UNIT 2 WINDOWS OF KNOWLEDGE

Sense Organs and their Receptors

Sense organ Receptors Stimuli
Eye Photoreceptors Light
Ear Auditory receptors Sound
Tongue Taste receptors Taste
Nose Olfactory receptors Smell
Skin Various receptors Touch, pain temperature,
cold, pressure
Eye
Protection of Eyes

Eye socket (orbit) Protection of eyeball.

External eye musc1e Fix the eyeball in the orbit.

Eyebrow Protects the eyes from dust, sweat.

Eyelashes Protect the eyes from dust.

Eyelids Protect the eyes from dust and external shocks.

Conjunctiva Secretes mucus which protects the anterior portion of the eyeball from being dry.

Tears Clean and lubricate the anterior part of the eyeball.

Stucture of the Eye

Layer of Eyes ( 3 Layers)

Sclera -The white outer layer which gives firmness to the eye. Made up of connective tissues.
Choroid -The middle layer which contains a large number of blood vessels.
 Parts Peculiarity Functions

Outermost layer, made up of connective

Sclera Gives rigidity to the eyeball.
tissues.

Middle layer which contains a large number Gives nutrients and oxygen to the
Choroid
of blood vessels. tissues of eye.

Photoreceptors are seen. Images are

Retina The inner most layer of eye.
formed.

A thin membrane covers the front part of

Conjunctiva Protects the front part of eyeball.
the eyeball except cornea.

Slightly projected transparent anterior part

Cornea Refracts light rays to focus on retina.
of the sclera.

Part of the choroid seen behind the Presence of melanin prevents harmful
Iris
cornea. light rays.

Contracts and relaxes according to the

Pupil The aperture seen at the centre of the iris.
intensity of light.

Lens Elastic transparent convex lens. Helps to focus light on retina.

Ciliary The contraction and relaxation of these

Circular muscles seen around the lens.
muscles muscles alter the curvature of lens.

The part of retina where plenty of It is the point of maximum visual

Yellow spot
photoreceptors are present. clarity.

The part of the retina from where the optic

Blindspot Photoreceptors are absent.
nerve begins

Transmits impulses from photoreceptors to

Optic Nerve
Brain

The chamber between the lens and the

Aqueous
cornea filled with watery fluid – aqueous Gives nutrients to the lens and cornea.
chamber
humour.

The chamber between the retina and the

Vitreous
lens; filled with jelly like fluid – vitreous Gives shape to the eyeball.
chamber
humour.

Retina -The inner layer which has photoreceptors.

Regulation of Light in the Eye
The size of the pupil is regulated by the action of circular muscles and radial muscles. When the
radial muscles contract in dim light, the size of the pupil increases. When the circular muscles
contract in intense light, the size of the pupil decreases. Thus, the amount of light falling on the
lens is regulated according to the intensity of light.
Formation of Image in the Retina
The curvature of the cornea and the lens help light rays which reflect from an object to get
focussed on the retina.

Peculiarities of image
1. Real
2. Small
3. Inverted
Viewing Distant and nearby objects

While viewing near objects While viewing distant objects

Ciliary muscles contract Ciliary muscles relax

Ligaments relax Ligaments stretch

Curvature of lens increases Curvature of lens decreases

Focal length decreases Focal length increases

• While viewing near objects curvature of lens increases. So the focal length increases.
• While viewing near objects the ciliary muscle contracts and ligaments relax. So, the focal
length increases.
• While viewing distant objects the ciliary muscles relax and the ligament stretch. So, the
focal length decreases.
• The capacity of the eye to change the curvature of lens depending on the distance between
the eye and the object by adjusting the focal length.

The power of accommodation of the eye.

The ability of the eye to adjust the focal length of the lens by changing its curvature in accordance
to the distance of the object from the eye and form the image on the retina is called the power
of accommodation of the eye.
Retina and the Photoreceptors

Rod cell Cone cell

Pigment Rhodopsin Photopsin

Shape Rod shape Cone shape

able to see the object in

to detect the primary
Function dim light, can not detect
colour
colour

Rod cells and cone cells are the photoreceptors in the retina. Rod cells are more in number than
cone cells.

Rod cells contain the visual pigment called rhodopsin. This pigment is formed from a protein
named opsin and retinal which is a derivative of Vitamin A. Since they are activated even in dim
light, we are able to see objects in dim light. These cells cannot detect colour.

Cone cells contain a pigment called photopsin. This is also called iodopsin. This pigment is also
composed of opsin and retinal. There are three types of cone cells in our eyes, which help us to
detect three primary colours of light – red, green and blue. This diversity is due to the difference
in amino acids in the opsin molecule. So, cone cells provide us with colour

The Mechanism of Vision

In the presence of light, the pigments present in photoreceptors, dissociate. This chemical change
leads to the formation of impulses. These impulses are transmitted to the cerebrum through optic
nerves and this enables vision.

LIGHT CORNEA AQUEOUS HUMOUR PUPIL

LENS VITREOUS HUMOUR RETINA STIMULUS

OPTIC NERVE CEREBRUM SENSE OF LIGHT

Binocular Vision
The images from two sides of the same object are formed in the left and right eye. When these
two images combine as a result of the activities of the brain, a three-dimensional image of the
object is formed. This is called binocular vision.

Disorders and diseases of eyes.

