SKIN: Bio-membranes in Buildings

Journal: IABSE-IASS Symposium London 2011

Manuscript ID: London-0944-2011.R1

Theme: Invited Papers from WC and WG

Date Submitted by the

Complete List of Authors: Goldsmith, Nic; FTL Design Engineering studio

Type of Structure: Buildings, Temporary Structures, Tension and Membrane Structures

Material and Equipment: New Materials, Composites, Cables

Structures and Environment, Conceptual Design and Realization,

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Nic GOLDSMITH FAIA LEED AP Nic Goldsmith received his
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5 Senior Principal arch degree from Cornell
6 Architect University, worked for Frei Otto
7 FTL Design Engineering Studio before starting FTL. His main
8 New York, NY, USA area is the design of tensile
9 ngoldsmith@ftlstudio.com structures.
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13 SKIN: Biomembranes in Buildings
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16 Skin is a multilayered, multipurpose organ that shifts from thick to thin, tight to loose,
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lubricated to dry, across the landscape of the body. Skin is a knowledge-gathering device
19 responds to heat and cold, pleasure and pain. It lacks definitive boundaries flowing
20 continuously from the exposed surfaces of the body to internal cavities.
21 Ellen Lupton Skin 2002
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When we first think of building skins, we probably think of sculptural forms such Frank
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25 Gehry’s curved titanium cladding for the museum in Bilbao, but building skin today is far
26 more complex than just free-form compositional packaging. Building skins are
27 environmental filters, they are boundaries of personal property and they act as the
28 transition between inside and outside. Pure skins are building envelopes where the roof
29 and the exterior walls form one seamless whole without a transition, just like the human
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body. They do not need to express the inside of the building, since they have been
32 removed from the structure of the building. This is much like the bones of our body
33 which act in compression but require our tensile skin to hold it together. As a result of
34 this distinction, we are starting to see a whole new vocabulary of architectural ‘building
35 skins’.
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38 Fabric, foils and other membranes are materials well suited for creating building skins.
39 They are curved for strength, they provide waterproofing & insulation, they can be
40 multilayered and can create complex surfaces with minimal seaming. Fabric skins have
41 been around since the beginning of time with yurts and leather tents of ancient
42 civilizations, but today with new composite materials, computational analysis and digital
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patterning, membranes have developed into a new option as permanent building skins.
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46 This lecture will investigate biological skin and tensioned membranes which simulate
47 skin by incorporating many diverse functions. It will look at shade and insulation; it will
48 investigate lighting and the generation of energy and examine the membrane as water
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collector as part of an integrated system.
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52 Using a series of case studies of the work of FTL, examples of these applications will be
53 discussed as a series of elements which connected begin to transform our notion of
54 building facades into a porous multifunctional membrane reflecting the natural world.
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Nic GOLDSMITH FAIA LEED AP Nic Goldsmith received his
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5 Senior Principal arch degree from Cornell
6 Architect University, worked for Frei Otto
7 FTL Design Engineering Studio before starting FTL. His main
8 New York, NY, USA area is the design of tensile
9 ngoldsmith@ftlstudio.com structures.
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14 Summary
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This lecture will discuss human skin as a starting point to look at lightweight membrane
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18 building envelopes. It will examine the historical separation of structure and form and look at
19 the required integration in membrane structures. Examples of the work of FTL will be used
20 as descriptive case studies to illustrate the different aspects of these membrane envelopes
21 including: structure, form, acoustics, shading, lighting, energy, insulation and water
22 collection.
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25 Keywords: building membranes, acoustics, environmental, energy-generation, water
26 collection, lighting surface, photovoltaics
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SKIN: Bio-membranes in Buildings
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31 Skin is a multilayered, multipurpose organ that shifts from thick to thin, tight to loose,
32 lubricated to dry, across the landscape of the body. Skin is a knowledge-gathering device
33 responds to heat and cold, pleasure and pain. It lacks definitive boundaries flowing
34 continuously from the exposed surfaces of the body to internal cavities.
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36 Ellen Lupton Skin 2002
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38 When we first think of building skins, we probably think of sculptural forms such Frank
39 Gehry’s curved titanium cladding for the museum in Bilbao, but building skin today is far
40 more complex than just free-form compositional packaging. Building skins are
41
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environmental filters, they are boundaries of personal property and they act as the transition
43 between inside and outside. Pure skins are building envelopes where the roof and the exterior
