Adama Science and Technology University

School of Electrical Engineering and Computing

Department of Electrical Power and Control
Engineering

Power System Dynamics and Stability-

PCE 6234
By: Dr. Milkias B. (Ph.D.)
 Power System Dynamics and Stability
PCE 6234
Lecture Four:

Automatic
Generation Control
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 Automatic Generation Control
INTRODUCTION
• An electric energy system must be maintained at the desired operating level characterized by nominal frequency,
voltage profile and load flow configuration.
• It is kept in this nominal state by close control of the real and reactive powers generated in the controllable sources
of the system. generation changes must be made to match the load variations at the nominal conditions, if the
nominal state is to be maintained.
• The control of an electric energy system in order to achieve an exact matching of the generation to load at nominal
state is a complex problem.
• The load changes continuously and the system generation, responding to control impulses, chases the load with the
transient unbalance of load and generation reflected in speed (or frequency) variations.
• The total real and reactive power demands, PD and QD changes slowly throughout the day, but during time periods
measured in seconds or minutes; they may be considered as essentially constant with superimposed first-order
perturbation ΔPD and ΔQD respectively.
• For small perturbations, a mismatch in real power balance affects primarily the system frequency but leaves
the bus voltage magnitudes essentially unaffected and similarly a mismatch in reactive power balance affects
mainly the bus voltage magnitudes but leaves the system frequency essentially unaffected.
• In view of this, the real power-frequency (p—f) control and reactive power-voltage (Q—V) control problems are
treated as two independent or "decoupled" control problems for all practical purposes.
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 INTRODUCTION…

• The change in turbine output (mechanical power) results due to governor and speed changer actions.
• The generator response is, for all practical purposes instantaneous and hence changes in turbine power output causes
instantaneous change in electrical power output.
• In any power system, it is a desirable feature to achieve better frequency constancy than is obtained by the
speed governing system alone.
• In an interconnected power system, it is also desirable to maintain the tie-line power flow at scheduled level
irrespective of load changes in an area. To accomplish this, it becomes necessary to automatically manipulate the
operation of main steam valves or hydro-gates in accordance with a suitable control strategy, which in turn
controls the real power output of electric generators.
• The problem of controlling the real power output of electric generators in this way is termed as Automatic
Generation Control (AGC).

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BASIC GENERATOR CONTROL LOOPS
• In an interconnected power system, Load Frequency control (LFC) and Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR) equipment are installed for each generator.
• Figure 4.1 gives the schematic diagram of the LFC loop and AVR loop.

Fig.4.1: Schematic Diagram of LFC and AVR

of a synchronous generator
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 BASIC GENERATOR CONTROL LOOPS…
• The controllers take care of small changes in load demand to maintain the frequency deviation and tie-power
deviation—within the specified limits.
• A small changes in real power are mainly dependent on changes in rotor angle and thus, the frequency.
• The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (i.e., on the generator excitation).
• The excitation system time constant is much smaller than the prime mover time constant and its transient decay
much faster and does not affect the LFC dynamic.
• Thus the coupling between the LFC loop and the AVR loop is negligible and the load frequency and excitation
voltage control are analyzed independently.

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM
• The basic concepts of speed governing can be illustrated by considering an isolated generating
unit supplying a local load as shown in Fig. 4.2

Fig.4.2: Generator
Supplying a Local Load

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 ISOCHRONOUS GOVERNOR
• The ‘‘isochronous" means constant speed.
• An isochronous governor adjusts the turbine valve/gate to bring the frequency back to the nominal or
scheduled value.
• Figure 4.3 shows the schematic diagram of isochronous speed governing system.

Fig. 4.3: Schematic diagram Of an isochronous governor.

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 ISOCHRONOUS GOVERNOR…
• The measured frequency f (or speed ω) is compared with reference
frequency fr (or reference speed ωr).
• The error signal (equal to frequency deviation or speed deviation) is
amplified and integrated to produce a control signal ΔE which actuates the
main steam supply valves in the case of a steam turbine, or gates in the case
of a hydro turbine.
• An isochronous governor works very well when a generator is supplying an
isolated or when only one generator in a multi-generator system is required
to respond to changes in load.
• However, for load sharing between generators connected to the system,
droop characteristic or speed regulation must be provided.

