is to face considerable obstacles, not the least of

which is orthography.

According to Armstrong, the Afo (Eloyi) is divide into two major ethnic and linguistic

groups;

Èllɔ́ì Mbéjí Eloyi of the plains

Èllɔ́ì Mbéci Eloyi of the rocks

These two dialects are sufficiently different to make inter-comprehension problematic.

Indeed there are two major dialects thus: Èllɔ́ì Mbéci (Eloyi of the rocks – Udègè Mbɛki,

Odù, Ondà, Kana 1 & 2, Apáwù, Igwɔ̀ etc.) and Èllɔ́ì Ambú (Eloyi of the plains – Mararaba,

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 Udègè Kasa [Mbǎkwɔgbà], Udènì Gida, Akun, Uʃà, Udènì Magaji, Usenì, etc.). According to

Joshua Project (2019) the Èllɔ́ì Mbéci is considered the primary dialect of Afo.

1.7.4 Typological Classification

The phonology of the Afo is composed of 32 phonemes, 25 of which are consonants and the

remaining 7 are vowels, while the consonants are grouped into stops, nasals, affricates, literals and

approximants respectively. The vowels are found at word initial, medial, as well as final positions.

Afo does not allow consonant clusters; therefore clusters in words borrowed from other languages

with consonant clusters are separated with vowels in Afo. This, to some extent, prevents any CC

sequence, depending on the consonants concerned.

The phonology of Afo (Eloyi) remains tentative.

Vowels

Front Central Back

Close i u
Close-Mid e o
Open-Mid ɛ ɔ
Open a

Consonants

Eloyi consonants are Bilabial Labio-dental Alve-olar Alveopa Palatal Velar Labial-velar Glottal
as follows: latal
Plosive p t d c j k kp gb
b g
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Trill r
Fricative f v s z ʃ
Approximant y w
Lateral Approximant l

Source: Blench, (2017)

Morphology

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Nouns

Afo (Eloyi) has alternating nominal prefixes, although many words do not alter between

singular and plural. This erosion of the nominal prefixes may well be the impact of extensive

bilingualism with Idomoid languages. The tables below show the patterns of alternation.

Many alternations have only one or two cases so far recorded, which makes setting up the

system highly provisional.

1) a-/mba-

Gloss sg. pl.

Father á-da mbá-da
ɛ-/mbɛ-

Gloss sg. pl.

Mothe ɛnɛ́ mbɛnɛ
r
2) O-/a-

Gloss sg. pl.

King/chief/ruler ósù ásù
Digging stick ɔdù àdù
Patas monkey òbàgù abàgù
Maxwell’s duiker ɔvì ávì
3) O-/E-

Gloss sg. pl.

Soup/stew ɔsɔ̀ ɛsɔ̀
Doctor òbóʃí èbóʃí
Slave óɲi éɲi
Grandchild óyè éyè
4) o-/i-

Gloss sg. pl.

Night o-tú i-tú
5) u-/a-

Gloss sg. pl.

Masquerade I ù-dadu a-dadu
Witch ù-rùwɔyɛ̀ à-rùwɔyɛ
6) u-/e-

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 Gloss sg. pl.
Insect (Generic) ù-jìjírì é-jìjírì
God, rain ù-kpò è-kpò
Corpse ú-kpéjí é-kpéjí

7) u-/i-

Gloss sg. pl.

Compound, house ù-gù ì-gù
Farm ú-tú í-tú

kV- prefixes are probably the most common in Afo singulars. However, they occur in a

bewildering variety of forms and some type of stem harmony may be operating. However, the

examples are too few to be sure of the rules.

8) kO-/a-

Gloss sg. pl.

Bush kó-kátá á-kátá
Egg kɔ-ʃi a-ʃi
Intestines kɔ-kɔ̀ á-kɔ̀
9) ko-/e-

Gloss sg. pl.

Compound, house ù-gù ì-gù
Farm ú-tú í-tú
10) kɔ-/ɔ-

Gloss sg. pl.

Grass (generic) kɔ-sɛ̀ ɔ-sɛ̀
11) ku-/E-

Gloss sg. pl.

Tree (generic) kuwɛyi ɛ̀wɛyí
Turtle kúkúnábɔ ékúnábɔ
Eye kú-yi é-yi
12) ku-/i-

Gloss sg. pl.

Meat ku-vyé i-vyé

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 Liver ku-tu i-tu
Hair kú-ɲí í-ɲí
Fruit kú-múmà í-múmà

13) ka-/lɔ-

Gloss sg. pl.

Year kárí lɔrí
14) ki-/lu-

Gloss sg. pl.

Palm kicì lu-cì
Neck kì-tó lù-tó
15) ke-/lo-

Gloss sg. pl.

Mouth ke-nzu lo-nzu
16) kɛ-/lu-

Gloss sg. pl.

Thatch roof kɛnú lùnú
Granary kɛnɛ́ lúnɛ

17) ko-/lo-

Gloss sg. pl.