44 walls form one seamless whole without a transition, just like the human body. They do not
45 need to express the inside of the building, since they have been removed from the structure of
46 the building. This is much like the bones of our body which act in compression but require
47 our tensile skin to hold it together. As a result of this distinction, we are starting to see a
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49 whole new vocabulary of architectural ‘building skins’.
50
51 Fabric, foils and other membranes are materials well suited for creating building skins. They
52 are curved for strength, they provide waterproofing & insulation, they can be multilayered
53 and can create complex surfaces with minimal seaming. Fabric skins have been around since
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the beginning of time with yurts and leather tents of ancient civilizations, but today with new
56 composite materials, computational analysis and digital patterning, membranes have
57 developed into a new option as permanent building skins.
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5 Looking at the layers of the human skin to shed light on new approaches to building skins,
6 we can see that there three layers of skin: the epidermis, the dermis and the hypodermis (see
7 fig 1). The outer layer is the epidermis which contains the sweat pores, and hair shafts, the
8 middle layer is the dermis which contains the connective tissues, hair follicles, sweat glands,
9 and some muscles. The inner layer is the hypodermis which contains veins and arteries and
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connective tissues which tie the layers together.
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Fig 1. Cross section of human skin with layers
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25 This approach of three integrated layers all performing different functions creates a skin that
26 allows the body to have a waterproof cover, to keep out disease, to protect against sunlight,
27 etc. When this approach is applied to membrane structures, we need to understand first what
28 the requirements that the building skin needs to perform.
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31 With the advent of Modern Architecture in the early 20th Century, there was a desire on the
32 architect’s part to separate structure from form. The ‘maison dom-ino’ by Le Corbusier was
33 an attempt to create a structural system that isolated a columnar structural grid from the walls
34 and curtain wall façade (see Fig.2).
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45 Fig. 2 Maison Dom-ino 1914
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47 This set in motion an approach to building design that still persists today with buildings that
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49 are designed as a series of independent elements that are joined by proximity rather than by
50 an initial integration of systems. Lightweight membrane structures by nature can not follow
51 these rules and are required to act as multi-functional integrated elements, since they are so
52 thin by nature and have to do so much work. Building skins need to contain structure, form,
53 acoustics, shading, lighting surface, energy generation, insulation and water collection. The
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building skins can be either singular or hybrid systems using a combination of different
56 building technologies. The early pioneers of spatial structures including Felix Candela, Pier
57 Luigi Nervi, Frei Otto and Bucky Fuller all realized this in their design and the IASS which
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was developed by Eduardo Torroja became the forum where spatial structures which promote
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5 this integrated surface design are celebrated.
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7 Structure
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9 If we look at the requirements that building skins need to provide and start with the structure,
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there are three basic types: frame supported membranes, cable and strut supported
12 membranes and pneumatic membranes (either air supported or air inflated). Each one of
13 these systems requires the skin to be pre-stressed to develop strength and requires form-
14 finding to develop ‘relaxed’ three dimensional synclastic or anticlastic surfaces that are in
15 equilibrium. Ideally they have equal tension and are considered minimal surfaces, but often
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for spatial reasons they have different tensions in both opposing primary directions. Whether
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18 we use computer programs which utilize a force density approach or a dynamic relaxation
19 approach to form finding and analysis, finite element analysis is required to create balanced
20 structural skins that can resist downward and uplift pressures (see Fig.3).
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34 Fig 3 Charlottesville Pavilion, FTL 2005
35 dynamic relaxation model of stresses on surfaces
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38 Form
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40 Formally building skins that are pre-stressed membranes take either saddle surfaces
41 (hyperbolic paraboloids) or surfaces of revolution (either hyperboloid or toroid surfaces). In
42 complex building skins, these basic building block elements become developed into multiple
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panels where the different surfaces are bounded by ridges and valleys to create complex
45 geometries. The intersection of the ridge lines and valley lines become three dimensional
46 linear elements that are described by physical modelling and form finding geometries.
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48 In the 1980’s I was fascinated by creating triangulated ridge cables that held the steelwork in
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place and allowed elimination of overhead security guy cables. Between the ridges, I used a