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 GOVERNORS WITH SPEED-DROOP CHARACTERISTICS
• When two or more generating units are connected to the same system, isochronous governors can not
be used since each generating unit would have to have precisely the same speed setting.
• Otherwise, they would fight each other, each will try to control system frequency to its own setting.
• For stable load division between two or more units operating in parallel, the governors are provided
with a characteristic so that the speed drops as the load is increased.
• The regulation or speed-droop characteristic can be obtained by adding a steady-state feedback loop around
the integrator as shown in Fig. 4.4,

Fig.4.4:Governor with steady-state feedback

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 GOVERNORS WITH SPEED-DROOP CHARACTERISTICS…
• The transfer function of the governor of Fig. 4.4 reduces to the form as shown in Fig. 4.5.
• This type of governor may be characterized as proportional controller with a gain 1/R.

Fig. 4.5: Block diagram Of speed governor

with droop
Where Tg = I/KR = governor time constant.

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 SPEED REGULATION (DROOP)
• The value of speed regulation parameter R determines the steady-state frequency versus load characteristic of
the generating unit as shown in Fig. 4.6.
• The ratio of frequency deviation (Δf) to change in valve/gate position(ΔE) or power output(ΔPg) is equal to R.
• The parameter R is referred to as speed regulation or droop.
• It can be expressed as:

4.1

• For example, a 4% droop or regulation means that a 4% frequency deviation causes 100% change in
valve position or power output.

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 SPEED REGULATION (DROOP)…

Fig.4.6: Steady-state characteristics of a governor with speed droop.

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 LOAD SHARING BY PARALLEL GENERATING UNITS
• If two or more generating units with drooping governor characteristics are connected to a power system, there must
be a unique frequency at which they will share a load-change.
• Fig. 4.7 shows the droop characteristics of two generating units.
• Initially they were operating at nominal frequency fo, with outputs Pgl and Pg2.
• An increase of load ΔPL causes the generating units to slow down and the governors increase the output until they
reach a new common operating frequency fc.

Fig. 4.7: Load sharing by two

parallel generating units with
drooping governor characteristics.

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 LOAD SHARING BY PARALLEL GENERATING UNITS…
• The amount of load picked up by each unit depends on the droop
characteristic:

4.2

4.3

Hence 4.4

• If the percentages of regulation of the units are nearly equal, the change in the outputs of each generating
unit will be nearly in proportion to its rating.

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 CONTROL OF POWER OUTPUT OF GENERATING UNITS
• The relationship between frequency and load can be adjusted by changing an input shown as
"load reference setpoint u in Fig. 4.8.

(b) Reduced block diagram of governor

Fig. 4 8 . : Governor with load reference control for adjusting frequency-load relationship.

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 CONTROL OF POWER OUTPUT OF GENERATING UNITS…
• From the practical point of view, the adjustment of load reference set point is accomplished by operating the "speed-
changer motor." Fig. 4.9 shows the effect of this adjustment.
• Family of parallel characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.9 for different speed-changer motor settings

4/30/2021 Fig. 4.89 Effect of speed-changer setting on governor characteristics 17

 CONTROL OF POWER OUTPUT OF GENERATING UNITS…
• The characteristics shown in Fig. 4.9 associated with 50 Hz system.
• Three characteristics are shown representing three load reference settings.
• At 50 Hz, characteristic A results in zero output, characteristic B results in 50% output and characteristic C results in
100% output.
• Therefore, by adjusting the load reference setting (u) through actuation of the speed-changer motor, the power output
of the generating unit at a given speed may be adjusted to any desired value.
• For each setting, the speed-load characteristic has a 6% droop; that is, a speed change of 6% (3Hz) causes a 100%
change in power output.

