UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

Program : Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Mechanical (EM220/EM221)

Course : Applied Mechanics Lab
Code : MEC 424
Lecturer : DR ANIZAH BINTI KALAM
Group : GROUP 1 / EMD4M7B2

MEC 424 - LABORATORY REPORT

LAB : MATERIAL STRENGTH LAB

TITLE : TENSILE TEST

No NAME STUDENT ID SIGNATURE

1 MUHAMMAD MUIZZUDDIN BIN MOHD GHAZALI 2019406582

2 MUHAMMAD KHAIRUL IKHWAN BIN AMRAN 2019229826

3 MUHAMMAD IZRA SALZAMIZAR BIN MOHD 2019415392

IzraSalzamizar
SALEHIN
4 MUHAMMAD IRFAN DANNIEL BIN SAIFULNIZAM 2019207632

5 AFZATUL NAJWA BINTI NOR AZMAN 2019405996

LABORATORY SESSION : 15 APRIL 2021

REPORT SUBMISSION : 22 APRIL 2021

*By signing above you attest that you have contributed to this submission and confirm that all work you have contributed to
this submission is your own work. Any suspicion of copying or plagiarism in this work will result in an investigation of
academic misconduct and may result in a “0” on the work, an “F” in the course, or possibly more severe penalties.

Marking Scheme

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
ABSTRACT
In this experiment, a tensile test was done on a mild steel specimen. The aim of this
experiment was to determine the tensile properties subjected to tensile loading. During this
experiment, the fundamentals of operating a Universal Testing Machine were also learned.
Many engineering products can be tested using the Universal Testing Machine. The tensile
properties of the materials used are used in the design of many engineering structures. The
normal stress and normal strain of the mild steel can be obtained from this experiment. The
stress-strain relationship of mild steel can be used to predict the properties of materials when
they are subjected to various loadings. The form of fracture can be determined under tensile
loading.
Table of Contents

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
2 THEORY ........................................................................................................................ 3
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE .................................................................................... 4
3.1 Apparatus ............................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 4
4 INDIVIDUAL................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 MUHAMMAD MUIZZUDDIN BIN MOHD GHAZALI (2019406582).......................... 5
4.1.1 Result .............................................................................................................. 5
4.1.2 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 7
4.1.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 7
4.2 MUHAMMAD KHAIRUL IKHWAN BIN AMRAN (2019229826) ............................... 8
4.2.1 Result .............................................................................................................. 8
4.2.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 10
4.2.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 11
4.3 MUHAMMAD IRFAN DANNIEL BIN SAIFULNIZAM (2019207632) ...................... 12
4.3.1 Result ............................................................................................................ 12
4.3.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 13
4.3.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 13
4.4 AFZATUL NAJWA BINTI NOR AZMAN (2019405996) ......................................... 14
4.4.1 Result ............................................................................................................ 14
4.4.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 16
4.4.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 16
4.5 MUHAMMAD IZRA SALZAMIZAR BIN MOHD SALEHIN (2019415392) .............. 17
4.5.1 Result ............................................................................................................ 17
4.5.2 Discussion ..................................................................................................... 19
4.5.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 19
5 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 20
6 APPENDIX................................................................................................................... 21
6.1 APPENDIX A – TABLE OF LOAD AND EXTENSION ........................................... 21
Table of Figure

Figure 1................................................................................................................................. 1
Figure 2................................................................................................................................. 1
Figure 3................................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 4................................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 5................................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 6................................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 7............................................................................................................................... 10
1 INTRODUCTION

When a force is applied axially on a bar, the force is called a normal force on which it acted
over the cross-sectional area thus produces stress called normal stress.

Figure 1
A uniaxial stress means the two normal stress components on the element are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction which is known as the tension and the compression on
which the sign convention of the internal load, P for tension is positive(+) while for
compression is negative(-).

Figure 2
When a load is applied to a body, it will cause deformation to occur referring to the change in
the body’s shape and size. The changes may be either highly visible or practically
unnoticeable. The deformation of a body is not uniform throughout its volume thus the
change in geometry of any line segment within the body may vary substantially along its
length.

Metals have their own properties including physical, mechanical, and thermal
characteristics. The most important properties are the mechanical properties, which includes
ductility, hardness, strength, and toughness. The mechanical properties are the measurements
that are used as a reference for material selection. To know the mechanical properties of
metals we need to use material testing. One of the material testing is the tensile test.