Myopia
Eyeball is too long or the cornea -- the protective outer layer of your eye -- is too curved, the light
that enters your eye won’t focus correctly. Images focus in front of the retina and unable to see near
objects clearly. It can be corrected by use of concave lens with suitable focal length.
Hypermetropia
Eyeball has become to small and the image of distanced object formed behind the retina
It can be corrected by using a convex lens with suitable focal point.
Night blindness
The deficiency of Vitamin A results in the low production of retinal. This in turn prevents the
resynthesis of rhodopsin. In this condition, objects cannot be seen clearly in dim light and this
disease is called night blindness.

Xerophthalmia
If there is a prolonged deficiency of Vitamin A, the conjunctiva and cornea become dry and
opaque. This causes xerophthalmia and leads ultimately to blindness. Xerophthalmia

Colour Blindness
The retina contains cone cells which can detect red, green and blue colours. Some persons cannot
distinguish green and red colours due to the defect of cone cells. This condition is called colour
blindness.

Glaucoma
Aqueous humour is the fluid which nourishes the tissues in the eyes. If the reabsorption of
aqueous humor does not occur, it causes an increase in the pressure inside the eyes. This causes
damage to the retina and the photoreceptor cells and ultimately leads to blindness. This defect is
called glaucoma. It can be rectified by laser surgery.

Cataract
It is a condition in which the lens of the eyes become opaque resulting in blindness. This can be
rectified by replacing the lens with an artificial one, through surgery.

Conjunctivitis
This is an infection of the conjunctiva. The causative organisms may be bacteria, virus etc. This
disease is transmitted through contact and can be prevented by maintaining personal hygiene.

EAR

External Ear
Pinna
Carries soundwaves to the auditory canal.

Auditory canal ( Ear Canal)

Carries sound waves to the tympanum. Small hairs and wax present inside the nal help to prevent
dust and foreign particles from entering the ear.

Tympanum (Ear Drum)

A thin circular membrane that separates the middle ear from the external ear. It vibrates in
resonance with sound waves.

Middle ear

Middle ear is a small chamber between the external ear and the internal ear. Ear ossicles
namely malleus, incus and stapes are the important parts seen inside the middle ear. A bony
wall separates the middle ear from the internal ear. In this bony wall, there are two openings
which are covered by membranes. The upper opening is oval window and the lower one is
round window. The ear ossicles connect the tympanum the internal ear through the oval
window. Eustachian tube that connects the middle ear to the pharynx.

Internal Ear

The internal ear is situated inside a bony case in the skull called the bony labyrinth. In this bony
case there are membranous labyrinths as well. The space inside the membranous labyrinth is filled
with a fluid named endolymph. The space between the membranous and bony labyrinth is filled
with a fluid called perilymph. Semi-circular canals, vestibule and cochlea are the main parts of the
internal ear. Semi-circular canals and vestibule help in balancing the body whereas cochlea helps
in hearing.

The Organ of Corti.

Cochlea is a coiled tube like a snail shell. It consists of three chambers. Specialized sensory hair
cells which are present in the basilar membrane that separates the middle and lower chambers,
function as auditory receptors. The basilar membrane and sensory hair cells together constitute
the Organ of Corti.

Ear and Hearing

The sound waves which pass through the external ear vibrate the tympanum. This vibration of the
tympanum is transmitted to the ear ossicles which causes the vibration of the membrane in the
oval window. This vibration further causes the movement of the fluid inside the cochlea. As a
result, the sensory hair cells of the Organ of Corti of the cochlea are stimulated and impulses are
generated. These impulses reach the cerebrum through the auditory nerve and hearing is affected

PINNA AUDITORY CANAL TYPANUM

EAR OSSICLES OVAL WINDOW COCHLEA
HAIR CELLS IMPULSE AUDITORY NERVE

CEREBRUM SENSE OF HEARING

Ear and Body balancing

Body balance is maintained in accordance with the movement of the head. Movements of the
head bring about the movement of the endolymph present inside the vestibule and the semi-
circular canals. This causes movement of the sensory hair cells and generates impulses. These
impulses are transmitted by the vestibular nerves to the cerebellum, and the equilibrium of the
body is maintained.

Taste
Chemoreceptors seen inside the mouth and tongue help us to detect taste. The chemoreceptors
seen inside the papillae of the tongue are called as taste buds. Smell also influences taste. Taste
buds that are stimulated by tastes like sweet, salt, sour, bitter, umami. Each taste bud has
chemoreceptors that help to detect different tastes. Substances responsible for taste dissolve in
saliva, stimulate the chemoreceptors and generate impulses. These impulses reach the brain
through the respective nerves and we experience taste.

Food Particles dissolve in saliva Chemoreceptors are stimulated

Impulse are transmitted through Experience the Taste

nerves to Brain

To Detect Smell

When particles enter the nose and disperse in the mucus, the olfactory receptors in the mucous
membrane get stimulate and the impulses reach the brain through the olfactory nerve. Brain helps
in the perception of smell.

Aromatic particles diffuse in the air and Aromatic particles dissolve in the
enter the Nostrils mucus inside the Nostrils

Olfactory receptors in the mucus get

stimulate and Impulse are transmitted Experience the Smell
through nerves to Brain

Sense Through Skin

Heat, cold, touch, pressure and pain are felt by our skin. When these receptors are stimulated,
and impulse are transmitted to cerebrum for its perception.