Lightning kowu lowu

Prefixes with rV- are very rare, and the only two examples are listed below;

18) rɛ-/a-

Gloss sg. pl.

Nose rɛ-́ ŋù á-ŋù
19) re-/e-

Gloss sg. pl.

Head ré-ʃí é-ʃí

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The word order in Afo is essentially SVO. That is, the subject occurs before the verb and the

verb precedes the object

20) Adáchè̩ lá é᷂nà à

NP buy Cow Det
S V O
Adache bought the cow
21) ofítè᷂ ŋmó adágbà
NP kill elephant
S V O
The hunter killed an elephant

22) Ochóé᷂chí hí íhì

NP cultivate yam
S V O
Ochoechi cultivates yam

The above are simple declarative sentences. Each of the sentences exhibits the SVO order.

The Determiner phrase (DP) is head initial with complements or modifiers following the head

noun. The possessive and the demonstrative are characterised by having a fixed position with

the head preceding them. Possessive pronouns immediately follow the pronoun and do not

allow the interference of any element in-between them. The demonstrative, on the other hand,

occurs word finally in the noun phrase, and no other element follows it. Afo relative clauses

are introduced by the relative pronoun “n” which can be who, what, which, whom and so on,

which are realised as a pronoun. The following sound is determined by the initial sound of

the vowel of the succeeding word such as; ne- that, and no- who, num- whom. The Afo

relative clause is an adjective modifier subordinated to an NP – noun phrase with a pronoun

inside the NP (the head of the clause).

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Preamble

This chapter presents the conceptual framework of the study, which clarifies and given an in-

depth definition and explanation of key terms and concepts in the study by scholars from

existing literature. The chapter also provides an empirical review of related studies conducted

by scholars around the world, as well as the theoretical framework upon which the study is

anchored. The chapter further presents the gap identified in the literature reviewed by the

researcher.

2.1 Conceptual Review

2.1.1 Language

According to Longe (1995:16), linguists have defined language as a system of arbitrary vocal

symbols by which a group of people co-operates. As he states further, there are two parts to

this definition: the system and what it is used for. Though there are other uses of language, it

is more fashionable to say that language is mainly used for human communication. Deriving

from the definition of language above, Cherry (1957:4) sees a group of people, a society, or

culture as people in communication, thus, may be thought of as ‘sharing rules’ of language,

customs, or habits, etc.. This in a way underscores the intersection between language and

society. Communication, the main use of language, is realized by a group of people, that is, a

society. It, therefore, means that the relevance of a linguistic event must be rooted in society.

To Fromkin et al., (2003:445), language is a city to the building of which every human being

brought a stone, and we live in a world of language. This means that all humans are involved

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in it. Akwanya (2007:7) shares the same opinion by saying that language is a property of

humankind. Syal and Jindal (2010:7) sum it all up by saying that language is species-specific.

They further posit that all human beings are possessors of at least one language and language

is found only with humans. So to man, language is a possession and a characterizing feature.

According to Wardhaugh (2000:1), when two or more people communicate with each other

in speech, the system of communication they are involved in can be called a code. That code

is something we can call a language. Appel and Muysken (1990:11-12) assert that language is

not just an instrument for the communication of messages but that the cultural norms and

values of a group are transmitted by its language. In this opinion, languages carry social

meanings or social connotations. Aitchison, as cited in Baruah (2011:4), calls language a

“patterned system of arbitrary sound symbols”. From this, it is obvious that communication is

a major function of language. In order for language to make meaning, the context of the

situation must come into place. The context determines the meaning that is deduced from an

utterance. Bloor and Bloor (2004) comment on this view by saying that when people use

language to make meaning, they do so in specific situations, and the form of the language that

they use in discourse is influenced by the complex aspects of those situations.

2.1.2 Language and Society

Language is indeed deeply entrenched in society. Hence, there are many possible

relationships between them. Wardhaugh (2000:10) opines that social structure may have a

measurable influence on linguistic structure and behaviour. He supports this view by saying

that the age grading phenomenon in which young children speak differently from older

children and in turn children speak differently from adults.

The above view pressed by Wardhaugh (2000:10) implies that the varieties of language used

by speakers reflect matters such as their regional, social or ethnic origin and sometimes even

19
their sex or gender. Indeed, the particular ways of speaking, choice of words and rules for

conversing used by a group of people to a large extent is greatly determined by certain social

requirements. Wardhaugh (2000:10), further gives another relationship that is opposite to the

former. Linguistics structure, he says, may influence social structure. This view to him is

behind the Whorfian hypothesis, the claims of Bernstein and others who argue that languages

rather than speakers of these languages can be sexist. The third relationship between language

and society is that the influence is bi-directional. This means that language and society can

influence each other. A fourth possibility is to assume that there is no relationship at all

between linguistic structure and social structure and that each is independent of the other.

Gumperz (1971:223) observes that sociolinguistics attempts to find correlates between social

structure and linguistic structure and to find out the changes that might occur.