Tensile test is a measurement that examines the strength of material within giving
loads in uniaxial direction to the specimen. The tested specimen is exposed by the increasing
uniaxial force continuously while its charge on elongation while being observed. The tensile

1
test measures the resistance of a material to a given static load. The results gained from the
tensile test shows its mechanical properties of the specimen. The mechanical properties of
material that can be known from tensile tests including tensile strength, yield strength,
modulus of elasticity, ductility, and toughness.

The tensile test is important because we could know the impact of load given to the
material’s mechanical properties of a material. These mechanical properties parameters could
provide the data of a strength of a specific material.

Method that we will use is by using a universal testing machine. Data obtained will be
converted to normal stress versus normal strain which will make it easier to achieve our
objectives. The result from the tensile test are then used to show the stress-strain diagram
which describes the mechanical properties of the material.

Figure 3
Elastic region is where the stress is proportional to the strain. In this part, the material is said
to be elastic for when the load is removed, the material returns to its original shape. During
yielding, the material deformed permanently which is called as plastic deformation. The
material will then undergoes strain hardening until the ultimate stress have been reached.
Lastly, necking will occur until it completely fractures.

2
2 THEORY

When an axially loaded bar is subjected to a load along the bar’s axis, the average normal
𝑃𝑃
stress can be calculated using the formula = .
𝐴𝐴

Figure 4
Where,

σ = Average normal stress at any point on the cross-sectional area

P = Internal resultant normal force, which acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional
area.
A = Cross-sectional area of the bar

Figure 5
The formula used to describe the deformation of a body by changes in length of line segments
and the changes in the angles between them is called strain. The formula for normal strain is
𝑋𝑋−𝑋𝑋0 𝛿𝛿
𝜀𝜀 = = .
𝑋𝑋0 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜

Where,

𝜀𝜀 = Normal strain
X = Final length of the bar
X0 = Initial length of the bar
δ = Change in length

3
3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.1 Apparatus

1. Universal testing machine

2. Vernier Caliper
3. Circular Specimen
4. Extension gauge
5. Load gauge

Figure 6
3.2 Procedure

1. Measure the specimen

a. Vernier calliper was used to measure the diameter of the specimen. An average value
of the three measurements was taken.
b. The total length and the gauge length of the specimen were measured.

2. Setup the experiment

a. The software for acquiring and recording data was activated by setting the speed of
pulling to mm/min.
b. The specimen was set on the test jigs.
c. The specimen was placed securely to the lower vice and the top vice using hydraulic
grip.
d. The tensile test started once the specimen is secured at its place.

3. Run the experiment

a. The load is measured using the loop cell in the machine and the extension is measure
using the moveable cross head.
b. Load and extension is recorded.

4. The test was running and towards the end, the necking point was seen and fracture
occurred.

5. The recorded data transformed to normal stress vs normal strain.

4
4 INDIVIDUAL

4.1 MUHAMMAD MUIZZUDDIN BIN MOHD GHAZALI (2019406582)

4.1.1 Result

Initial length of the specimen = 0.193 m

Diameter of the specimen = 0.0065 m

Based on the data that we obtained, the calculation of stress and strain of mild steel can be
determined by the formula below:

Load (F)
Tensile Stress, = Area (A)

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (∆𝐿𝐿)
Strain, = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ𝑡𝑡 (𝐿𝐿)

Stress
Young’s Modulus = Strain

Area of specimen,
𝐷𝐷
A = 𝜋𝜋 ( 2 )2

0.0065 2
A = 𝜋𝜋 ( 2
)

= 3.318 x 10−5 𝑚𝑚2

Stress :
𝐹𝐹 43.79144
𝜎𝜎 = 𝐴𝐴
= 3.318 x 10−5

= 1319814.346 Pa

=1319.8 kPa

Strain :
∆𝐿𝐿
𝜀𝜀 = 𝐿𝐿
0.03497685
= 193

= 0.000181227

5
 Normal Stress(MPa) vs Normal Strain
700
Normal Stress(MPa)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Normal Strain

6
4.1.2 Discussion

From the graph normal stress vs normal strain above, we can see many points of
interest on the curve that indicates different stages. When a ductile material like mild steel is
subjected to tensile test, it will pass through some stages before fracture. Under the constant
force the elongation occurs and the specimen will undergo yielding. When a specimen
experiences ultimate stress, the specimen enters the necking region and ultimately fractures.