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 TURBINE MODEL
• All compound steam turbine systems utilize governor-controlled valves at the inlet to the high pressure (or
very high pressure) turbine to control steam flow.
• The steam chest and inlet piping to the steam turbine cylinder and reheaters and crossover piping down
stream all introduce delays between the valve movement and change in steam flow.
• The mathematical model of the steam turbine accounts for these delays.
• Figure 4.10 (a) shows a schematic diagram of a tandem compound single reheat steam turbine and Fig. 4.10
(b) shows the linear transfer function model of the tandem compound single reheat steam turbine.
• The time constants Tt, Tr and Tc represent delays due to steam chest and inlet piping, retreats and crossover
piping respectively.
• The fractions FHP, FIP and FLP represent portions of the total turbine power developed in the high pressure,
intermediate pressure and low pressure cylinders of the turbine.
• It may be noted that FHP + FIP + FLP = 1.0.
• The time delay in the crossover piping Tc being small as compared to other time constants is neglected.
• The reduced order transfer function model is given in Fig. 4.10(c)
• The portion of the total power generated in the intermediate pressure and low pressures cylinders

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 TURBINE MODEL…

Fig. 4.10(a): Steam system configuration for tandem

compound single reheat steam turbine.

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Fig. 4.10(b): Approximate linear model for tandem compound single reheat steam turbine.
 TURBINE MODEL…

Fig. 4.10(c): Reduced order model for tandem compound single reheat steam turbine neglecting T c.

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 TURBINE MODEL…

From Fig.4.10(c

4.5

Kr = reheat coefficient, i.e., the fraction of the power generated in the high pressure cylinders.
For non-reheat turbine, FHP = 1.0, therefore transfer function model for non-reheat turbine is given as:

4.6

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 GENERATOR-LOAD MODEL
• Increment in power input to the generator-load system is (ΔPg — ΔPL).
• Where ΔPg = ΔPt = incremental turbine power out (assuming generator incremental loss is negligible) and ΔPL
is the load increment. (Δ Pg — ΔPL) is accounted for in two ways:
(1) Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy (KE) in the generator rotor.
At scheduled system frequency (fo), the stored energy is
where
4.7 Pr = rated capacity of turbo-generator (M W)
H = inertia constant
• The kinetic energy is proportional to square of the speed (hence frequency).
• The KE at a frequency (fo + Δf) is given by

4.8
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 GENERATOR-LOAD MODEL…
• (2) It is assumed that the change in motor load is sensitive to the speed (frequency) variation.
• However, for small changes in system frequency Δf, the rate of change of load with respect to frequency, that is
can be regarded as constant. This load changes can be expressed as:

4.9 Taking the Laplace transform of eqn. (4.10), we get

4.11
4.11

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4.10
 GENERATOR-LOAD MODEL…
Block diagram representation of eqn. (4.11) is shown in Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 12.10: Block diagram representation of generator-load model

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF AN ISOLATED POWER SYSTEM

• Figure 4.12 shows the block diagram of a generating unit with a reheat turbine.
• The block diagram includes speed governor, turbine, rotating mass and load, appropriate for load frequency
analysis.

Fig. 4.12: Block diagram representation Of a generating unit with a reheat turbine.

• The block diagram of Fig. 4.12 is also applicable to a unit with non-reheat turbine.
However, in this case Tr = 0.0.

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 STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
• In Fig. 4.12, assume Δf = x1, ΔP g = x2, ΔPv, = x3 and ΔE = x4.
• Differential equations are written by describing each individual block of Fig. 4.12 in terms
of state variable. (Note that S is replaced by d/dt

4.12

4.13

4.14

4.15

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 STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION…
Eqns. (4.12) (4.15) can be written in matrix form:

4.16

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 STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION…

Fig. 4.13: Dynamic responses for single area reheat and non-reheat systems
Eqn. (4.16) can be written as:

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 STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION…

• Figure 4.13 Shows the dynamic responses for a step increase in load demand.
• The results presented in Fig. 4.13 demonstrate that, although the steady-state speed deviation is the same for
two units considered, there are significant differences in their transient responses.
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 FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL
• With the primary speed control action, a change in system load will result in a steady-state frequency
deviation, depending on the droop characteristic of governor and frequency sensitivity of the load.
• Restoration of system frequency to nominal value requires supplementary control action which adjusts the
load reference setpoint through the speed-changer motor.
• Therefore, the problem can be subdivided into fast primary and slow secondary control modes.
• The fast primary control counteracts random load changes and has a time constant of the order of few
seconds.
• The slow secondary control (Supplementary Control) with time constant of the order of minutes regulates the
generation to satisfy economic generator loading requirements and contractual tie-line loading agreements.
• The primary objectives of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) are to regulate frequency to the specified
nominal value and to maintain the interchange power between control areas at the scheduled values by
adjusting the output of selected generators.
• This function is commonly defined as Load Frequency Control (LFC).
• A secondary objective is to distribute the required change in generation among various units to
minimize operating costs.