2.1.3 Sociolinguistics

Varying accounts of sociolinguistics as a concept as given by scholars abound. Hymes

(1974:195) confirms this by saying that the term sociolinguistics means many things to

different people, and no one has an all-inclusive definition. Sociolinguistics as a field studies

the relationship between language and society and between the users of language and the

social structures in which they live. Awolaje et al., (2008:25) view sociolinguistics as the

study of the relationship between language and social structure that is, it seeks to unravel how

age, sex, social status or background correlate with language.

Crystal (2008:18) sees sociolinguistics as a discipline which studies language variations and

uses in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. In the views of Holmes (1992:1),

sociolinguists are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social

contexts, and their major focus is identifying the social functions of language and the ways it

is used to convey social meaning. This gives an insight into the way language works as well

20
as the social relationship that exists among users in a linguistic community. Akindele and

Adegbite (1999:3-4) define it as the relationship which exists between a language or

languages and the culture and tradition as well as the politics of a particular community. They

state further that “it examines the interaction between the use of language and the social

organization's behaviour. From these different accounts, it is obvious that language and

society are key terms in sociolinguistics.

According to Hudson (1980:1), sociolinguistics as a field of linguistic study gained

prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This shows how recent the field is. Crystal

(2008:440-441) gives an all-embracing definition of the term as a branch of linguistics which

studies all aspects of the relationship between language and society. It studies matters such as

the linguistic identity of social groups, social attitudes to language, standard and non-

standard forms of language, the patterns and needs of national language use, social varieties

and levels of language use, social barns of multilingualism and so on. It also studies how

language varieties differ between groups separated by some social variables, such as

ethnicity, status, gender, literacy level, age, etc., and how creation and compliance to these

rules can categorize individuals in social or socio-economic classes. Language use varies

among social classes just as the use of language varies from place to place.

Labov (2007), is considered to be one of the proponents of sociolinguistics who has

contributed immensely to importance in its development. He is noted for introducing the

quantitative study of language variation and change and for making the sociology of language

a scientific discipline. Therefore, sociolinguistics looks at how society influences language.

Based on the above definitions, it can be deduced that sociolinguistics is a discipline which

analyses the relationship between language and how members of the society use language in

different perspectives. The two concepts – language and society are interrelated and

21
interwoven, one complements the other. Sociolinguistics is divided into two branches: Micro-

sociolinguistics concerns with language components, paralinguistic, speech styles, code

mixing, code-switching, linguistic variation, stylistics, discourse analysis, etc. This branch is

concerned with a description of the features of verbal interaction between individuals in small

groups. On the other hand, Macro-sociolinguistics handles issues of language planning and

language standardization, language attitude, language distribution, etc., Macro

sociolinguistics is concerned with the distribution and function of language varieties in a

society. This research work will fall under Micro-sociolinguistics.

2.1.4 Proverbs

The Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary (1972) defines proverb as a short

saying in common use expressing a well-known truth or common fact ascertained by

experiences. According to Akporobaro (2006:69), a proverb is an aphorism, a wise saying,

based upon people’s experience and is a reflection of the social values and sensibility of the

people. Meider, the famous paremiologist, defines proverb as a phrase, saying, sentence,

statement or experience of the folk which contains above all wisdom, truth, morals,

experiences, lessons, and advice concerning life and which has been handed down from

generation to generation (Meider, 1985:117). It is often metaphorical. A proverb that

describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. From the above definitions,

it is obvious that a proverb is common to the society who use it, based on the people’s

experience, social values, and it expresses a well-known truth in that society. Mieder further

asserts that the wisdom of proverbs has been a guide to people in their social interactions for

thousands of years throughout the world.

Lamidi (2008:61) posits that a proverb is a witty saying which captures the logic, culture, and

observations of a people. To Olatunji (1984:19), proverb often evolves from traditional lore,

22
history, and religion, and is usually attributed to elders as it is believed to contain words of

wisdom from the elders and ancestors. “Proverbs are important informative and useful

linguistic signs of cultural values and thoughts” states Mieder, and the earliest collections of

proverbs stem from the third millennium B.C and were inscribed on Sumerian Cuneiform

tablets as commonsensical codes of conduct and daily observations of human behaviour.

Quoting the American paremiologist Whiting, Mieder gives a summary of proverb thus:

“A proverb is an expression which, owing its birth to the people, testifies to its origin in form

and phrase. It expresses what is apparently a fundamental truth–that is, a truism-in homely

language, often adorned, however, with alliteration and rhyme…. Some proverbs have both a

literal and figurative meaning, either of which makes perfect sense; but more often they have

but one of the two. A proverb must be venerable; it must bear the sign of antiquity, and, it

should be attested in different places at different times. This last requirement we must often

waive in dealing with very early literature, where the material at our disposal is incomplete”

(Miede, 1985:2).