The data obtained from test shows that mild steel reached yield point at stress of
572020.8 kPa, this indicates that mild steel has a very high tensile strength. The Young’s
Modulus is calculated by taking the gradient of the graph. The value for the Young’s
Modulus is 58.78 GPa. The experimental data that we obtained is quite differ with the
theoretical data. Thus, the percentage error obtained from this experiment is 72%. After a
further loading of the specimens beyond the yield point, the specimen reached its fracture
point at approximately 441482.8 kPa. In summary, we can say that the specimen is a ductile
material.

4.1.3 Conclusion

Tensile testing is a simple way to determine elastic properties, plastic properties, and
hardness of a material. Material properties will be determined by measuring the force needed
to elongate the specimen to its breaking point. This test is very important in the engineering
application as they will predict how the materials will behave in their intended applications.
Mild steel is very commonly used for the engineering applications since it can endure high
axial loads before fracture occurs. Therefore, this experiment provides a close relationship of
tensile strength to the theoretical data.

7
4.2 MUHAMMAD KHAIRUL IKHWAN BIN AMRAN (2019229826)

4.2.1 Result

From the experiment, the load applied and the extension of the mild steel are recorded in a
table(Refer Appendix A).

The recorded load is used to calculate the normal stress using the formula
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 = and the extension of the mild steel is used to calculate the normal strain using the
𝐴𝐴
𝛿𝛿
formula = .
𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜

Sample of Calculation :

Length of Mild Steel = 193 mm

Diameter = 6.5 mm

𝑃𝑃 𝛿𝛿
𝜎𝜎 = 𝜀𝜀 =
𝐴𝐴 𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜
43.79144 𝑁𝑁 0.03497685 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= =
6.7 2 193 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜋𝜋 � 2 �
2 = 0.000181 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1000 𝑚𝑚
= 1319692.145 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
= 1.320 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

This calculation is repeated for all recorded load and extension of the mild steel from
Appendix A. The graph are then plotted based on the results.

8
From the graph, Young Modulus, E of the material can be obtained by determining the slope
of the elastic region.

𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 571.968 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1.320 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Slope = =
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 0.011968 − 0.000181
= 48.41 GPa

E for mild steel is 210 GPa.

Percentage Error :

|𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒−𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒|
Percentage Error = × 100%
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
48.41 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺−210 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= × 100%
210 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= 76.95%

9
4.2.2 Discussion

Based on the graph obtained, the material behaves elastically in the elastic region where the
stress is proportional to the strain until it reaches the yield stress of 571.968 MPa. Above the
yield stress, the mild steel started to deform permanently. From there, the curve rises slightly
where the curve is flatter with increasing strain until the ultimate stress of 588.474 MPa. In
this part, the mild steel undergoes strain hardening. Exceeding the ultimate stress, the curve
begins to decrease steadily with increasing strain. The mild steel begins to constrict where the
cross-sectional area decreases. This phenomenon is referred to as “necking”. The curve
continues decreasing until it suddenly plunges down after the stress of 441.442 MPa called
the fracture. The sudden plunge indicates that the mild steel is fractured. From the graph, the
mild steel could be said as ductile because it can be subjected to large strains before fracture
occurs.

Figure 7
By comparing the graph from the experiment with Figure 7(Refer to the darker blue line in
the diagram), the upper yield point and the lower yield point cannot be determined from
graph as the dip is not visible as in Figure 7 therefore the yielding part of the experiment is
undetermined. Also, the curve on the graph from the yield stress until the ultimate stress is
much flatter than in Figure 7.

There may be a few error in the measurement due to the accuracy of the tensile test machine.
Before the experiment, make sure that the machine used is in the best condition. Lack of
handling skills may also contribute to the error such as the misalignment of the mild steel
specimen during the experiment.

10
4.2.3 Conclusion

The experiment is conducted to determine the tensile properties and the types of fracture
surfaces under tensile loading where the mild steel undergoes tensile test and the results
shows that the mild steel specimen is ductile. The behaviour of the mild steel is also observed
in the experiment from how it deforms until it fractures is shown. The graph obtained also
shows that the mild steel specimen is ductile due to the ability of the mild steel specimen to
withstand large strains before it fractures. Although there is a few differences of the
experiment and the theory learnt, the outcome of the experiment is achieved.
As an overall conclusion, the tensile test is successful in achieving the purpose of the
experiment.

11
4.3 MUHAMMAD IRFAN DANNIEL BIN SAIFULNIZAM (2019207632)

4.3.1 Result
The obtained load data gained from the experiment will be used to calculate normal stress by
using formula 𝜎𝜎 = P/A. The obtained extension data gained will be used to calculate normal
strain by using formula 𝜀𝜀 = 𝛿𝛿/𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜.