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Example 4.1: A system consists of 4 identical 400 MVA generating units feeding a total load
of 1016 MW. The inertia constant H of each unit is 5.0 on 400 VA base. The load changes by
1.5% for a 1% change in frequency. When there is a sudden drop in load by 16 MW.
(a) Obtain the system block diagram constants H and D expressed on 1600 MVA base
(b) Determine the frequency deviation, assuming that there is no speed-governing action.

Solution
(a) For 4 units on 2000 MVA base,

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 …

4.11

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 …

4.14

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 …

Fig. 12.14: Frequency response.

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 STEADY STATE ANALYSIS
• From Fig. 4.12, steady state error of frequency deviation can easily be obtained with u = 0.
• From Fig. 4.12, we can write (Assume Δf= Δfss)

...(4.18)

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 Composite Frequency Response Characteristic
• Figure 4.15 shows a power system having n number of generating units.
• It may be assumed that all the generators swing in unison and the equivalent generator has an inertia
constant equal to the sum of the inertia constants of all the generating units.
• From Fig. 4.15. steady state error of frequency deviation can be given as:

...(4.19)

...(4.20)

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 …

Fig. 4.15: Multi-unit isolated power system

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 …
• It has already mentioned in the previous section that the supplementary generation control action is much
slower than the primary speed control action.
• As such it comes into action after the primary speed control has stabilized the system frequency.
• For isolated system, function of AGC is to restore system frequency to the specified nominal value and this is
accomplished by adding a reset or integral control. This is shown in Fig. 4.16.

Fig. 4.16: Structure Of integral controller.

Note that al, a2…, an are the participation factor and al+a2 +…. + an = 1.0.
At steady state, output of each generating unit can be given as:

...(4.21)

4/30/2021 This can easily be verified through computer simulation. 39

 CONCEPT OF CONTROL AREA
• Consider a practical system with number of generating stations and loads.
• AGC problem of a large interconnected power system has been studied by dividing the whole system into a
number of control areas.
• A control area is defined as a power system, a part of a system or a combination of systems to which a common
generation control scheme is applied.
• The electrical interconnections within each control area are very strong as compared to the ties with the neighboring
areas. All the generators in a control area swing in unison or coherently and it is characterized by a single frequency.
• In normal steady state operation each control area of a power system should strive to meet its load demand.
Simultaneously each control area of a power system should participate in regulating the frequency of the system.
• The two basic inter-area regulating responsibilities of each control area are:
1. When system frequency is on schedule, each area is expected automatically to adjust its generation to maintain its
net transfers with other areas on schedule, thereby absorbing its own load variations. So long as all areas do so,
scheduled system frequency as well as net interchange schedules for all areas are maintained.
2. When system frequency is off schedule, because one or more areas are not fulfilling this regulating responsibility,
other areas are expected automatically to shift their respective net transfer schedule proportionally to the system
frequency deviation and in direction to assist the deficient areas and help to restore system frequency.
• The extent of each area's shift of net interchange schedule is programmed by its frequency bias setting. Failure of an
area to respond fully to frequency deviations caused by other areas creates extra regulating requirements for areas that
do properly respond.
• Cooperative assistance between areas is one of the planned benefits of interconnected operation. But when the
assistance is unscheduled, it is obtained at the expense of departures of system frequency and area net interchange from
their respective schedules. These integrate respectively into system time deviation and area unscheduled or inadvertent
4/30/2021 40
interchange, and cause additional regulation burden on the part of assisting areas.
Example 4.2: A power system has a total load of 1260 MW at 50 Hz. The load varies 1.5% for every 1 % change in
frequency. Find the steady-state frequency deviation when a 60 MW load is suddenly tripped, if
(a) there is no speed control (b) The system has 240 MW of spinning reserve evenly spread among 500 MW
generation capacity with 5% regulation based on this capacity. Assume that the effect of governor dead bands is such
that only 80% of the governors respond to the reduction in system load.