This is surely a useful definition that not only comments on the nature but also on the form of

proverbs. Proverbs are used by speakers for different purposes: they lend grandeur and style

to oral speech and written words, they are a sign that one is at home with one’s culture and

linguistic environment. Obeng (1996:529) opines that proverbs are sometimes used as a way

of saying something gently, in a veiled way. Lamidi (2008:65) asserts that it is used, to sum

up ideas in a speech event or draw analogies between events/personalities…it is a record of

past events which are relevant to the contemporary world. Good use of proverbs can indicate

that one is full of wisdom and a good orator; they can also be used to simply make a

conversation livelier.

23
Proverbs constitute a rich resource to analyse the way we process and conceptualize the

world. They are a conceptual universal phenomenon with high cross-cultural and

communicative value, they also have instructive power. In the traditional African setting,

proverbs can be used to instruct the young ones on how to imbibe good conduct. Akporobaro

(2006:60) notes that proverbs are used by elders to instruct their fellows about specific codes

of conduct and to remind listeners of age-old wisdom and truth. For instance, in Urhobo, the

proverb “wo dia kere ukpoto-o oshu we-e” (if you do not stay close to a pit, you cannot be

caved in) means that if you do not stay close to a source of trouble, you cannot be involved in

it. Sociolinguistically, this proverb encourages one to stay away from trouble and embrace

peace. Again, “A ki i fa ori lehin olori in Igbo language (one does not shave a head in the

absence of the owner) means ‘one does not settle a matter in the absence of the person most

concerned’. This would make society better for all. Pragmatically, proverbs serve

communicative purposes. They are easy to learn and they are a product of social, political and

cultural beliefs and values.

In the opinion of Cram (1994:74), certain qualities exist in proverbs, idioms, and slogans.

They are all unique for they are individual expressions whose meanings cannot be easily

decoded at surface level. The three share similar features. In the first instance, their meanings

are constant, secondly, they summarize ideas, and thirdly, their structures are not very

mobile. This means that their constituents cannot be changed anyhow but they may be

twisted by a talented user. A proverb is, therefore, a form of language with a special structure

and meaning that cannot be easily altered. And because provers are a form of language, it is

important to examine the meaning of language in general terms.

2.2 Empirical Review

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The study of proverbs has been an attractive area of scholarship for a very long time. Its

nature, function, and rhetorical use for speech embellishment have attracted the attention of

many scholars from different linguistic backgrounds and fields of human study. In the review

of the literature below, some trends in the study of proverbs will be highlighted.

Odebumi (2008) examines the pragmatic function of crisis motivated proverbs in Ola

Rotimi’s ‘The Gods are not to Blame’ by applying the pragmatic act theory of Mey (2001).

He identifies two types of crisis motivated proverbs: social crisis-motivated proverbs and

political crisis- motivated proverbs. To him, these are characterized by practs such as

counselling, challenging, persuading, encouraging, threatening and admitting among others,

etc. He concludes that studying proverbs from a pragmatic perspective gives an insight into

the paramiological tool and has a pedagogic function. This work differs from Tadi’s by being

an analysis first from the pragmatic approach and second, it is a study from a scripted

document; thus, the reality of field information in real life situation is absent. Like Odebumi,

Emike (2012) views the study of Afemai proverbs from the pragmatic approach (Afemai is a

language spoken in Etsako and some parts of Owan in Edo state – Auchi dialect). It differs

slightly from Odebumi’s work by relying on the pragmatic theories of implicature,

presupposition, mutual contextual belief and knowledge of the world among others. His aim

in this study is to elucidate how Afemai speakers exhibit pragmatic prowess in the use of

Afemai proverbs.

Adopting the socio-semiotic theoretical approach as espoused by Renkerha (2004), Adegoju

(2009) explores further the place of proverbs in conflict resolution. He draws his proverbs

mainly from proverbs that touch on conflict and conflict resolution in the Yoruba language.

He concludes that apart from cultural values, proverbs carry rhetorical strokes that give

pragmatic forces to their interpretation through the linguistic and rhetorical devices used in

25
proverbs. Though an exciting work since it relates to society, it is only restricted to conflict in

society. There is much more to proverbs in society than conflict resolution. Related to the

meaning of proverbs in society is Olubode Sowe’s (2009) work on “Interpreting Yoruba

proverbs: Some Hearer Strategies”. Its main focus is on how hearers of proverbs arrive at the

meaning when they hear proverbs. His aim is to determine the cues deposited in proverbs to

enable the hearer to decide the meaning of the proverb. However, a careful study and analysis

of proverbs in some languages show that there may be no cues resident in the proverb to

decide the meaning.

Mensa (2010) undertakes a morpho-syntactic description of Efik Proverbs. (Efik is a

language spoken in Southern Cross River State). He observes that proverbs are a morpho-

syntactic construction of different kinds, structures, and functions. His linguistic investigation

of the internal structures of Efik proverbs highlights aspects of Efik language and culture

which are on the verge of extinction. He argues further that proverbs do not only have

stylistic and sociolinguistic relevance; they have a structural relationship which they enter

into in the lexicon. The major aim of this work as he states is to preserve a valuable part of

Efik language, culture, and literary form. This work makes its procedure distinct: morpho-

syntactic. It avoids a sociolinguistic procedure or consideration.

