Topic : Introduction To Computer Networks
Topic Objective:
After studying this topic the student should be able to:
Understand the science of computers networks.
Define the different ways in which a computer network is classified.
Definition/Overview:
Computer Network: A computer network is an interconnected group of computers. Networks may be
classified by the network layer at which they operate according to basic reference models considered as
standards in the industry, such as the five-layer Internet Protocol Suite model. While the seven-layer
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is better known in academia, the majority of
networks use the Internet Protocol Suite (IP).
Key Points:
1. Network Classification
The following list presents major categories used for classifying networks.
1.1 Scale
Based on the scale networks can be classified as Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network
(WAN) , Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) etc.,
1.2 Connection method
Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used to
connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless LAN,
HomePNA, or Power line communication. Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices.
Often deployed devices are hubs, switches, bridges, and/or routers. Wireless LAN technology is
designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use radio waves as transmission
medium.
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1.3 Functional relationship (Network Architectures)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist
among the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer
(workgroup) architecture.
1.4 Network topology
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the
network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus
network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.
Network Topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to
one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is
independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked computers are
physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star
topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of
a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical
layout.
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Topic : The Physical Layer (The Media)
Topic Objective:
After studying this topic the student should be able to:
Understand the first level layer of the OSI model.
Define the various services offered by the physical layer.
Definition/Overview:
Physical Layer: The physical layer is the first level in the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking
as well as in the five-layer TCP/IP reference model. It performs services requested by the data link layer.
Key Points:
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is the most basic network layer, providing only the means of transmitting raw bits
rather than packets over a physical data link connecting network nodes. Neither packet headers nor
trailers are consequently added to the data by the physical layer. The bit stream may be grouped into
code words or symbols, and converted to a physical signal, which is transmitted over a physical
transmission medium. The physical layer provides an electrical, mechanical, and procedural interface to
the transmission medium. The shapes of the electrical connectors, which frequencies to broadcast on,
what modulation scheme to use and similar low-level parameters are specified here. An analogy of this
layer in a physical mail network would be the roads along which the vans carrying the mail drive.
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1.1.Physical signaling sublayer
In a local area network (LAN) or a metropolitan area network (MAN) using open systems
interconnection (OSI) architecture, the physical signaling sublayer is the portion of the physical
layer that:
o interfaces with the medium access control sublayer (MAC) which is a part of the Data
Link Layer
o performs character encoding, transmission, reception and decoding
o performs mandatory isolation functions.
1.2. List of Physical Layer services
The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
o Bit-by-bit delivery
o Providing a standardized interface to physical transmission media
o Modulation
o Line coding
o Bit synchronization in synchronous serial communication
o Start-stop signalling and flow control in asynchronous serial communication
o Circuit mode multiplexing, as opposed to statistical multiplexing performed at the higher
level
o Establishment and termination of circuit switched connections
o Carrier sense and collision detection utilized by some level 2 multiple access protocols
o Equalization filtering, training sequences, pulse shaping and other signal processing of
physical signals
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o Forward error correction, for example bitwise convolutional coding
o Bit-interleaving and other channel coding
The physical layer is also concerned with
o Point-to-point, multipoint or point-to-multipoint line configuration
o Physical network topology, for example bus, ring, mesh or star network
o Serial or parallel communication
o Simplex, half duplex or full duplex transmission mode
o Autonegotiation
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Topic : Computer Fundamentals
Topic Objective:
After studying this topic the student should be able to:
Define a Computer as a machine
Define the various parts of the computer
Definition/Overview:
Computer: A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
Key Points:
1. How computers work
A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU),
the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O).
These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires. The control
unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these)
are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of
many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been
constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
2. Parts of the Computer
2.1 Control unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various
components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program
one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of
control signals that operate the other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced
computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.A
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key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a
register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read
from.The control system's function is as followsnote that this is a simplified description,
and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending
on the type of CPU:
o Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program
counter.
o Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals
for each of the other systems.
o Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
o Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps
from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored
within the instruction code.
o Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
o If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
o Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or
perhaps an output device.
o Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be
changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would
cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the
program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and
allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional
instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to
process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program - and indeed, in some
more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a
microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
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2.2 Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding
and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine,
cosine, etc) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst
others use floating point to represent real numbersalbeit with limited precision. However,
any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be
programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can
perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic
operationalthough it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the
operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or
false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64
greater than 65?").
Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful
both for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several
instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD
features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
2.3 Memory
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed
or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer
can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the
number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell
1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters,
numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since
the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is up to the
software to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in
groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers;
either from 0 to 255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes
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may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are
usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are
usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can
store any kind of information in memory as long as it can be somehow represented in
numerical form. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and
written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between
two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the
most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time
data is needed. Since data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access
main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly
increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random access memory or
RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU
commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the
CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up
instructions. In general, the contents of RAM is erased when the power to the computer is
turned off while ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a
specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating
system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset.
In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the software
required to perform the task may be stored in ROM. Software that is stored in ROM is
often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash
memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM by retaining data when turned off
but being rewritable like RAM. However, flash memory is typically much slower than
conventional ROM and RAM so its use is restricted to applications where high speeds are
not required.
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which
are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort
of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often
without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
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2.4 Input/output (I/O)
I/O is the means by which a computer receives information from the outside world and
sends results back. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the
keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk
drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.
Computer networking is another form of I/O.
Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and
memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that
perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers
contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.
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Topic : Interconnecting Lans
Topic Objective:
After studying this topic the student should be able to:
Define Wide Area Network
Define the protocol used in the WAN.
Definition/Overview:
Wide Area Network (WAN): Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area
(i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries ).
Or, less formally, a network that uses routers and public communications links . Contrast with personal
area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area
networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area
(e.g., a city) respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.
Key Points:
1. WAN
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and
computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many
WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service
providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built
using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a
hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased
lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods.
Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions.
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2. WAN Protocol
Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service
providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is
often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and
functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.
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