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51 series of hyperbolic surfaces which allowed a freedom of form with a high degree of security.
52 The commodore’s pavilion at the Rotork marina in Poole in 1980 is an example of this type
53 of approach to a form study (see Fig 4).
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13 Fig. 4 Rotork Marina, Poole UK
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15 Acoustics
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18 There are many different approaches to generating form including acoustics, site constraints,
19 sun angles and wind. Using acoustics, one starts with a ray diagram to generate reflective
20 surfaces that both blend and reflect sound waves. Depending on whether the structure is used
21 for pop music or classical music determines the type of surface required for performances.
22 Conoid shapes and synclastic shapes tend to trap sound, so most performance pavilions use a
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24 series of hyperbolic surfaces to create a rich interior experience.
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26 A project that we completed in 2008 which reflects this is in Sun Valley Idaho using both
27 acoustic reflection and the site constraints as the form generator of the music pavilion (see
28 Fig. 5).
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41 Fig. 5 Sun Valley Pavilion 2008, acoustic shape and site constraints
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43 The site was a landscape in the Rocky Mountains at a famous ski resort frequented by
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Hollywood celebrities. Our approach to the landscape was to develop a series of retaining
46 walls which arose out of the land, came together to create a musical space and then faded
47 back into the ground. The musical season was only during the summer months, but the snow
48 load criteria were over 100 lbs per sq ft with drifting up to200 lbs per sq ft. We understood
49 that the Symphony wanted a structure that combined the seasonal and ephemeral quality of a
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summer tent which they had previously rented with a more permanent facility that could
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52 accommodate the theatrical and acoustic requirements in keeping with such an accomplished
53 symphony orchestra. In short, they wanted an outdoor feeling with a state-of-the-art
54 performance facility. Having designed permanent and seasonal outdoor performing arts
55 facilities for thirty years, we immediately realized that with the local snow load requirements
56 would not allow for a permanent fabric structure and that the facility was too big for a
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smaller seasonal roof that needed to be dismantled each winter. We used a steel cable net
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and used a rigid material like wood which can take high vertical loads. In developing this
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5 idea, we felt that the wood was very much in keeping with the materials near the site and that
6 through the wood, it tied into the surrounding buildings. The copper skin was added when we
7 realized that the wood was relatively flat in some areas and steep in others. The copper
8 roofing allowed us to maintain this differential in slope and added another earthy touch to the
9 ephemeral cable structure. The audience area could remain covered with a tensile fabric skin
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which was demounted each fall for the winter months.
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23 Fig. 6 Sun Valley Pavilion, wood over cable net construction and seasonal fabric membrane
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25 Musically the wood roof allowed for a rich sound which was augmented by a series of
26 acoustical reflector panels suspended below the cable net which can be fine tuned for
27 different types of music. In this case a hybrid solution of the cable net and tensioned fabric
28 solved the diverse set of challenges.
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31 Shading & Insulation
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33 One of the quintessential qualities of tensile structures is their use as shading elements. From
34 ancient times, membranes have been used for this purpose, whether it is the ‘velas’ shading
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Roman coliseums or the Bedouin black goat hair tents of Arabia or the ‘toldos’ covering the
37 streets in southern Spain. With fabrics that allow for anywhere between 0 and 40%
38 translucencies, the level of shade is controllable based on different climates and regions of
39 the world. Based on a classification of different climates such as the 19th century professor
40 Koeppen’s climate categorization, based on plant life around the planet, one can apply both
41 shading and insulation to lightweight structures. The strategies for membranes in cold moist
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43 climates such as northern Europe are considerably different than hot arid climates such as the
44 American southwest or the hot and moist climates of Central America (see Fig. 7).
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51 Fig. 7 Different membrane responses to different climate classifications
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53 Technologies such as foil pillows structures make sense in the cold moist climates, while in
54 hot and arid climate, shade structures often mesh fabrics are used and in hot and moist
55 climates, solid fabrics which provide for air movement and passive cooling are used.
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An example of a northern climate situation is a project that we developed for a retail center
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5 north of Montreal in Canada. The center of the development contained an oval structure