Sample of calculation:

𝜎𝜎 = P/A A = (𝜋𝜋 (6.7/2) ^2) / 1000 m^2

= 48.89359 N / 0.0352565 = 0.0352565
= 1386.796477 Pa
= 1.387 MPa

𝜀𝜀 = 𝛿𝛿/𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜
= 0.06995371 mm / 193 mm
= 0.0000362452256 mm/mm

These formulas are repeated for all data obtained and the graph is plotted based on the results.

12
4.3.2 Discussion

From the graph plotted between normal stress and normal strain of mild steel, we
could obtain some information from it. The curve occur due to change of phase of the mild
steel which is ductile before it goes fractured. Mild steel reached yield point at 572.02 MPa.
This shows that it has a high tensile strength. Young’s modulus could be obtain from the
gradient of the plotted line graph and calculation which is about 60 GPa. The fracture point of
the mild steel is about 441.49 MPa. Error that could occur during the experiment is parallex
error during measuring specimen. That is why we need to record the measurement more than
three time. Furthermore , error that could occur is zero error of the vernier calliper. We need
to test the vernier calliper calibration first before ungoing any measurement to avoid
unaccurate measurement.

4.3.3 Conclusion

From the tensile test using a tensile test machine, we can obtain the mechanical
properties of the specimen. When the material is being stretched, it experiences elasticity and
plastic deformation. The strain hardening phenomenon occurs when the material is getting
strengthened until it fractures. For this experiment, the specimens given give different
mechanical properties.

13
4.4 AFZATUL NAJWA BINTI NOR AZMAN (2019405996)

4.4.1 Result

Diameter of the specimen = 0.0065 m

Initial length of the specimen = 0.193 m
𝜋𝜋 = 3.142
Formula used are given below,
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (𝐹𝐹) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (∆𝐿𝐿)
Tensile Stress, 𝜎𝜎 = Strain, 𝜀𝜀 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝐴𝐴) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ (𝐿𝐿)

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝜎𝜎
Young ‘s modulus, 𝐸𝐸 =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆,𝜀𝜀

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Area of specimen, A = 𝐷𝐷2  A= 0.00652
4 4
= 3.318 × 10−5 m2

Stress :
𝐹𝐹 43.79144
𝜎𝜎 = = = 1319814.346 Pa
𝐴𝐴 3.318×10−5
= 1319.8 kPa

Strain :
∆𝐿𝐿 0.03497685
𝜀𝜀 = = = 0.000181227
𝐿𝐿 193
This calculation is repeated for all recorded data and the graph is plotted based on the results.

14
 Normal Stress vs Normal Strain
700000

600000 572020.8 kPa

500000 441482.8 kPa

Normal Stress, σ (kPa)

400000

300000

200000

100000

0
0.000 0.004 0.007 0.011 0.015 0.018 0.022 0.025
Normal Strain, ε

From the graph, we can say that the modulus of elasticity is the slope of the normal stress and
normal strain which are in elastic region.

The slope of the graph = Young Modulus, E

𝑦𝑦2 −𝑦𝑦1 398087402−259375648
=
𝑥𝑥2 −𝑥𝑥1 0.00907−0.00671
= 58.78 GPa
Percentage Error:
Theoretical value, Emild steel = 210 GPa
|𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒−𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒|
Percentage Error = × 100%
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
|58.78−210|
= × 100%
210
= 72%

15
4.4.2 Discussion

Stress strain curve is behaviour of material when it is subjected to load. From the graph
stress versus strain, we can see the different points on the curve. As a result, when a ductile
material like mild steel is subjected to tensile test, then it passes numerous stages before
fracture. Under the constant force the elongation occurs and the specimen will undergo
yielding. When a specimen experiences ultimate stress, the specimen enters the necking
region and ultimately fractures. The data obtained from the universal testing machine shows
the rates of extensions in mild steel. Mild steel reached yield point at stress of 572020.8 kPa,
thus it can be seen that mild steel has high tensile strength. The Young’s Modulus can be
found by taking the gradient of the graph and my calculation for Young’s Modulus is 58.78
GPa. The experimental data collected varies with the theoretical equation. The percentage
error obtained from this experiment is high is 72% and further loading of the specimens
beyond the yield point, reached fracture point at approximately 441482.8 kPa. From the data
that was collected, we can say that the specimen is ductile material.