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 …

4/30/2021 42
Example 4.3: Two generators rated 250 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The droop characteristics of the
governors are 4% and 6% respectively. How would a load of 650 W be shared between them? What will be the system
frequency? Assume nominal system frequency is 60 Hz and no governing action.

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Example 4.4: A 2001'VWA generator operates on full load at a frequency of 60 Hz. The load is suddenly reduced
to 20 MW. Due to time lag in governor system, the steam valve begins to close after O. 22 sec. Determine the
change in frequency that occurs in this time. Given H = 10 KW— sec/KVA of generator capacity.

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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

• Fig. 4.17 shows a two area power system interconnected by tie-line.

Assume tie-line resistance is negligible.

Fig. 4.17: Two area power system

• From Fig. 4.17, tie-line power flow can be written as:

...(4.22)

• Where δ10 and δ20 are power angles.

• For incremental changes in δ1 and δ2, the incremental tie-line power can be expressed as
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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…

...(4.23)

Where

= synchronizing coefficient.

• Eqn. (4.23) can also be written as .. ...(4.24)

...(4.25)

Where
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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…

• Note that Pr1 and Pr2 are the rated capacity of area-1 and area-2, respectively,
• From eqns. (4.24) and (4.25) we get

Where

• With reference to eqn. (4.10), incremental power balance equation for area-1 can be written as:

. (4.27)

• Taking Laplace transform of eqn. (4.27) and reorganizing, we get

. (4.28)
Where
4/30/2021 . (4.29) 47
 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…
• Block diagram representation of eqn. (4.28) is given in Fig.4.18.

Fig.4.18: Block diagram.

• Similarly for area-2, block diagram representation of area-2 is given in Fig. 4.19.

Fig. 4.19: Block diagram

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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…
• Taking Laplace transform of eqn. (4.24), we get

4.30

• Figure 4.20 gives block diagram representation of eqn. (4.30)

Fig. 4.20: Block diagram representation.

• Figure 4.21 shows that small perturbation transfer function block diagram considering one non-reheat type
unit in each area.

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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…

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Fig. 4.21: Block diagram representation of two area system
 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…
• From Fig. 4.21, state-variable equations can be written as

• Above equation can be written as 4.31

4.32
Where A is 7x 7 matrix, B andϓ are 7x 2 matrices. X, U and p are state, control and disturbance vectors.
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 AGC OF TWO AREA INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM…

4.33

• The steady-state, frequency deviation is the same for the two areas. At steady-state,

And

4.36
4.34

4.35 4.37
• Solving eqns. (4.34), (4.35), (4.36) and (4.37), we have

4.38 And

4.39
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 TIE-LINE FREQUENCY BIAS CONTROL
• Equation (4.38) and Eqn. (4.39) suggest that, there will be steady-state errors of frequency deviation
and tie-power deviation, following a change in loads. To correct these steady-state errors,
supplementary control must be given in both the areas. The supplementary control in a given area
should ideally correct only for changes in that area.
• In other words, if there is a change in area-I load, there should be supplementary control action only
in area-1 and not in area-2.
• Equations (4.38) and (4.39) indicate that a control signal made of tie-line flow deviation added to
frequency deviation weighted by a bias factor would accomplish the desired objectives.
• This control signal is known as Area
Control Error (ACE).
• The area control error for area-I and area-2 can be defined as
4.40 Where

4.41 4.42
• β1 and β2 are the frequency response characteristic of area-1 and area-2 respectively.
• Integral control law for area-1 and area-2 are given by 4.43
• Where
4/30/2021 K11 and K12 are the integral gains of area-1 andarea-2 respectively. 53
4.44
 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE
• From the point of view of steady-state performance, the selection of bias factor is not important.
• Any combination of area control errors containing components of tie-line power deviation and
frequency deviation will result in steady-state restoration of the tie-flow and frequency since the
integral control action ensures that ACE is reduced to zero.
• Consider the following area control errors applicable to a two-area power system:

4.45
4.46
• The above equations result in Δptie,12= O and Δf = 0 for all non-zero values of Al, .A2, Bl and B2
• However, the composition of area control error signals is more important from dynamic
performance considerations. This can be explained by considering the transient response of the AGC
system to a sudden increase in the load of area-1.
• The sudden increase in load will result in a decrease in system frequency, followed by governor
response which limits the maximum frequency excursion and subsequently brings the frequency
deviation back to a value determine by the regulation characteristic of both systems and from eqn.
(4.38), we can write

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4.47
 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…
• If we assume Pr1 = Pr2, then α12 = -1 and eqn. (4.47) reduces to

4.48

• At this point, there will be deviation of tie-power flow from its scheduled value. Supplementary
control, which is much slower than the primary speed control, will now commence responding.
• Let us now study the following cases:

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…
• From the above, we can conclude that only the supplementary control in area-1 will respond to ΔPL1
and change generation so as to bring ACE1 to zero.
• The load change in area-1 is thus unobservable to the supplementary control in area-2.

• Here both area- 1 and area-2 supplementary controls would respond and correct the frequency
deviation twice as fact. However, the generation picked up by area-2 will subsequently reflect
itself as a component of ACE2, and will be backed off again in the steady-state.
• For AGC more logical choice of frequency bias setting is B = β.
• Block diagram of integral control law using eqns. (4.43) and (4.44) are given in Fig. 4.22.

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…

4/30/2021 Fig.4.21: Block diagram showing Integral Control. 57

 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…
4.23

4.23

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…

Fig. 4.23: (a) Time (sec).

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…

Fig. 4.23: (b) Time (sec).

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…

Fig. 4.23: (c) Time (sec).

Fig. 4.23: (d) Time (sec).

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 BASIS FOR SELECTION OF BIAS FACTOR TIE-LINE…

Fig. 4.23: (e) Time (sec).

Fig. 4.23:.

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 GENERATION RATE CONSTRAINT (GRC)
• In establishing AGC signals, it should be recognized that there is a limit to the rate at which
generating unit outputs can be changed. This is particularly true for thermal units where mechanical
and thermal stresses are the limiting factors.
• Figure 4.25 shows the flow chart for incorporating the effect of GRC in the matrix differential
equation = for obtaining the system response at various states.
• At each time interval of Δt seconds for integration, the generation rate is checked for its magnitude
and sign; that is for the K-th interval, if the generation rate are less than or equal to a
specified maximum rate (say r), the corresponding generation changes Δpgi,k is not altered.
• In case the generation rate exceeds the maximum specified rate r, the generation change is
constrained through the relationship

4.49

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 GENERATION RATE CONSTRAINT (GRC) …

Fig. 4.25: Flow chart for considering GRC in the system dynamics. (i—is the ith unit).
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 DISCRETE INTEGRAL CONTROLLER FOR AGC
• For ease operation and control, an interconnected power system is generally considered an
amalgamation of a number of areas.
• Interconnections between contiguous areas are physically remote from the dispatch center.
• It is a usual practice to sample system data, i.e., frequency and tie-line power, and transfer information
over data links to the dispatch center. These signals are updated every 2 sec, 4 secs, etc.
• Figure 4.26 shows the power system and controller representation.
• As shown in Fig. 4.26, the controller is in the discrete domain even though the power system is in the
analogue or continuous-time domain.
• Discretization of the model for simulation studies must be done in accordance with Shannon’s
sampling theorem. Otherwise an error, proportional to the amount of aliasing, occurs.

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 DISCRETE INTEGRAL CONTROLLER FOR AGC …

Fig.4.26: Power system and controller representation.

_________Continuous domain
4/30/2021 …………...discrete domain 66
 DISCRETE INTEGRAL CONTROLLER FOR AGC …
• A mixed system, such as that shown in Fig. 4.25, may be analyzed by modeling the entire system
exactly as shown in Fig. 4.26.
• The system output will be sampled at the normal sampling rate, i.e., if the sampling time T = 2 sec, the
controller output will be updated every 2 sec.
• Thus the control input to the power system in the continuous—time domain is held constant for 2 sec
between consecutive samples.
• The control law in continuous mode is described as

4.50

• The discrete version of eqn. (4.50) is computed directly as

4.51
where K is sampling count.

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 Next Lecture:

MODELLING OF A SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE

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