Omolosho (2012) studies Yoruba proverbs from the linguistic pragmatic approach. He argues

that structural semantics alone cannot account for the meaning of proverbs. And that since

proverbs encode the language user’s world view, contextual variables must be deployed with

linguistic resources to decode the meaning of proverbs. He calls for the analysis of proverbs

in real discourse situation with the understanding of their structure and the immediate and

wider context of use. This will go a long way to project the culture of the user and promote

inter-ethnic relation and peace.

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Fasika (2006) explored Yoruba proverbs relationship with names as an attempt towards

contributing to the development of national consciousness. This study takes a critical review

of the nature of proverbs and explores the dialectical relationship between Yoruba proverbs

and names. This is an exciting study but limited in scope. It considers a small area of

proverbs: names in Yoruba proverbs. From a standpoint of critical discourse, Hussein (2005)

analyses African proverbs in creating and perpetuating gender culture. Sexist proverbs were

analysed within the postmodern theory of power relation between social groups and the role

of language to mediate this relationship and explore the implications of gender stereotypes.

In a similar vein, prior to Hussein (2005), Oha (1998) had analysed Igbo proverbs from the

critical discourse perspective. Oha’s “Semantics of Female Devaluation in Igbo Proverbs”

focuses on the semantics of female devaluation and derogation in Igbo proverbs. His

approach is based on some modern theories of some feminist poets like Kristeva (1981,

1992), Irigavay (1985, 1992), Spender (1992) amongst others. Based on this approach, he

observes that language, as used in Igbo proverbs, promotes sexual politics played by the male

to the disadvantage of the female. The study underscores the female subjugation and male

dominance prevalent in Igbo society. These two works are very ambitious, interesting and

exciting. But they are totally silent on the sociolinguistic study of proverbs.

Furthermore, Lamidi (2008) undertakes a comparative approach of Yoruba and Igbo proverbs

with emphasis on structure and texture of proverbs in both languages. His data were sourced

from scripted sources: literary work and scholarly publication from Yoruba and Igbo

scholars. According to him, his findings reveal that proverbs from both languages have

similar structures. Therefore, he concludes by over-generalizing that proverbs are universal in

structure and texture. This conclusion has however been considered faulty by quarters. First,

his source of data is not authentic, that is, not from real life situations. Also, the relativity

27
between the structures and texture of Igbo and Yoruba languages is not enough to make a

universal statement.

Proverbs have also been discussed extensively in narrative fiction from the literary

perspective Obiechina (1992) discovered what he calls “narrative proverbs” in African

fiction. These proverbs are:

autonomous stories that appear in different genres and narrative register…..they function as

images, metaphors, and symbols and advance the meanings and formal qualities of the

narrative in which they occur (Obiechina, 1992:200).

Alimi (2012) discusses the use of proverbs in Achebe’s ‘Things Fall Apart and Arrow of

God’. In his work, he examines how Achebe uses proverbs to delineate his characters, how

proverbs are used generally in the literary texts and their interpretation. As mentioned earlier,

these works are limited to the analysis of proverbs in the fictional world of the novels, though

they are interesting and relevant.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical foundation for this work is anchored on Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of

Communication as its theoretical framework.

Dell Hymes’ (1972) Ethnography of Communication.

Hymes’ (1972) Ethnography of communication is concerned not simply with language

structure but with language use, with rules of speaking…the ways in which speakers

associate particular models of speaking, topics, or message forms, with particular setting and

activities (Coulthard, 1977:30). Ethnography is the description of different races and culture

while communication suggests the human language, especially the spoken form. Hymes’

Ethnography of communication accounts for participants at discourse, channels for

28
transmitting messages, the codes, setting, genres, topics, comments generated from discourse,

the events, and characters (Bello, 2002:407). Wardhaugh (2000:242) gives a breakdown of

Hyme’s Ethnography of Communication. He posited that Hyme’s Ethnography of

communication takes various factors that are involved in communication into cognizance. For

the sake of convenience, he uses the acronym Speaking for the various factors he deems

relevant in understanding how a particular communicative event achieves its objectives.

These factors are explained below:

S - The Setting and Scene: are important. The setting is the physical environment and time in

which speech takes place while scene refers to the abstract setting or the cultural definition of

the occasion. The setting and the scene of a linguistic event have a determining effect on it.

The setting determines the type of communication that would ensue and of course the type of

proverb that would be used. In other words, a particular piece of discourse might be

appropriate or inappropriate depending on the setting and the scene in which it takes place.

P – Participant: This refers to the parties involved in the communication. A market

conversation will include a trader and his customers, in a council of elders meeting the

Interlocutors could involve the king and his chiefs. Again, the participants involved in a

linguistic event determine the type of communication that ensues between them.