Any possible error may have occurred during this experiment includes parallax error
during reading of measurement. We are advised to measure the test specimen parameters
more than twice using vernier calliper to ascertain the reading. Besides, zero error may also
occur due to the lack of vernier calliper calibration. In order to avoid this from happening, we
are advised to check the vernier calliper before measuring. Moreover, the consideration of
putting the test specimen on the universal testing machine is additionally necessary. We have
to make sure the test specimen is tied orderly at grips for holding the test specimen firmly at
fixed head to avoid the specimen becoming loose from that machine throughout the
experiment.

4.4.3 Conclusion

Tensile testing is a way of determining how something can react when it is pulled apart
once a force is applied to it in tension. Tensile testing is one amongst the simplest and most
generally used mechanical tests. By measuring the force needed to elongate a specimen to
breaking point, material properties will be determined that can enable designers to predict
how materials and products will behave in their intended applications. Many engineering
applications that require high tensile strength commonly use mild steel. This is due to the
crystalline structures of mild steel that enable it to resist high axial loads before fracture can
occur. This experiment therefore provides a close relationship of tensile strength to the
theoretical data.

16
4.5 MUHAMMAD IZRA SALZAMIZAR BIN MOHD SALEHIN (2019415392)

4.5.1 Result

Length of the specimen: 193𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Diameter of the specimen: 0.0065𝑚𝑚

Based on the data that we obtained as shown in the table, the calculation of stress and strain
of mild steel can be determined by applies formula as below:

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (𝑁𝑁)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑚𝑚2 )
In which Area = Length (m) x Thickness (m) of the specimen

Ρ
𝜎𝜎 =
Α
48.8936 𝑁𝑁
=
𝜋𝜋(0.0065/2)2 𝑚𝑚2
= 1473450.059
= 1.473 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑚𝑚)

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝛿
𝜀𝜀 =
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
0.06995371𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
=
193𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 0.000362

Actual Energy needed to break the specimen

Energy is calculated by this formula:
1
𝑢𝑢 = 2𝜎𝜎𝜀𝜀,

Where the maximum load taken is 19527.38N and stress is 588.474MPa and strain value is
0.01704744

Therefore, the actual energy needed to break the specimen is;

1
𝑢𝑢 = × 588.474𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 × 0.01704744
2
𝑢𝑢 = 5015.99 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

17
Then, we can plotted the graph of normal stress vs normal strain as shown below:

GRAPH OF NORMAL STRESS VS NORMAL STRAIN

700
579.592 587.308
600

500
Normal Stress (kPa)

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Normal Strain

18
4.5.2 Discussion

According to the experiment, the material being used is mild steel, and a tensile test is
being performed to determine the tensile properties of the mild steel after it has been
subjected to tensile loading. Following that, the form of fracture can be determined under
tensile loading. It is possible to determine the mild steel's stress and strain. Since using the
Stress-Strain graph to map the graph, it was discovered that the stress of mild steel is directly
proportional to the strain going upwards. However, once the mild steel reached its highest
point, the graph began to decline until the mild steel failed.

The extension of the specimen are measured for every load to determine the form of
the specimen broken. In fact, when mild steel is broken, its length increases while its
diameter decreases, indicating that mild steel is a ductile material. We have plotted the graph
of normal stress versus normal strain. The stress-strain graph is being examined to prove that
it is a ductile material. It rises perpendicularly until it reaches Yield strength, at which point it
stays steady. As mild steel reaches its maximum strength, it begins to neck and crack. This
appears as a low deformation, indicating that it was subjected to plastic deformation.

Other mistakes, such as human errors or parallax errors, must be avoided by taking
precautions. It is important to obey other correct steps or instructions in order to minimize
these errors. The results obtained would be more accurate if the measures are followed, with
no significant variations in values between experimental and theoretical values. Even though
a Vernier caliper was used to take the beam dimension, there may have been some parallax
and precision errors. Before taking the calculation, we have to ensure that the Vernier caliper
is calibrated and works fine. As a result, reported values may be less reliable than they should
be. All of these disturbances and errors can have an effect on the normal stress and normal
strain.

4.5.3 Conclusion

Tensile testing can be used to determine the following characteristics: elastic

properties, plastic properties, and hardness. Force will be applied to the specimen which
passes through the whole cross-sectional area. This force is called the axial force which acts
in two ways, either tensile or compression. For this experiment, tensile force will be applied
in order to see the elongation of the material with respect to the load. Mild steel is commonly
used in engineering applications that need high tensile strength. This is due to the structure of
mild steel, which can withstand heavy axial loads before fracture. As a result, this experiment
produces a close match between tensile strength and theoretical results.