6 which was designed to house a Laurentian garden. The 5,000 sq meter roof was developed as
7 an ETFE foil pillow structure with a 2.7m max pillow width which was based on the snow
8 load of that region. By using a series of tree structures below the arches which contained the
9 ETFE foil extrusions, we were able to eliminate any purlins in between the arches (see fig.
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8). After looking at shading studies, we were able to determine that the solar gain was more
12 important than shading with a fritted pattern to reduce summer sunlight. The ETFE foil also
13 allowed us to use a higher insulated r value than a single membrane.
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25 Fig. 8 Lac Mirabel retail courtyard using an ETFE foil for solar gain
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27 Energy Generation
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Membrane structures by nature use large unsupported spans which can be modified with the
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31 application of solar thin film technologies to generate power to the space inside. In addition,
32 tensioned membranes can serve as shrouds for wind collection turbines where minimizing
33 turbulence allows for the turbines to work efficiently at lower wind speeds. Since the first
34 application of solar panels which FTL pioneered in 1998 at the National Design Museum in
35 New York, we have worked with amorphous silicone and CIGS technologies to develop
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alternative power generation using building skins (see Fig. 9). Generating approximately 5
38 watts per square foot is still relatively inefficient but because the roof area of the building
39 skins is generally large, the inefficiency of the thin film technology is offset but its cost
40 effective size.
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Fig. 9 Photovoltaic electrical generation: Under the Sun pavilion and Power Mod for US Army
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Lighting
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6 In nature there exist three basic forms of illumination: a film mode such as when you look at
7 the sea, a reflective mode where light is reflected off of hard surfaces and a volumetric mode
8 where light is luminous without seeing its source. Membranes allow for the second and third
9 natural lighting modes. The volumetric light mode in using artificial lighting can be
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highlighted to create glowing volumes of form and space. An example of this approach can
12 be seen in our recent project in Phoenix Arizona for Arizona State University where we
13 modelled computer lighting to create glowing volumetric lighting using HID fixtures for the
14 main surfaces and a programmable LED lighting to highlight the steelwork (see Fig. 10).
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25 Fig 10. Computer lighting modelling and final built form of ASU ‘Skysong’ Technology Campus AZ
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27 Water Collection
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Water collection has always been an important part of roofs in dry climates from Roman
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31 times, but today with the added loads of storm water collection and sustainable development,
32 reusing storm water by storing it in cisterns has become important once again. Membrane
33 structures are ideal collectors of rain water and the shape of the roof can be manipulated to
34 become a water feature in the building.
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37 In 2009 we completed a new transit center in downtown Detroit Michigan where the City
38 wanted to unify six bus waiting areas and connect it to the ‘People Mover’ an elevated rail
39 system which serves the City. We developed a 6,000 sq meter roof under which 13 busses
40 can load and unload passengers. Because of the unique urban site and the elevated tracks of
41 the rail system, we were very limited in our placement of foundations. However we were
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required to cover the street area up to the elevated tracks. Our response to this dilemma was
44 the creation of a series of seven A-frame masts which use a tensegrity cable system to
45 suspend eight curved trusses. By cantilevering the trusses out over the road, we were able to
46 cover the bus area.
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48 The section of the trusses with A-frames created peaks and low points giving curvature to the
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50 fabric, but also creating the opportunity for water features where the water from the roof is
51 collected and stored in a cistern below grade. The edge of the low point has a large gutter and
52 feeder pipes which allow the water to pour into a landscaped element with a catch basin at
53 grade (see Fig. 11).
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13 Fig. 11 Rosa Parks Transit Center with cantilevered trusses and water collection
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15 From the cistern, the stored water is used for irrigation for planting and landscaping on site.
16 The water collection areas are surrounded by built in seating for waiting passengers.
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Conclusion
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21 This paper describes the different elements that are required in different locations for
22 building skins. The task ahead of us now is the integration of these different elements into
23 multi-skin solutions much like our human skin with numerous functions all with connective
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tissues. The next steps in the evolution of membrane structures will be the layering of
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26 integrated systems which connected begins to transform our notion of building facades into a
27 porous multifunctional membrane reflecting the natural world.
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