E – Ends: refers to the recognized and expected outcome of the communication. Every piece

of communication has an outcome. The use of a proverb may have advice, rebuke, warning,

praise, castigation or challenge as its end, just as haggling between a buyer and a seller, for

instance, is targeted at out-doing each other in the bargain.

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A – Acts sequence: This is the actual form and content of the communication. This represents

the exact words used and how they are used, and how what is said relates to the present topic

of discussion.

K –Key: refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a message is passed across. The

message could be light-hearted, humorous, precise, sarcastic, etc. The key is put into

consideration when communication takes place. The key should be reflective of the topic of

communication. Where the key does not match what a person is saying, people would pay

attention to the key. Key here relates to the interpersonal function of language following the

Hallidayan systemic-functional grammatical model (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004; Bloor

and Bloor, 2004; Eggins, 2004).

I – Instrumentalities: as the name suggests has to do with the medium for passing the

message across, and this could be written or spoken. This also refers to the form of speech

used such as the language, dialect and the register that is employed, which could also be

formal or informal. For instance, in a meeting or gathering where English is spoken, the

orator or master of the ceremony could switch to vernacular when it is time for the

presentation of kola-nuts because “kola nut does not understand the English language”. One

may choose to employ different instrumentalities during a single verbal exchange of a

considerable length by switching from writing to speaking, quoting a proverb, and code-

switching between different languages.

N – Norms of interaction and interpretation refers to the specific behaviour associated with

communication and how these behaviours are viewed. In other words, these are the norms or

rules that govern speaking. There are norms of interaction and norms of interpretation. Norms

of speaking are the specific behaviours and properties that attach to speaking, while norms of

30
interpretation relate to the number of interpretations to be placed on norms of interaction by

someone who does not share them (Longe, 1995:70).

G -Genre refers to the precise type of utterance, such as poems, proverbs, prayers, etc. Of

course, the occasion determines the genre. In a festive mood, for instance, one is expected to

use songs that would reflect the mood while in a council of elders meeting in Afo land,

proverbs are used richly to embellish speech.

As outlined above, Hymes’ Ethnography of Communication shows that communication is a

complex activity that requires expertise on the part of the speaker and the listener. These

communication codes given by Hymes would guarantee success when applied in strict

compliance. Herein lies Dell Hymes communicative competence which can be seen to consist

of factors which are non-language-a point which is often neglected by many exponents of the

concept (Longe, 1995:10).

Indeed, the Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of Communication is more or less sociolinguistic in

nature and thus was chosen as the theoretical foundation upon which this work is anchored on

because of its relevance to the topic under study. Sociolinguistics as earlier pointed out,

studies language variation and use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man

(Crystal, 2008:18). It is interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social

contexts, and their major focus is identifying the social functions of language and the ways it

is used to convey social meaning (Holmes, 1992:1). Hyme’s Ethnography of communication

does not only provide a description of races and culture, vis-à-vis communication but takes

various factors involved in communication as earlier pointed out into cognition. Because a

proverb is an expression which, owing its birth to the people, testifies to its origin in form and

phrase. and expresses what is apparently a fundamental truth – that is, a truism-in homely

language, often adorned, however, with alliteration and rhyme (Miede, 1985:2), it consists of

31
a discourse, channel for transmitting, code, setting, genre, topic, events and character, the

Dell Hymes’ (1972) Ethnography of Communication, is therefore, significantly relevant in

the sociolinguistic analysis of proverbs.

2.4 Summary

Going by the above review, the present researcher observed that there are still some gaps left

to be covered. First, it is obvious that little or no work has been done on Afo proverbs either

from a pragmatic, critical discourse approach or from a sociolinguistic perspective. More so,

the analytic approaches used if critically observed from the review thus far, leaves a wide gap

of theoretical areas to be explored.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Area of Study

As earlier pointed out, the Afo are settled in Nasarawa and Benue States. However, for the

purpose of this study, only Afo settled in Nasarawa State will be studied. Hence, the area of

the study is in Nasarawa State. More specifically, the study area in Nasarawa State which the

study is centred on are Afo native speakers from Nasarawa Local Government Area, while

the area of study in terms of village is Mararaba Udege.

3.2 Research Design

A suitable research design for a study is one that minimizes bias, maximizes the reliability of

data to be collected and in line with the purpose of the study. Hence, the study adopts

qualitative and descriptive research designs. The rationale for the adoption of the qualitative

research design is because the study is an ethnographic study, thus suitable for analysis. The

descriptive survey, on the other hand, was employed because it is a scientific method which

involves observing and describing the behaviour of a subject without influencing it in any

way. It hence gives a true picture of a situation or a population.