19
5 REFERENCES

1. Davies, J. (2004). Tensile Testing (2nd Edition ed.). ASM International.

2. G, J., & Barry. (2012). Mechanics of Materials (8th Edition ed.). CL Engineering.

3. R.C. Hibbeler (2017). Mechanics of Materials: Global Edition. Harlow, United

Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.

20
6 APPENDIX

6.1 APPENDIX A – TABLE OF LOAD AND EXTENSION

Extension, mm Load,N
0 0
0.03497685 43.79144
0.06995371 48.89359
0.1051697 49.91779
0.1399672 48.67112
0.1750038 49.30481
0.2101003 49.42594
0.2449575 50.88846
0.2799344 54.7432
0.3151504 62.94259
0.3499479 110.3375
0.3849845 282.8532
0.4201408 659.235
0.4549383 1177.249
0.4899151 1687.969
0.5251311 2133.302
0.559809 2524.197
0.5951446 2889.435
0.6300019 3219.476
0.6649189 3518.681
0.7000752 3800.108
0.735052 4068.359
0.7699092 4328.976
0.8050655 4590.371
0.8399825 4840.7
0.8748996 5090.894
0.9100558 5355.458
0.9449729 5621.289
0.9799498 5891.222
1.015046 6170.47
1.050023 6456.427
1.08488 6740.838
1.120156 7040.39
1.155013 7341.693
1.18993 7644.905
1.225087 7963.158
1.259944 8283.041
1.294921 8606.084
1.330077 8937.941
1.364934 9268.539
1.399971 9602.85
1.435008 9946.99
1.469984 10291.92

21
1.504901 10638.52
1.540118 10997.15
1.574915 11352.21
1.609952 11711.88
1.645108 12082.15
1.679965 12450.55
1.714882 12821.87
1.750098 13208.54
1.784896 13589.74
1.819992 13972.63
1.855089 14364.9
1.889946 14747.86
1.925042 15139.59
1.960019 15534.02
1.994936 15923.46
2.029973 16312.88
2.065069 16711.22
2.099867 17093.2
2.135023 17480.47
2.17006 17858.04
2.204857 18206.85
2.240073 18527.56
2.27511 18798.14
2.309907 18979.65
2.345064 19099.58
2.38004 19167.41
2.414898 19201.69
2.450054 19232.63
2.485031 19260
2.519948 19278.02
2.555044 19305.52
2.590021 19326.23
2.624938 19342.09
2.660094 19365.01
2.695011 19384.25
2.729869 19395.2
2.765144 19416.3
2.799942 19429.16
2.834919 19437.66
2.870075 19454.98
2.904992 19463.89
2.939969 19470.56
2.975125 19484.08
3.009923 19484.59
3.045019 19493.52
3.080115 19504.36
3.114972 19506.37
3.149949 19510.37

22
3.185106 19518.72
3.219963 19518.52
3.25494 19521.08
3.290156 19527.38
3.324894 19521.81
3.35999 19518.34
3.395086 19516.61
3.430004 19504.9
3.46498 19488.7
3.500256 19479.62
3.534874 19445.55
3.570031 19419.37
3.605127 19385.07
3.639984 19339.68
3.675021 19289.58
3.710057 19242.78
3.744915 19176.47
3.780011 19116.47
3.815108 19058.04
3.849905 18982.73
3.885061 18916.17
3.920098 18848.51
3.954895 18766.9
3.990051 18697.31
4.025029 18625.03
4.059946 18539.09
4.095102 18466.32
4.129959 18388.37
4.164936 18300.88
4.200152 18225.63
4.234949 18140.9
4.269986 18055.2
4.305083 17976.7
4.33994 17888.83
4.374976 17802.9
4.410073 17721.46
4.44499 17633.7
4.479967 17541.28
4.515123 17460.2
4.549921 17367.72
4.584957 17276.08
4.620113 17189.65
4.654971 17095.49
4.689947 16998.41
4.725104 16908.7
4.759961 16809.84
4.794938 16711.84
4.830154 16616.89

23
4.864951 16513.04
4.899988 16408.19
4.935084 16311.3
4.970001 16201.94
5.004978 16096.25
5.040134 15993.52
5.074932 15878.42
5.109968 15768.25
5.145125 15659.41
5.179862 15539.06
5.215019 15422.51
5.250115 15307.43
5.284913 15177.78
5.320009 15055.25
5.355105 14928.1
5.389962 14787.35
5.425119 14648.4
5.45609 4230.027

24