3.3 Instrumentation and Sources of Data Collection

On instrumentality, all our data belong to the spoken (oral) medium. On Norms of Interaction

and Interpretation, there is no pragmatic failure as all participants are competent Afo native

speakers. Thus, when such proverbs are used, the issues discussed are reacted to and

interpreted appropriately. The data for this study will be sourced from forty-five (45)

randomly selected competent Afo native speakers. An array of vast Afo proverbs are

33
available, however, it is impossible to analyse all of them. Hence, a random sampling method

will be employed in data selection. The rationale here is because the random sampling

technique gives no room for bias as all members of the data have equal chances. The

proverbs to be used in this study cut across the different social and educational backgrounds

of both the addressers and addressees. It should also be noted that Afo as a language has

different dialects and the proverbs to be analysed cut across all the dialects for they are

mutually intelligible.

3.4 Methods of Data Collection

The data will be collected orally from Afo first language speakers, Afo songs to be translated

into English language for analysis. The method to be used for data collection is the

participant–observation method. This method places the researcher as a member of the

society, as such, the researcher will interact with environment and record proverbs used by

Afo first language speakers in social and cultural gathering. The researcher will also interact

with village elders in the study area on the Afo proverbs, record prominent proverbs that they

will provide, as well as complete information in the appropriate context of use of such

proverbs.

3.5 Methods of Data Analysis

The major framework for analysing data in the study is the Dell Hyme’s Ethnography of

communication. Also, insights from other sociolinguistics theories would be used where

necessary. All the data to be analysed belong to the genre of proverbs. Hence, typology for

this study follows Adedimeji’s (2003:61-72). He groups African (Nigerian) proverbs into

four types: rhetorical, epistemological, didactic and philosophical/analytic proverbs.

Rhetorical proverbs are those sayings that are geared towards persuading or influencing

34
people to do certain things. These proverbs are meant to encourage, motivate, and advise

people with the aim of making them act in a specific manner. Didactic proverbs teach moral

lessons. They are meant to instil some moral training or discipline in the hearers by exhibiting

virtues and extolling them and identifying vices and condemning them.

Epistemological proverbs are those whose origins lie in history, stories, folklore, myths,

legends, and other oral traditional sources. They tell a story or narrate an incident. And

philosophical/analytical proverbs are those that are rooted in the study of the cosmos, the

universe and the knowledge of the world. They portray self-evident truths that are observable,

discernible, empirical and philosophical. It should be noted that the relationship between

these different types of proverbs are not mutually exclusive; instances of overlaps may occur.

A rhetorical proverb may serve a didactic function while an epistemological proverb may be

rhetorical, didactic or analytic.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

This chapter deals with the sociolinguistic analysis of Afo proverbs, to show aspects of Afo

culture and view which the proverbs reflect. While indicating the typology of the proverbs

using Adedimeji’s (2003) classification.

4.1 Data Presentation

4.1.1 Sociolinguistic Analysis of Afo Philosophical Proverbs

In what follows, our data is presented as act sequence in Afo and translated into English. The

meaning/analysis and typology are given.

23) Á kwu ɔ́wɔ́wɛ́ bà a kwu úmbwù írímoò mô

‘Not every food seen, is for consumption’

The above proverb implies that not every gift should be accepted. This proverb calls on

an individual to be wary of the types of gifts that come his or her way because every gifts

come with a motive attached. Hence, an individual should evaluate which gifts are worth

accepting and those that are not.

24) Á kwu ìsìso bà a kwu íyì ísómò mô

‘Not all expressions are to be expressed’.

The above proverb implies that emotions should be kept in check. This proverb calls on

an individual to control his emotions and keep them in check, because not all emotions

needs to be acted on.

36
25) Ádá wù ùgwù gbá e yíi mbâ ùgwù wú ě fumò le

‘Only the owner knows where the room leaks’

It is only the individual that is experiencing a particular challenge, difficulty, or problem

that actually knows the magnitude of his problems and how it hurts. This proverb implies

that one should not presume to know the magnitude of the challenges of another person,

needless to think they can understand the hurt or pains on another person from a distance.

26) Ágyԑní á má Ԑpá mó bà Ԑpá la má Ágyԑní

‘If Muhammad does not go to the mountain, the mountain should go to Muhammad’

The above proverb implies that if things are not going your way, you will have to adjust

to the way they are. That is, things will not always work out your own way or in your

own favour. Hence, an individual should be open to adapting to such circumstances.

27) Álù o wo yí lipwamà, kenzu o wo ŋgó lìso, éyi bà o wo yí lɛ̀bɛ̀

‘Ears are made to hear, mouth is made to talk and eyes are made to see’

Everything has its own particular use, function, and importance. Hence, the use or

function of a particular thing or person should be used in its own accordance.

28) Àmàsa íi tò lesò (lesùmò) mô

‘Don’t underrate another person’s idea’

The above proverb implies that the wisdom and knowledge of an individual should never

be underestimated irrespective of appearances or status.

29) ɔ́ɔ sá kwúwó mbala ádâ kwúwó mô

‘We do not fight with an owner over what belongs to him (the owner)’

37
 The above proverb holds that one stands to gain less from fighting or competing with his

or her superiors.

30) ɔ́ɔ sεɛ̀ mô le mó ìdù i yi ufye

‘Blood is thicker than water’

The above proverb holds that the bond of family is strong and beyond comprehension.

31) ɔ́ɔ vú kwùvɔ̀ ò bò lúkpɛ́zhí mô

Plan a room bigger than what is expected to occupy the room.

This proverb calls on an individual to be dream big, be ambitious, and not settle for less.

32) Ɔ̀ yì úwù kwɔ́pyí ɔ̀ mgbɛ́ mìlùkwú

‘Care should be taken, not to cause more harm than good’

The above proverb holds that an individual to should be mindful of his actions and be

wary that even an act of goodwill can turn out to harm others. Hence the worst harm

usually comes from the best of intentions.

33) ŋɔ̌ sà ùpéyi kesè bà byí wu átá mèmbyi

Blind person should be made to touch the water, while being carried across a river.

The above proverb implies people should not always be spoon-fed during times of

difficulty and challenges. Rather, they should be made to experience the sacrifices require

to overcome tough times.

34) Mū Ɔmbí a kwu ísú ole, mū Èyènù a kwu ivyԑ ré?

What is good for the goose is good for ganders’

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 The above proverb implies that if something is good, acceptable, or beneficial for one

person, it is or should be equally so for another person or persons as well.

4.1.2 Sociolinguistic Analysis of Afo Didactic Proverbs

35) À kwu okwúrù, è tó kwɔwa è shi, è kó kwùsè

He gives out to his own disadvantage, out of pride.

The above proverb holds that the flaws in an individual are easily exposed by pride. The

proverb calls on the individual to be wary of the pride in him or her, especially if he

knows he has some flaws in him.

36) Àmàsa íyì ùbwù, ɔ́ɔ zíizɔ̂ mô

‘Not every lesson has to be taught’

This proverb holds that an individual must not necessarily pass through an experience

before learning from them. However, lessons can be learn from the experiences of other

so as to avoid making the same mistakes other have made.

4.2 Summary of Findings

From the above data presented, it can be observed that most of the provers in Afo language

are philosophical in nature. Hence, majority of the proverbs in Afo are those that are rooted in

the study of the cosmos, the universe and the knowledge of the world. They portray self-

evident truths that are observable, discernible, empirical and philosophical. However, only a

hand few of the above presented proverbs were didactic proverbs. The presented didactic

proverbs teaches moral lessons. They are meant to instil some moral training or discipline in

the hearers by exhibiting virtues and extolling them and identifying vices and condemning

39
them. From the data presented, it can also be observed that the different between the two

types of proverbs presented are not mutually exclusive, as they overlap with one another.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Summary

This project is divided into five chapters. Chapter one discusses a general introduction to the

study. Specifically, it consists of the background to the study, statement of the problem,

objective, relevance and aim of the study. Chapter two consists of conceptual, and empirical

studies which discusses the concepts of sociolinguistics, proverbs, language and society.

Chapter three presents the methodology for this research. It introduces the research design,

sources of data, methods of data collection and analytical procedure, while the Chapter four

presents the main report of the research.

5.2 Conclusion

The importance and relationship between language and society can never be overemphasised.

This is because language and society can influence each other. The findings proves the very

essence of language in a contemporary society. Proverbs which is a part of language

constitute a rich resource to analyse the way we process and conceptualize the world. They

are a conceptual universal phenomenon with high cross-cultural and communicative value,

whose importance can never be overemphasised.

5.3 Contribution to Knowledge

The empirical studies and literatures review in chapter two of the study revealed various

aspects of African-especially Nigeria proverbs, and it relative sociolinguistic importance.

However, in all the studies carried out by these scholars, no aspect of a sociolinguistic

analysis of Afo proverb has been carried out. This study thus contributes to existing

41
literatures on the Nigerian proverbs-especially from a sociolinguistic stand point. More so,

this current study provided empirical evidence of the sociolinguistic aspect of Afo proverb,

how the people of Afo use it, based on their experience, and social values. Hence, the study

provides an overview expression of truth and wisdom in the Afo culture. More so, the study

underscores the intersection and expression between language and society, vis-à-vis the way

the people of Afo process and conceptualize the world.

5.4 Recommendations

The use of proverbs in everyday communication in a common norm in African langue. It is

an easy way of expressing one’s self, identifying with a particular culture and passing words

to wisdom and teaching to people. Hence the use of proverbs should be encouraged in literary

texts, and be given a chance to grow and develop into a full blown way of communication.

More so, attempts should be made at designing an orthography for the proverbs for every

ethnic language in Nigeria, so as to prevent to increasing decay of the use of proverbs in

African literatures.

Also, since this study was carried out from a sociolinguistic perspective, it may be interesting

to investigate the phenomenon of proverbs from a pragmatic point of view so as to explore

other interesting features that may have not been uncovered by this study.

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